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Mechanobiology Handbook
Second Edition
Mechanobiology Handbook
Second Edition

Edited by
Jiro Nagatomi
Eno Essien Ebong
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-7946-3 (Hardback)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Nagatomi, Jiro, editor. | Ebong, Eno Essien, editor.

Title: Mechanobiology handbook / editors, Jiro Nagatomi and Eno Essien Ebong.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, [2019] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018023379 (print) | LCCN 2018024021 (ebook) | ISBN
9780429444982 (eBook General) | ISBN 9780429816741 (Pdf) | ISBN
9780429816734 (ePUB) | ISBN 9780429816727 (Mobipocket) | ISBN
9781498779463 (hbk. : alk. paper)
Subjects: | MESH: Cell Physiological Phenomena | Biomechanical
Phenomena--physiology
Classification: LCC QH513 (ebook) | LCC QH513 (print) | NLM QU 375 | DDC
612/.014--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018023379

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Foreword to the First Edition.............................................................................................................ix
Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Preface to the First Edition............................................................................................................. xiii
Acknowledgements........................................................................................................................... xv
Editors.............................................................................................................................................xvii
Contributors.....................................................................................................................................xix

Section I  Tools for Mechanobiology

Chapter 1 An Introductory Guide to Solid Mechanics.................................................................. 3

Sarah C. Baxter

Chapter 2 Fluid Mechanics.......................................................................................................... 23

Tiffany Camp and Richard Figliola

Chapter 3 Molecular Analysis in Mechanobiology..................................................................... 45

Ken Webb and Jeoung Soo Lee

Chapter 4 Introductory Statistics Refresher................................................................................. 73

Julia L. Sharp and Patrick D. Gerard

Chapter 5 Introductory Statistical Experimental Designs........................................................... 89

Julia L. Sharp and Patrick D. Gerard

Chapter 6 Imaging Fibrillar Collagen with Optical Microscopy............................................... 115

Tong Ye, Peng Chen, Yang Li, and Xun Chen

Section II (PART 1) Cardiovascular Systems

Chapter 7 Centralized Endothelial Mechanobiology, Endothelial Dysfunction, and

Atherosclerosis.......................................................................................................... 153
Ian Chandler Harding and Eno Essien Ebong

Chapter 8 Effects of Endovascular Intervention on Vascular Smooth Muscle

Cell Function............................................................................................................. 177
Brad Winn, Bethany Acampora, Jiro Nagatomi, and Martine LaBerge

v
vi Contents

Chapter 9 Effects of Pressure on Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells............................................. 197

Sheila Nagatomi, Harold A. Singer, and Rena Bizios

Chapter 10 Mechanobiology of Heart Valves..............................................................................209

Joshua D. Hutcheson, Michael P. Nilo, and W. David Merryman

Chapter 11 Mechanobiology of Cardiac Fibroblasts................................................................... 229

Peter A. Galie and Jan P. Stegemann

Chapter 12 Mechanobiological Evidence for the Control of Neutrophil Activity by Fluid

Shear Stress............................................................................................................... 241
Hainsworth Y. Shin, Xiaoyan Zhang, Ayako Makino, and
Geert W. Schmid-Schönbein

Section II (PART 2) Musculoskeletal Systems

Chapter 13 Skeletal Mechanobiology.......................................................................................... 281

Alesha B. Castillo and Christopher R. Jacobs

Chapter 14 Mechanical Control of Bone Remodeling.................................................................309

Natasha Case and Janet Rubin

Chapter 15 Cartilage Mechanobiology........................................................................................ 331

Hai Yao, Yongren Wu, and Xin L. Lu

Chapter 16 Cell Mechanobiology: The Forces Applied to Cells and Generated by Cells.......... 355
Bin Li, Jeen-Shang Lin, and James H.-C. Wang

Section II (PART 3) Other Organs & Common Mechanisms

Chapter 17 Pulmonary Vascular Mechanobiology...................................................................... 379

Diana M. Tabima Martinez and Naomi C. Chesler

Chapter 18 Lung Mechanobiology...............................................................................................407

Daniel J. Tschumperlin, Francis Boudreault, and Fei Liu

Chapter 19 Mechanical Signaling in the Urinary Bladder.......................................................... 429

Aruna Ramachandran, Ramaswamy Krishnan, and Rosalyn M. Adam
Contents vii

Chapter 20 Mechanobiology of Bladder Urothelial Cells............................................................ 451

Shawn Olsen, Kevin Champaigne, and Jiro Nagatomi

Chapter 21 The Mechanobiology of Aqueous Humor Transport across Schlemm’s Canal

Endothelium..............................................................................................................469
Darryl R. Overby

Chapter 22 Mechanobiology in the Reproductive Tract.............................................................. 493

Julie Anne MacDonald and Dori C. Woods

Chapter 23 Mechano-Regulation of Fibrillar Collagen Turnover by Fibroblasts........................ 511

Jesse D. Rogers, Amirreza Yeganegi, and William J. Richardson

Chapter 24 Mechanobiology in Health and Disease in the Central Nervous System................. 531
Theresa A. Ulrich and Sanjay Kumar

Chapter 25 Hydrostatic Pressure and Its Role in Physiology and Pathology............................... 553
Cody Dunton and Jiro Nagatomi

Section II (PART 4) Transformative and

Translational Mechanobiology

Chapter 26 Mechanostimulation in Bone and Tendon Tissue Engineering................................. 575

Samuel B. VanGordon, Warren Yates, and Vassilios I. Sikavitsas

Chapter 27 Mesenchymal Stem Cell Mechanobiology................................................................ 599

Wen Li Kelly Chen and Craig A. Simmons

Chapter 28 The Use of Microfluidic Technology in Mechanobiology Research......................... 619

Brittany McGowan, Sachin Jambovane, Jong Wook Hong, and Jiro Nagatomi

Chapter 29 Design of Abdominal Wall Hernioplasty Meshes Guided by Mechanobiology

and the Wound Healing Response............................................................................ 641
Shawn J. Peniston, Karen J.L. Burg, and Shalaby W. Shalaby
Index���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 661
Foreword to the First Edition
When we observe muscle mass increasing as a consequence of lifting weights or when we note large
mass losses in musculoskeletal tissues of astronauts returning after a sojourn in space, we observe
manifestations of the mechanism of mechanotransduction, which is at the heart of mechanobiology.
The interdisciplinary field of mechanobiology has grown naturally and inexorably from traditional
mechanics, or more precisely biomechanics, by incorporating strong elements of molecular and
cell biology. Thus, while the term “biomechanics” came to represent mechanical characterization
of tissues or kinematic analysis of biological systems, the modern term “mechanobiology”
encompasses mechanistic cascades of biological events initiated or governed by mechanical forces.
So, for example, the mechanosensing ability of pain-sensing nociceptors to detect strains that are
then transmitted as pain signals to the brain is under the umbrella of this field, as are the effects of
Wolff’s law. The interrelationships between mechanical signals (forces or stresses, and deformations
or strains) and biological processes are pivotal in understanding health and disease processes in
systems as diverse as the cardiovascular and the musculoskeletal, as well as in pulmonary and
sensory organs.
In my own group’s research efforts, which deal with biomechanics, biomaterials, and tissue
engineering, I have observed a shift in the problems that we study from the classical continuum-
based treatment of stress–strain relationships to the elucidation of biological cascades, often
necessitating the use of cellular or molecular pathways. For example, we have quantified strong
relationships between either hydrostatic pressure or direct compression and the biomechanical
properties of tissue-engineered articular cartilage. While these observations were initially made
phenomenologically, it is imperative that we understand the ion pumps and channels that seem to
be involved in the pathways of these mechanobiological phenomena if we are to understand the
mechanisms involved. This gradual linking of basic mechanics and basic biology is a phenomenon
observed by numerous investigators in biomechanics, and as exemplified by the creation of journals
that are almost specific to mechanobiology, such as Cellular and Molecular Bioengineering and
Biomechanics and Modeling in Mechanobiology. But even more established journals devote a
significant number of their papers on mechanobiology. Examples include the Annals of Biomedical
Engineering (the flagship journal of the Biomedical Engineering Society for which I happen
to serve as editor in chief), the Journal of Biomechanics, and the Journal of Biomechanical
Engineering.
The timely book by Jiro Nagatomi comes about as an endorsement of this new scientific approach.
I have known Professor Nagatomi ever since he was a graduate student in biomedical engineering
at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI). I remember meeting him and asking him about his work,
which I have followed through the years as I perceive him to be an up-and-coming investigator.
Indeed, since that time he has become a well-recognized principal investigator and a solid faculty
member working on mechanobiology. So when he asked me if I could write a short foreword for this
book, I was delighted to do so. This is a handbook that encompasses both basic and applied aspects
of mechanobiology. Since understanding of mechanics is central to this field, the book covers both
solid and fluid mechanics. In addition, due to the fact that mechanics is coupled with biological
mechanisms and corresponding assays, the book presents that aspect of analysis as well. These
background sections are followed by sections on mechanobiology of the cardiovascular system, the
musculoskeletal system, and other systems and organs. I feel that the book’s format is appropriate
and sufficiently comprehensive.
It is my expectation that this book will serve as a compendium of comprehensive reviews covering
the entire spectrum of mechanobiology. Not only students, but also seasoned research investigators
and scientists in industry will find this collection to be of immense importance. The book, organized

ix
x Foreword to the First Edition

and edited magnificently by Professor Jiro Nagatomi, is at the heart of mechanics, biology, and
medicine, as it presents fundamental aspects of the emerging and exciting field of mechanobiology.
I know that it will be read widely.

Kyriacos A. Athanasiou
University of California, Irvine, California
Preface
I am a research-active educator with multidisciplinary experience, ranging from mechanical
engineering to chemical engineering to biomedical engineering to cardiovascular sciences. As a
result, I greatly appreciate that there is a need for reference materials and textbooks that present the
interdisciplinary and dynamic nature of engineering at the interface with life sciences. In my view,
the Mechanobiology Handbook is a book that fulfills this need.
I took interest in this book for three reasons:
First, a long-term goal of mine is to promote Mechanobiology research and education globally.
For this reason, it was my pleasure to accept Clemson University Professor Jiro Nagatomi’s invitation
to serve as his co-editor on this 2nd Edition Mechanobiology Handbook. I could not resist the
opportunity to collaborate with expert Mechanobiology researchers and educators writing chapters
on fundamental and pioneering concepts of integrated mechanics and life sciences that have been
significant in the emergence of numerous exciting branches of Mechanobiology. I am delighted
to see these chapters and the information therein compiled in this 2nd Edition Mechanobiology
Handbook, for dissemination in hard copy and electronically to students, academicians, and industry
professionals around the world.
Second, I personally leveraged the immense amount of information contained in the 1st Edition
Mechanobiology Handbook, to transfer knowledge to incoming members of my interdisciplinary
research team. Armed with the Mechanobiology Handbook, my team quickly and effectively comes
together from diverse academic backgrounds to converge on some common but unique perspective
that enables us to make transformative discoveries of how and why mechanics impacts endothelial
cell behavior and cardiovascular function, as mediated by cell surface mechanotransduction
processes. Considering that the Mechanobiology field is rapidly evolving due to new findings and
theories, in order to maintain the Mechanobiology Handbook as a valuable resource for my research
team and others, routine revision and development of new chapters is essential. This 2nd Edition
Mechanobiology Handbook is the first update with seven new chapters. We hope to see many more
such Mechanobiology Handbook updates to come in the future.
Third, the 1st Edition Mechanobiology Handbook was the best available reference book that
I could find as a guide for didactic teaching of Mechanobiology to a diverse student body. My
Mechanobiology course is frequently made up of both undergraduate and graduate students pursuing
degrees that are focused on pure engineering, or pure biology, or, on rare occasion, integrated
engineering and biology. The Mechanobiology Handbook has been very instrumental to me as I
endeavor to effectively teach these students. Specifically, using the 1st Edition Mechanobiology
Handbook helped me to present both the elementary and cutting-edge aspects of Mechanobiology
in a manner that is accessible to students from many different academic levels and from various
disciplinary backgrounds. I do supplement the 1st Edition Mechanobiology Handbook with
interactive in-class exercises to reinforce the material. I also require students to apply the knowledge
to capstone, thesis, or dissertation projects, which I find inspires student-driven long-term learning.
To build upon the success that I have been having with the 1st Edition Mechanobiology Handbook
and my supplemental teaching approach, I presented the CRC Press editors with the idea of
incorporating course help materials into the 2nd Edition Mechanobiology Handbook. This idea has
come to fruition, and it is our hope that 2nd Edition Mechanobiology Handbook readers will find
the chapter-specific Study Questions, available online, chapter useful for their course development.

Eno Essien Ebong

Northeastern University, Massachusetts

xi
Preface to the First Edition
The initial concept for Mechanobiology Handbook spawned from the insightful vision of a CRC Press
editor, Michael Slaughter, who found potential in the growth of this field and took a chance to embark
on this project with me. While the definition of mechanobiology may vary depending on whom you
ask, in this book we will simply define it as “studies of the effects of mechanical environments on the
biological processes of cells.” Of course, “mechanical environments” can be interpreted as the forces
that result from gravity, locomotion, weight-bearing, pumping of the heart, blood flow, containment
of urine, and contraction of the muscles, or the mechanical properties of the surroundings of cells
such as stiffness of the extracellular matrix or the viscosity of the blood and other fluids inside
the body. “Biological processes” can be just as broadly interpreted to be morphological shift, cell
growth or death, differential expression of genes and proteins, reorganization of the cytoskeleton,
changes in cell membrane potential or intracellular ion concentrations, release of soluble compounds,
or phosphorylation of kinases. Researchers have demonstrated that all of the stated mechanical
factors influence all of these and a number of other cellular and molecular biological events, which,
in turn, influence health, disease, and injury. Considering the complexity of both the mechanics
and the biology of the human body, there is so much more to be studied than what we have already
discovered. Aided by the continuous advancement of research tools in both mechanics and biology,
more sophisticated experiments and analyses are now possible, and the field of mechanobiology is
expected to continue growing.
A broad range of organ systems are currently studied by investigators including surgeons,
physicians, basic scientists, and engineers. Due to this diversity in the field of mechanobiology, even
if a discovery in one organ system or in one discipline may be applicable to other researchers, it may
be overlooked and not fully appreciated. This is the reason I decided to put together a single volume
handbook that collects cutting-edge research findings from multiple laboratories in the hope that it
will become a good reference to investigators in the field of mechanobiology from different technical
communities. I was fortunate enough to receive many contributions from my own professional contacts,
and their contacts, with whom I truly enjoyed working. Since mechanobiology is a growing field and
many of the research questions are still unsettled, the viewpoints of the authors presented here may
be contradictory or conflicting with each other. At the same time, there may be some overlapping
information on issues that they all agree on. The goal of this book was not to force one unified theory,
but to bring out many different viewpoints and approaches to stimulate further research questions.
The handbook may then be updated to incorporate newer discoveries and theories in future editions.
The main goals of research in the field of mechanobiology are threefold: (1) to quantify or estimate
the mechanical environment to which cells are subjected in health and disease, (2) to identify and
quantify mechanosensitive responses and the molecular mechanisms of mechanically induced
pathological conditions, and (3) to ultimately apply the knowledge obtained to the development of
new therapies. To achieve these goals, investigators must be familiar with both the basic concepts
of mechanics and the modern tools of cellular/molecular biology. However, the current literature
contains numerous studies that incorrectly estimate or mimic the in vivo mechanical environments
of interest, or misuse standard mechanics terminology. At the same time, those who are well versed
in mechanics may be able to design elegant experimental setups, but may not be able to come up with
appropriate molecular analyses. The aim of this handbook, thus, is not only to present the cutting-
edge research findings in various fields, but also to provide the elementary chapters on mechanics
and molecular analysis techniques that will hopefully help the reader plan their experiments better
or understand the findings previously reported.

Jiro Nagatomi
Clemson, South Carolina

xiii
Acknowledgements
The editors would like to thank authors and coauthors of each and every chapter for their contribution
to the first and second editions of Mechanobiology Handbook. We retained the text of the first edition,
but updated, to the best of our ability, the list of contributors because some have since established
their own research groups as principal investigators at different institutions. Special thanks go to
our terrific students who assisted in preparing and revising the course help materials new in the
second edition. Without their excitement and enthusiastic participation, this project could not have
been completed. We hope that Mechanobiology Handbook Second Edition will serve not only as a
useful reference for the researchers, but also an effective textbook for courses in mechanobiology.

Eno Essien Ebong

Northeastern University, Massachusetts

Jiro Nagatomi
Clemson University, South Carolina

xv
Editors
Jiro Nagatomi is an assistant professor of bioengineering and the director of Cell Mechanics and
Mechanobiology Laboratory at Clemson University (South Carolina). He completed his BS followed
by a PhD in biomedical engineering with Rena Bizios at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (New
York). His doctoral thesis was on an in vitro investigation of the effects of hydrostatic pressure on
bone cell functions. He worked as a postdoctoral research associate under Michael Sacks at the
University of Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania) in the field of soft tissue biomechanics before assuming
his current faculty position at Clemson University. His research group is interested in ion channels
involved in cellular mechanotransduction of hydrostatic pressure and the development of micro-
devices for research in the field of mechanobiology.

Eno Essien Ebong is an assistant professor in the Departments of Chemical Engineering,

Bioengineering, and Biology at Northeastern University in Boston, MA. She is also a Visiting
Assistant Professor at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New York City, NY. She earned
her S.B. in Mechanical Engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston,
MA and her M.Eng and Ph.D. in the area of biomechanics from the Department of Biomedical
Engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, NY. She was previously a National Institutes
of Health (NIH) Cardiovascular Research Fellow at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in New
York, NY. Currently, she holds the prestigious NIH Mentored Research Career Development Award
for her research project on “Atheroprotective vs. Atherogenic Glycocalyx Mechanotransduction
Mechanisms.” The Ebong Mechanobiology Laboratory primarily focuses on studying how the
mechanical forces of blood flow affect endothelial cells, which line the blood vessels and guard
them from diseases such as atherosclerosis, which is a precursor to heart attack and other serious
conditions. The long-term goal is to apply the findings of this work to the engineering of novel tools
that target endothelial cell mechanobiology to diagnose or treat atherosclerosis.

xvii
Contributors
Bethany Acampora Kevin Champaigne
Poly-Med Inc. Department of Bioengineering
Anderson, South Carolina Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina
Rosalyn M. Adam
Department of Urology Peng Chen
Children’s Hospital Boston and Harvard Department of Bioengineering
Medical School Clemson University
Boston, Massachusetts Clemson, South Carolina
Sarah C. Baxter
School of Engineering Wen Li Kelly Chen
University of St. Thomas, Minnesota Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical
St. Paul, Minnesota Engineering
University of Toronto
Rena Bizios Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Department of Biomedical Engineering
University of Texas Xun Chen
San Antonio, Texas Department of Bioengineering
Clemson University
Francis Boudreault Clemson, South Carolina
Department of Environmental
Health Harvard School of Public Health Naomi C. Chesler
Boston, Massachusetts Department of Biomedical Engineering
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Karen J.L. Burg Madison, Wisconsin
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Georgia
Athens, Georgia Cody Dunton
Department of Bioengineering
Tiffany Camp Clemson University
GE Power Clemson, South Carolina
Greenville, South Carolina
Eno Essien Ebong
Natasha Case Department of Bioengineering
College of Engineering, Aviation and
and Technology Department of Chemical Engineering
St. Louis University Northeastern University
St. Louis, Missouri Boston, Massachusetts
and
Alesha B. Castillo
School of Engineering Department of Neuroscience
New York University Albert Einstein College of Medicine
New York, New York New York, New York

xix
xx Contributors

Richard Figliola Martine LaBerge

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Bioengineering
and Bioengineering Clemson University
Clemson University Clemson, South Carolina
Clemson, South Carolina
Jeoung Soo Lee
Peter A. Galie Department of Bioengineering
College of Engineering Clemson University
Rowan University Clemson, South Carolina
Glassboro, New Jersey
Bin Li
Patrick D. Gerard Orthopedic Institute
Department of Mathematical Sciences Soochow University
Clemson University Suzhou, China
Clemson, South Carolina
Yang Li
Ian Chandler Harding Department of Bioengineering
Department of Bioengineering Clemson University
Northeastern University Clemson, South Carolina
Boston, Massachusetts
Jeen-Shang Lin
Jong Wook Hong Department of Civil and Environmental
Department of Bionano Engineering Engineering
Hanyang University University of Pittsburgh
South Korea Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Joshua D. Hutcheson Fei Liu

Department of Biomedical Engineering Department of Environmental Health
Florida International University Harvard School of Public Health
Miami, Florida Boston, Massachusetts

Christopher R. Jacobs Xin L. Lu

Department of Biomedical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Columbia University University of Delaware
New York, New York Newark, Delaware

Julie Anne MacDonald

Sachin Jambovane
Department of Biology
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Northeastern University
Richland, Washington
Boston, Massachusetts

Ramaswamy Krishnan Ayako Makino

Department of Environmental Health College of Medicine
Harvard School of Public Health University of Arizona
Boston, Massachusetts Tucson, Arizona

Sanjay Kumar Brittany McGowan (Lindburg)

Department of Bioengineering Department of Bioengineering
University of California Clemson University
Berkeley, California Clemson, South Carolina
Contributors xxi

W. David Merryman Geert W. Schmid-Schönbein

Department of Biomedical Engineering Department of Bioengineering
Vanderbilt University University of California
Nashville, Tennessee La Jolla, California

Jiro Nagatomi Shalaby W. Shalaby

Department of Bioengineering
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina
Sheila Nagatomi (Dela Cruz)
Poly-Med, Inc.
Anderson, South Carolina
Poly-Med, Inc.
Anderson, South Carolina
Julia L. Sharp
Department of Statistics
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado

Michael P. Nilo Hainsworth Y. Shin

Nilo Medical Consulting US Food and Drug Administration
Portland, Oregon Silver Spring, Maryland

Vassilios I. Sikavitsas
Shawn Olsen
Bioengineering Center
Department of Bioengineering
School of Biomedical Engineering
Clemson University
University of Oklahoma
Clemson, South Carolina
Norman, Oklahoma
Darryl R. Overby
Craig A. Simmons
Department of Bioengineering
Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical
Imperial College London
Engineering
London, United Kingdom
University of Toronto
Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Shawn J. Peniston
Corbion Harold A. Singer
Tucker, Georgia The Center for Cardiovascular Sciences
Albany Medical Center
Aruna Ramachandran Albany, New York
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
Boston, Massachusetts Jan P. Stegemann
Department of Biomedical Engineering
William J. Richardson University of Michigan
Department of Bioengineering Ann Arbor, Michigan
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina Diana M. Tabima Martinez
Department of Biomedical Engineering
Jesse D. Rogers University of Wisconsin-Madison
Department of Bioengineering Madison, Wisconsin
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina Daniel J. Tschumperlin
Mayo Clinic
Janet Rubin Rochester, Minnesota
Division of Endocrinology/Metabolism,
Medicine Theresa A. Ulrich
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Chapel Hill, North Carolina Cambridge, Massachusetts
xxii Contributors

Samuel B. VanGordon Hai Yao

University of Oklahoma Department of Bioengineering
Norman, Oklahoma Clemson University
Clemson-MUSC Joint Bioengineering Program
James H.-C. Wang Charleston, South Carolina
Departments of Orthopaedic Surgery,
Bioengineering, and Mechanical Warren Yates
Engineering and Materials Science Bioengineering Center
University of Pittsburgh School of Chemical, Biological, and Materials
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Engineering
University of Oklahoma
Ken Webb
Norman, Oklahoma
Department of Bioengineering
Clemson University
Tong Ye
Clemson, South Carolina
Department of Bioengineering
Brad Winn Clemson University
Department of Bioengineering Clemson, South Carolina
Clemson University
Clemson, South Carolina Amirreza Yeganegi
Department of Bioengineering
Dori C. Woods Clemson University
Department of Biology Clemson, South Carolina
Northeastern University
Boston, Massachusetts Xiaoyan Zhang
Center for Biomedical Engineering
Yongren Wu University of Kentucky
Department of Bioengineering Lexington, Kentucky
Clemson University
Clemson-MUSC Joint Bioengineering Program
Charleston, South Carolina

CONTRIBUTORS – CHAPTER STUDY QUESTIONS ONLY

Kristina Bennett Alina Ashotovna Nersesyan
Department of Chemical Engineering Department of Bioengineering
Northeastern University Northeastern University
Boston, Massachusetts Boston, Massachusetts

Samuel Emmett Davidovich Ajay K. Rao

Department of Bioengineering Department of Biology
Northeastern University Northeastern University
Boston, Massachusetts Boston, Massachusetts
Michael Jaeggli
Jared Tallo
Department of Bioengineering
Department of Bioengineering
Northeastern University
Clemson University
Boston, Massachusetts
Clemson, South Carolina
Lucas Landherr
Department of Chemical Engineering
Northeastern University
Boston, Massachusetts
Section I
Tools for Mechanobiology
 1 An Introductory Guide
to Solid Mechanics

Sarah C. Baxter

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction...............................................................................................................................3
1.2 Mechanics: A Broad Definition................................................................................................. 4
1.2.1 Mechanics of Materials: Fundamental Terms............................................................... 4
1.2.1.1 Concepts and Descriptors............................................................................... 4
1.2.1.2 Deformations..................................................................................................8
1.2.1.3 Mechanisms....................................................................................................9
1.3 Modeling.................................................................................................................................. 13
1.3.1 Fundamental Equations............................................................................................... 13
1.3.1.1 Strain............................................................................................................. 14
1.3.1.2 Stretch........................................................................................................... 14
1.3.2 Constitutive Laws........................................................................................................ 14
1.3.2.1 Linear Elasticity............................................................................................ 15
1.3.2.2 Viscoelasticity............................................................................................... 15
1.3.2.3 Nonlinear Elasticity...................................................................................... 17
1.3.2.4 Pseudoelasticity............................................................................................. 17
1.3.2.5 Inelastic Behavior......................................................................................... 18
1.4 Engineering Mechanics: Classic Problems............................................................................. 18
1.4.1 Axial Extension........................................................................................................... 18
1.4.2 Bending........................................................................................................................ 19
1.4.3 Bending of a Cantilever Beam..................................................................................... 19
1.4.4 Torsion of Circular Shafts............................................................................................20
1.4.5 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels.....................................................................................20
1.4.6 Buckling.......................................................................................................................20
1.5 Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 21
References......................................................................................................................................... 21
Further Reading................................................................................................................................ 22

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The goal of this chapter is to present an overview of solid mechanics to an audience that is expert in
another field, primarily biology. In the formation of interdisciplinary research teams, it is important
that everyone learn some of the “other” field—but the tendency is to try to prescribe a complete
education. For mechanics, this would be to suggest that other team members complete the statics,
solids, dynamics, continuum sequence, as well as the prerequisite math courses for each. This is
not a realistic solution, and takes no advantage of the fact that the “students” are experts in their
own field; they are independently good at seeing parallels, asking good questions, and analyzing
new and unexpected results. With respect to mechanics, what a nonmechanician needs to know is

3
4 Mechanobiology Handbook

a basic vocabulary, what kinds of questions those trained in mechanics ask and answer, what kinds
of problems they know how to set up, and what tools are available to them to solve these problems.
With these goals in mind, this chapter provides, first, a broad definition of mechanics; second,
a list of the fundamental concepts and terms; third, some of the fundamental equations associated
with mechanics and the resulting constitutive models; and finally, a few of the classic model prob-
lems from mechanics that are well established in the literature, offered as starting points for more
advanced research. The differential equations are, without exception, those whose general solutions
are either known or easily obtained. Very little is formally derived; the emphasis is more on the
mechanisms than the math. The notation is mostly drawn from the engineering side of mechanics;
again the goal is not to turn biologists into mechanicians, but to provide them with some sense of the
available tools, and information as to what kinds of questions mechanics could be used to answer.

1.2 MECHANICS: A BROAD DEFINITION

Continuum mechanics is arguably the most mature field of engineering science. Its parallel course
work in physics is more often called Newtonian mechanics. Both assume that all events occur at
speeds considerably less than the speed of light, i.e., no relativity. It has also been for many years the
core subject in applied mathematics, sometimes under the title of rational mechanics. Continuum
mechanics is the mathematical theory associated with the mechanical behavior of both solids and
fluids, as they are subjected to forces or displacements considered on a macroscopic scale. At the
finest scale, matter is discontinuous, composed of molecules, atoms, and smaller particles with
significant space between them. Most engineering applications, however, deal with matter on a
much larger, most often observable scale. At these scales, the concern is with the average response
of the collection of the bits and pieces of matter rather than a detailed description of individual
particles. While the mathematics of continuum mechanics often considers limits that approach a
value at a single point in space, the point is still assumed to have the properties of the bulk mate-
rial. Continuum mechanics can be further divided into kinematics, which is the study of motion,
displacement, velocity, and acceleration, without a specific consideration of the forces required to
affect the motion, and mechanics of materials, which is the study of the forces and variables that
relate to them, forces per unit area, or per unit volume that can be linked to the energy of defor-
mation as well as displacements and the gradients of displacement, which describe deformation.
The most significant difference between solid and fluid mechanics is the idea of a reference state.
In solids, even those that can exhibit large deformation, descriptions are with respect to a defined
reference state, i.e., position, place, or shape of the material. In contrast, it is extremely difficult to
define an original material-based shape for a fluid; fluids assume the shape of their external contain-
ers. Thus, the emphasis in fluid mechanics is on tracking what is observed with respect to a global,
rather than material, position, i.e., what is the speed of the fluid past a specific point.
Quantum mechanics also attempts to describe the physical behavior of matter, but at smaller,
subatomic or atomic scales. Based on statistical probabilities, it includes the nondeterministic
behavior of matter and energy; often a probabilistic analysis. While “nanoscale” has as its popular
definition any object that has at least one of its dimensions ~100 nm, a more useful definition may
be to consider that nano is the dividing scale line between quantum and continuum; below the
nanoscale, quantum effects must be considered, above it, there is validity to a continuum approach.

1.2.1 Mechanics of Materials: Fundamental Terms

1.2.1.1 Concepts and Descriptors
1.2.1.1.1 Load and Displacement
Most mechanical testing is done in terms of load and displacement. Either a load or force is applied
and the corresponding displacements are observed, or a displacement is effected that results in
An Introductory Guide to Solid Mechanics 5

forces in the structural element. Two visual examples are as follows: hang a weight at the end of
a bar and see how much it stretches downward, or stretch a beam so that its ends are attached to
two walls and notice if it is in tension or compression, as a result. The advantage of both load and
displacement is that they can each be measured. The disadvantage is that the relationship depend on
the size and shape of the sample you are testing.

1.2.1.1.2 Stress and Strain

In order to generalize load and displacement, the mechanical behavior of materials is more often
expressed in terms of stress and strain. Stress is the force per unit area, in units of pressure.
Mathematically, it is a limit, the force at a single point, which means that it cannot really be mea-
sured. For traditional engineering materials that hopefully do not deform a great deal when in use,
stress is presented in terms of force divided by the undeformed, or reference, cross-sectional area.
In highly deformable materials, stress can be compared to the current cross-sectional area; this is
more difficult to do at the same time as the mechanical testing. Strains are gradients or the rate of
change of displacements; strains are dimensionless. The traditional notations for stress and strain
are σ and ε for normal stresses and strains, and τ and γ for shear stresses and strains, respectively.
Formally, both stress and strain are tensor quantities. This means that they are invariant under coor-
dinate transformation, or that the physical effect is not changed if you choose a different coordinate
system. Position vectors are tensors in this sense; if you pick a point in space, the point itself does
not move if you rotate your x–y axis 90°, but the numbers that describe the position do.
The stress and strain tensors look like symmetric matrices. Each element of each tensor is
assigned two subscripts, denoting the row and column in the matrix, and symmetric means that
σij = σji. So,

σ xx σ xy σ xz  ε xx ε xy ε xz 
   
σ =  σ xy σ yy σ yz  , ε =  ε xy ε yy ε yz  .
 σ xz σ yz σ zz   ε xz ε yz ε zz 

Imagine stresses applied to a cube positioned with one corner at the origin of an (x, y, z) coordinate
system; one subscript tells you what face of the cube you are on by indicating the perpendicular or
normal direction to that face of the cube; the second subscript tells you the direction of the stress.
So σxx is the stress on the side of the cube that faces the positive x-axis, and the stress is in that same
direction. The shear stress, σxy, is the stress on the same face of the cube, but along or in the plane
of the face rather than normal to it; or equivalently, σyx is the stress on the side of the cube facing the
y-axis, with the stress acting in the x direction. Strains match stresses by similar notation. Engineers
most often use a contracted notation that presents stress and strain as vector quantities. The con-
vention is that each double subscript, using (1, 2, 3) for (x, y, z), is contracted to a single subscript,
(11 → 1, 22 → 2, 33 → 3, 23 → 4, 13 → 5, 12 → 6). The normal stresses and strains are 1, 2, and 3, the
shears are 4, 5, and 6. By labeling the Cartesian axes as (1, 2, 3), referring to (x, y, z), the pattern for
the shears is to remove 1, σ23 = σ4, then 2, σ13 = σ5, then 3, σ12 = σ5. The stress vector is then σ = [σxx,
σyy, σzz, σyz, σxz, σxy]T, where the superscript T indicates the transpose, i.e., that the column vector
has been written as a row vector.

1.2.1.1.3 Boundary Conditions

In solid mechanics boundary value problems are defined on physical bodies consisting of an inte-
rior surrounded by a boundary. Loads and displacements are prescribed on the boundaries, and a
differential equation, usually an equilibrium, is solved for the whole physical body, subject to the
boundary conditions. The order of the differential equation, the highest derivative present, deter-
mines the number of boundary conditions that are needed, e.g., a second-order differential equation
requires two boundary conditions.
6 Mechanobiology Handbook

1.2.1.1.4 Constitutive Models

Constitutive models describe relationships between stress and strain due to material properties.

1.2.1.1.5 Linear Elastic Materials

The simplest, most well-developed and validated theories and models are those for linear elastic
materials. Elastic means that however a material is loaded, when the load is removed the material
returns to its original shape. Linear refers to the relationship between stress and strain; stress is
proportional to strain. At small strains, most materials will have linear stress–strain curves, so the
small strain theories can be used in many cases.

1.2.1.1.6 Stiffness
Stiffness describes how strongly a material resists being deformed. For linear elastic materials, and
most materials at very small strains, stiffness is the slope of the stress–strain curve. Isotropic linear
elastic materials exhibit the same mechanical response regardless of the direction of the loading. If
an element is placed in uniaxial tension, this slope is called the elastic modulus (E), the axial modu-
lus, or Young’s modulus. If a material is deformed in shear, its shear stiffness is called a shear modu-
lus, modulus of rigidity, or G. Isotropic materials can be completely characterized by three material
properties, E, G, and Poisson’s ratio, ν. Poisson’s ratio, again for an isotropic material, describes how
much the material narrows in one direction when it is stretched in the perpendicular direction, as

ε lateral
ν=− . (1.1)
ε longitudinal

Some foams with novel microstructures have been shown to widen when stretched, but most materi-
als decrease in width. Only two of these three properties are independent. They are related as

E
G= . (1.2)
2(1 + ν)

A fourth material parameter, K, the bulk modulus, also often appears in the literature. It describes a
material’s resistance to uniform compression. It can be written in terms of the others as

EG
K= (1.3)
3(3G − E )

The inverse of stiffness is compliance. For anisotropic materials, e.g., wood, whose properties vary
with direction, observable by the fact that it can be more easily cut with the grain, it is important to
describe the connections between directions. The axial tension along the x-axis may produce differ-
ent compressions in the y than in the z directions. For materials with more anisotropy, a full tensor
description of the stiffnesses/compliance is required. In totally nonintuitive notation, mechanics
uses C for the stiffness tensor and S for the compliance tensor. Stiffness is a material property and
does not depend on geometry.

1.2.1.1.7 Strength
Strength is the stress at which a material breaks; it is characterized by an ultimate stress. What is
probably most important to remember is that strength and stiffness are not the same, and do not nec-
essarily correlate. A rubber band is not stiff, hang a light weight on it and it stretches a lot. A cotton
string, hung with the same weight is stiffer; it does not stretch as much as the rubber band under the
same load. However, it is possible that both the rubber band and the cotton string have roughly the
same strength, i.e., they might break under the same load.
Another random document with
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welcomed by the colored as by the white members of the household.
Just before her arrival, a bottle of medicine with a strong odor of
Bourbon had been uncorked, and, afterward, set away. After the first
greetings were over, she exclaimed:
“I smell spirits. What have you been doing?”
Old Aunt Chloe, who had lingered in the room so as to be near
the beloved new-comer, turned with an air of triumph to her mistress,
who had often rebuked her belief in ghosts, and burst out with:
“Dar, Missus! Didn’t I allus tole yo dere was sperits in dis yere
house? Sometimes I see ’em, sometimes I hear ’em, an’ yo wood’n
b’lieve me; but now, Miss Lizzie’s done gone SMELL ’em!”

The first chapter of a Western novel is said to contain the

following striking passage:
All of a sudden the fair girl continued to sit on the sands, gazing
upon the briny deep, upon whose bosom the tall ships went merrily
by, freighted, ah! who can tell with how much joy and sorrow, and
pine lumber, and emigrants, and hopes and salt fish!

“The story,” said our host, with his inexhaustible humor and
irresistible brogue, “is of a man who died, and forthwith presented
himself at Heaven’s gate, requesting admittance.
‘Have ye bin to Purgatory, my mon?’ says St. Peter.
‘No, yer Riverence.’
‘Thin it’s no good. Ye’ll have to wait awhile.’
While the unlucky ‘Peri’ was slowly withdrawing, another
candidate approached, and the same question was asked him.
‘No, yer Riverence, but I’ve been married.’
‘Well, that’s all the same,’ says St. Peter; ‘Come in!’
At this, the first arrival taking heart of grace, advanced again, and
says he:
 ‘Plaze yer Riverence, I’ve been married twice!’
‘Away wid ye! Away wid ye!’ says St. Peter: ‘Heaven is no place
for fools!’”

When, some years since, a coalition was talked of between the

New York World, the Times, and the Herald, the Tribune remarked
that, after all, it would be nothing new; it was only the old story of
“the world, the flesh, and the devil.”

In 1871, when the French President was undecided and inactive,

in the face of all the frightful dangers that threatened the nation,
some wit quoted at him the well known verse from Tennyson:
“Thiers! Idle Thiers! We know not what you mean!”

In ’73 a print was widely circulated in Germany, representing

Bismarck pulling away at a rope which was fastened to the massive
pillars of a Cathedral. At his side stood His Satanic Majesty, who
thus questioned him:
“Well, my friend, what are you doing?”
“Trying to pull down the Church.”
“Trying to pull down the Church? And how long do you think it will
take you?”
“Oh, perhaps three or four years.”
“Very good, my friend, very good! I have been trying that for the
last eighteen hundred years; and, if you succeed in three or four, I’ll
resign in your favor!”

When a certain United States Senator disappointed his Ohio

constituents by voting on what they thought the wrong side of a
question, some one (who must have enjoyed his opportunity) hit him
with the following quotation: “He’s Ben Wade, and found wanting.”

“John P. Hale is an old goose!” exclaimed General Cass. Some

friend was kind enough to repeat this saying to the Senator; who
replied with a smile, (and, surely this was the “retort courteous,”) “Tell
General Cass that he’s a Michi-gander!”

At a public dinner in Boston, nearly twenty years ago, Judge

Story proposed as a toast: “The Orator of the Day: Fame follows
merit wherEVER IT goes!” To which Mr. Everett responded: “The
President of the Day: To whatever height the fabric of jurisprudence
may aspire in this country, it can never rise above one Story!”

A newspaper wit announces the discovery of a buried city in the

following pathetic terms: Another lost city has been found on the
coast of Siberia. Now let the man who lost it make his appearance,
pay for this advertisement, and take his old ruins away.

It has been said that the faculty of generalization belongs equally

to childhood and to genius. Was she a genius, clad in sable robes,
and bewailing the recent loss of her husband—she was certainly not
a child—who observed in conversation, with most impressive pathos:
“For we are all liable to become a widow!”

CHARACTERISTIC SAYINGS OF AMERICANS.

Franklin said many things that have passed into maxims, but
nothing that is better known and remembered than “He paid dear,
very dear, for his whistle.”
 Washington made but very few epigrammatic speeches. Here is
one: “To be prepared for war is the most effectual means of
preserving peace.”
Did you ever hear of old John Dickinson? Well, he wrote of
Americans in 1768: “By uniting we stand, by dividing we fall.”
Patrick Henry, as every school-boy knows, gave us, “Give me
liberty, or give me death,” and “If this be treason, make the most of
it.”
Thomas Paine had many quotable epigrammatic sentences:
“Rose like a rocket; fell like a stick;” “Times that try men’s souls;”
“One step from the sublime to the ridiculous,” etc., etc.
Jefferson’s writings are so besprinkled that it is difficult to select.
In despair we jump at “Few die and none resign,” certainly as
applicable to office-holders now as in Jefferson’s time.
Henry Lee gave Washington his immortal title, “First in war, first in
peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.”
Charles Cotesworth Pinckney declared in favor of “Millions for
defence, but not one cent for tribute.”
“Peaceably if we can; forcibly if we must,” is from Josiah Quincy,
1841.
John Adams did not say, “Live or die, survive or perish, I am for
the constitution,” but Daniel Webster said it for him.
The revolutionary age alone would give us our article, had we
time to gather pearls. Coming down, we pass greater, but not more
famous men.
Davy Crockett was the illustrious author of “Be sure you are right,
and then go ahead.”
Andrew Jackson gave us “The Union—it must be preserved.”
Benton almost lost his original identity in “Old Bullion,” from his
“hard money” doctrines.
 Governor Throop, of New York, was called “Small Light Troop” for
years, from a phrase in a thanksgiving proclamation.
Scott’s “hasty plate of soup” lasted his lifetime.
Taylor’s battle order, “A little more grape, Captain Bragg,” will be
quoted after he is forgotten by “all the world and the rest of
mankind.”
Seward is known for the “irrepressible conflict,” wherever the
English language is spoken.
To Washington Irving we owe “The Almighty Dollar.”
Rufas Choate gave us “glittering generalities.”
Tom Corwin’s “welcome with bloody hands to hospitable graves,”
gave him more unenviable criticism than any other saying in his life.
Calhoun gave us “state rights” as a most pernicious and absurd
equivalent for national supremacy under the constitution.
Douglas applied “squatter sovereignty,” though it is probable that
Cass invented it and Calhoun named it.
Stringfellow was the original “Border Ruffian.”
War times gave us no end of epigrammatic utterances. Those of
Lincoln alone would fill a volume—chief of these, is that noble
sentiment: “With charity to all, and malice toward none.”
McClellan’s “All quiet along the Potomac” was repeated so often
that its echo will “ring down through the ages.”
To Gen. Butler the country was indebted for the phrase
“Contraband of War,” as applied to fugitive negroes found within our
lines.
Grant gave us “Fight it out on this line,” “Unconditional surrender,”
“I propose to move immediately upon your works,” “Bottled up,” and
a hundred others. It seems to have escaped notice that Grant is
responsible for more of these characterizing, elementary
crystallizations of thought, than any other military leader of modern
times.
 One odd example occurs, in his response to Gen. Sheridan’s
telegram: “If things are pushed, Lee will surrender.” “Push things!”
was the reply, and that has passed into a proverb.

DIALECTICAL.
The peculiarities of the Yankee dialect are most amusingly
exemplified by James Russell Lowell, in the Biglow Papers,
especially in the First Series, from which the following extract is
taken:
I ’spose you wonder where I be; I can’t tell fur the soul o’ me
Exactly where I be myself, meanin’ by thet, the hull o’ me.
When I left hum, I hed two legs, an’ they wa’n’t bad ones neither;
The scaliest trick they ever played, wuz bringin’ on me hither—
Now one on ’em’s I dunno where, they thought I was a-dyin’,
An’ cut it off, because they said ’twas kind of mortifyin’;
I’m willin to believe it wuz, and yet I can’t see, nuther,
Why one should take to feelin’ cheap a minute sooner ’n t’other,
Sence both wuz equilly to blame—but things is ez they be;
It took on so they took it off, an’ thet’s enough for me.
Where’s my left hand? Oh, darn it! now I recollect wut’s come on’t.
I haint no left hand but my right, and thet’s got jest a thumb on’t,
It aint so handy as it wuz to calkylate a sum on’t.
I’ve lost one eye, but then, I guess, by diligently usin’ it,
The other’ll see all I shall git by way of pay fer losin’ it.
I’ve hed some ribs broke, six I b’lieve, I haint kep’ no account of ’em;
When time to talk of pensions comes, we’ll settle the amount of ’em.
An’ talkin’ about broken ribs, it kinder brings to mind
One that I couldn’t never break—the one I left behind!
Ef you should see her, jest clean out the spout o’ your invention,
And pour the longest sweetnin’ in about a annooal pension;
And kinder hint, in case, you know, the critter should refuse to be
Consoled, I aint so expensive now to keep, as wut I used to be:—
There’s one eye less, ditto one arm, an’ then the leg that’s wooden,
Can be took off, an’ sot away, whenever there’s a pudden!
 (Letter from Birdofreedom Sawin, a Mexican volunteer, to a friend
at home.)

The Dundreary “dialect” is admirably illustrated in

A LONDON EXQUISITE’S OPINION OF “UNCLE

TOM’S CABIN.”

Aw must wead “Uncle Tom,”—a wawk

Which aw’m afwaid’s extwemely slow:
People one meets begin to talk
Of Mrs. Hawiet Beechah Stowe.

’Tis not as if aw saw haw name

To walls and windahs still confined;
All that is meawly vulgah fame:
Aw don’t wespect the common mind.

But Staffa’d House has made haw quite

Anothah kind of pawson look;
A countess would pawsist last night,
In asking me about haw book.

She wished to know if aw admiawd

Eva, which quite confounded me;
And then haw ladyship inquiawed
Whethaw aw didn’t hate Legwee.

Bai Jove! Aw was completely flawed;

Aw wished myself, or haw, in Fwance;
And that’s the way a fellah’s bawed
By evewy gahl he asks to dance!

Aw felt myself a greataw fool

Than aw had evaw felt befaw;
Aw’ll study at some wagged school
The tale of that old blackamaw!
 It must be this same kind of Englishman, of whom the following
story is told: He was traveling on some American railroad, when a
tremendous explosion took place; the cars, at the same time, coming
to a sudden halt. The passengers sprang up in terror, and rushed out
to acquaint themselves with the cause and extent of the mischief, all
but His Serene Highness, who continued reading his newspaper. In
a moment some one rushed back, and informed him that the boiler
had burst. “Awe!” grunted the Englishman.
“Yes, and sixteen people have been killed!”
“Awe!” he muttered again.
“And—and,” said his interlocutor, with an effort, “your own man—
your servant—has been blown into a hundred pieces!”
“Awe! Bring me the piece that has the key of my portmanteau!”

THE LEGAL “DIALECT.”

ODE TO SPRING.

WRITTEN IN A LAWYER’S OFFICE.

Whereas, on sundry boughs and sprays

Now divers birds are heard to sing,
And sundry flowers their heads upraise,
Hail to the coming on of spring!

The birds aforesaid, happy pairs!

Love ’midst the aforesaid boughs enshrines,
In household nests, themselves, their heirs,
Administrators and assigns.

The songs of the said birds arouse

The memory of our youthful hours,
As young and green as the said boughs,
As fresh and fair as the said flowers.
 Oh, busiest term of Cupid’s court!
Where tender plaintiffs actions bring;
Seasons of frolic and of sport,
Hail, as aforesaid, coming spring!

“Broad Wiltshire” is sampled below, in a psalm given out by the

Clerk of Bradford Parish Church during an Episcopal visitation:
Let us zing to the praayze an’ glawry ’o God, dree verses of the
hundred an’ vourteenth zaam,—a version specially ’dapted to the
’casion, by myself:

Why hop ye zo, ye little hills,

And what var do’ee skip?
Is it acoz you’m proud to zee
His grace, the Lard Biship?

Why skip ye zo ye little hills,

And what var do’ee hop?
Is it acoz to preach to we,
Is comed the Lard Bishop?

Ees—he has comed to preach to we,—

Then let us aal strick up,
An’ zing a glawrious zong of praayze,
An’ bless the Lard Bishup!

Persons fond of economizing words, sometimes use figures (are

they figures of speech?) and letters, in their stead. Thus, the fate of
all earthly things is presented by the consonants DK—a view of the
case entirely consonant with our own observation.
The following is a printer’s short-hand method of expressing his
emotions:

2 KT J.
An SA now I mean 2 write
2 U, sweet KT J,
The girl without a ||,
The belle of UTK.

I 1der if U got the 1

I wrote 2 U, B4
I sailed in the RKDA,
And sent by LN Moore?

My MT head will scarce contain

A calm IDA bright,
But, 8T miles from U, I must
{
M this chance to write.

And first, should NE NV U,

B EZ, mind it not;
Should NE friendship show, B true;
They should not be forgot.

But friends and foes alike DK,

As U may plainly C,
In every funeral RA,
And every LEG.

From virtU never DV8;

Her influence B9
Alike induces 10dernS,
And 40tude divine.

This SA until U I C,
I pray U 2 to XQQ;
And not to burn in FIG
My young and 10der muse.

Now fare U well, DR KT J,

I trust that U R true;
When this U C, then U can say
An SA IOU.
AN AFFECTING STORY.

IIAR BB loved a maid,

He loved her to XS,
And XRSIId his NRGG
2 C her and confS.

Says he, “A meeting I’ll proQR,

B4 the day is past;
In spite of all my NMEE,
She shall B mine at last.”

Now UUULe, MLE

Was 10dR and B9,
FMN8 and gentL 2,
Some th0 she was Divine,

But poor IIAR made her X,

She said he was a calf—
SPCLE ODS;
0 spoke in his B½.

She said, “Should you go on UR nEE,

And melt awA in TRR,
Or WR at 10tions 4
The futR 50 years.

“U still would 0 B 2 me,

UR not 2 my mind,
So prA B YYR, sir, and go
Some betR maid 2 find.

“DR MLE, my love’s XS,

PrithE X10U8,
XQQ—4give—and love me, or
I’ll take an OP8.”

And so he did. Alas! poor man!

Kind readR shed a TR,
He took the OPM so strong,
It laid him on his BR!
GEORGE AND HIS POPPAR.
FEB. 22, A.D. 1738.

There livèd once a plan-ti-er

With his son, his only love,
To whom, upon his birth-day,
A brand new ax he guv.

This farmer had a gar-di-ing,

All filled with apple trees,
Which, for the city mar-ki-et,
He trièd for to reeze.

The son he takes the hatch-i-et,

Quite jolly and jocund,
And, going to the apple trees,
He chops them to the grund.

The farmer called his serv-i-ents,

And ranged them in a row;
“Now, who has chopped my apple trees,
And killed them, root and bo’?”

The servants stand ama-zi-ed,

All drawn up in a line;
Then comes a running up to him,
His young and hopeful sci’n.

“I cannot tell a lie, poppar,”

This truthful boy began;
“’Twas I who chopped your apple trees,
’Twas I, your little san.”

Now, who’d you s’pose this buffer was?

And who his filial kin?
It was the immortal Bushrod,
And the late G. Washingtin!

Feb. 22, 1875. MORAL.

Now, whoso takes a hatch-i-et,

And apple trees cuts down,
Will be, if he lives long enough,
 A great and pious moun.

The preceding poem, while it places in a new light the immortal

history of the hatchet, also illustrates the wonderful adaptability of
the English language to the purposes of the poet. Thus, in the last
stanza, a rhyme is required for “down,” while the sense demands the
word “man” at the end of the corresponding line. Instantly the
ingenious author perceives the remedy, and changes “man” to
“moun,” which doesn’t mean anything to interfere with the sense,
and rhymes with “down” in the most satisfactory manner.
Other fine illustrations of this kind are found in that learned
translation of a part of the Eneid, published a few years since at
Winsted, Connecticut. Thus:

“The hair stood endwise on his powdered wig,

Like quills upon the fretful porcupig;
He wants to go, and then again he doesn’t;
The situation is indeed unpluzzent.”

The temptation is strong to quote just here several parallel

passages from Davidson’s very literal translation and from this
Winsted version. We will give one, for the sake of the contrast.
“Returning Aurora now illuminates the earth with the lamp of
Phœbus, and has chased away the dewy shades from the sky, when
Dido, half-frenzied, thus addressed her sympathizing sister:
Sister Anna, what dreams terrify and distract my mind! What think
you of this wondrous guest who has come to our abode? In mien
how graceful he appears! In manly fortitude and warlike deeds how
great! I am fully persuaded, (nor is my belief groundless,) that he is
the offspring of the gods. Had I not been fixed and steadfast in my
resolution never to join myself to any in the bonds of wedlock, since
my first love by death mocked and disappointed me, I might,
perhaps, give way. Anna, since the death of my unhappy spouse
Sichæus, since the household gods were stained with his blood,
shed by a brother, this stranger alone has warped my inclinations,
and interested my wavering mind. I recognize the symptoms of my
former flame. But he who first linked me to himself, hath borne away
my affection. May he possess it still, and retain it in the grave. (Liber
Quartus. Ibid.)

Next day the sun rose at the proper time,

And much improved the Carthaginian clime,
When thus her sister Anna she addressed:
“Sister, my nights are full of wild unrest:
This nice young man that’s now a-stopping here
To my affections is a-growing dear;
Celestial is his origin I know,—
Such fearless souls don’t emanate below.
My grief! what savage fights that man has fit,
And how genteel he can get up and git!
’F I hadn’t vowed not to unite again,
I’m not quite certain but I should cave in.
Since poor dear Sic was slew by brother Pyg,
For no live man I’ve ever cared a fig,
Till unto Carthage this brave hero came—
But now—I swan—I feel the ancient flame.
Yet, while Sichæus keeps his coffined state,
My heart lies with his ashes—that’s my gait.”

Prizes having been offered for rhymes corresponding to

“Ipecacuanha,” and “Timbuctoo,” it is to be hoped that the ingenious
authors of the following verses gained them:

As I was walking in the grove

With my Julianna,
Some oranges I gave my love,
Pine-apple and banana;
And then, her headache to remove,
Some ipecacuanha.
 If I were a cassowary
On the plains of Timbuctoo,
I would eat a missionary,
Flesh and bones, and hymn-book, too.

“And the moral of that is,” as the Duchess observed:

That step can find no place

In rhyme, is not the case:
’Tis quite absurd:
To find a rhyme for “step,”
You only have to sep-
Arate a word.

Also: (“month” having been declared unrhymable;)

They seized a soldier in Broadway,

December was the month;
He saw his pistols thrown away,
He also saw his gun th-
rown away!

In W. G. Clarke’s youth he was requested by a young lady in the

millinery line to contribute a poem to her album. Her “Album” was an
account book diverted from its original purpose, and he responded
as follows:
To Miss Lucretia Sophonisba Matilda Jerusha Catling:
Thou canst not hope, O nymph divine
3 9
That I should ever court the
Or that, when passion’s glow is done,
1
My heart can ever love but
When, from Hope’s flowers exhales the dew,
2
Then Love’s false smiles desert us
Then Fancy’s radiance ’gins to flee,
3
And life is robbed of all the
And Sorrow sad her tears must pour 4
 O’er cheeks where roses bloomed be
Yes! life’s a scene all dim as Styx;
6
Its joys are dear at
Its raptures fly so quickly hence
18d
They’re scarcely cheap at
Oh! for the dreams that then survive!
25
They’re high at pennies
The breast no more is filled with heaven
27
When years it numbers
And yields it up to Manhood’s fate
28
About the age of
Finds the world cold and dim and dirty
30
Ere the heart’s annual count is
Alas! for all the joys that follow
25
I would not give a quarter dollar.

1 97½

Thus, my dear maid, I send to you

The balance of my meter due;
Please scrutinize the above amount,
And set it down to my account.

“FRAGMENTS OF AN ORIGINAL LOVE STORY.”

BY
J. G. STAUNTON, AND A SOUTH CAROLINA LADY.

After a “lovers’
quarrel,” when the party of the first part
——Meekly approached and knelt down at her feet,
Praying loud as before he had ranted,
That she would forgive him, and try to be sweet,
And said “Can’t you?” the dear girl re-canted.

Then softly he whispered “How could you do so?

I certainly thought I was jilted;
 But come now with me; to the parson we’ll go!
Say, wilt thou, my dear?” and she wilted.

Then gaily he took her to see his new home;

A cottage by no means enchanted;
“Ah! here we can live without longing to roam,”
He said, “Sha’n’t we, my love?” and they shantied,

And gently beamed o’er them love’s rose-colored ray;

(The bridegroom and bride of this ballad;)
He said “Let us walk at the close of the day,
My own lovely Sall,” and they sallied.

He plucked her the sweetest and loveliest flowers

That scented the path where they wandered;
And when she exclaimed “Let us turn from these bowers,
To roam near the pond!” then they pondered.

Old time softly paused o’er the home of this pair,

Nor grief nor perplexity haunted;
And when the meek husband asked “What shall I wear?”
“Plaid pants,” she replied, and he panted.

She, like a good wife, made his wardrobe her care;

(Neglecting it seemed to her wicked;)
So, when she brought linen, all shining and fair,
Saying “Wear this, dear Dick!” then he dickied.

And when a bright bud of divinity came,

To gladden the home where it tarried,
They put it to vote that the young stranger’s name
Sweet CARRIE should be, and ’twas carried.

But perhaps the most “pronounced” example of adaptability, as

referred to above, is found in a poem recently contributed to a
Rochester paper.

Spring, sprang, beautiful sprung!

The wild-winged warblers are wanging a wung,
And the soft southern breezes are brazing a broze,
That thaws up the ice with remarkable thoze.
 O betterest time of all moments of tome,
I’ll rhyme thee a rhimelet in tenderest rhome,
And tell thee how oft in my longing, I’ve lung
To welcome thy coming, O beautiful sprung!

Symbolical season! exquisitest soze!

All nature uprising in gleefulest gloze,
Wide opens its larynx to sing and to shout,
Exuberant pleasure and gratefulest grout.

The blithe little rivulets run to the seas,—

The little buds start on the hemlocks and trees;
The wild geese are screaming their vigorest scream,
And the frogs that were dreaming no longer will dream.

Of course there is sadness in thinking the thought

That there’ll be no more skating for skaters who skaught;
But the Erie Canal, with its decrease in tolls,
Will cause us to smile a succession of smoles.

If “the exigencies of rhyme” need not be considered in

constructing English verse, neither need the exigencies of rhythm, as
shown by the following highly artistic couplets:

The wind blew down our well-sweep,

And father and I put it up again —— sheep.

Wasn’t Pharaoh a Rascal

Because he wouldn’t let the children of Israel go three days’ journey into the
wilderness, to celebrate the Paschal?

In ’73, a modest volume of poems was published by an Hon. and

Rev. gentleman of Central New York,[3] in which occur the following
rather surprising verses: (not consecutively, but here and there.)
 O bright shining morn of the year,
I cannot foretell thy events;
Trusting in God, why should I fear,
Though having so many relents!
* * * * *
I looked on his form; ’twas like mine;
Transparent his body did seem;
His vigor could never repine;
With glory his features all gleam.
* * * * *
Oh, that the great ocean of love,
Where all the inhabitants bathe,
Ere they go to the bright realms above,
In His sight to whom they have clave.
* * * * *
We saw there as beacons of light
God’s temples of worship, so fair;
We saw there, enlisted in fight,
The wicked who cursed God with dare.
* * * * *
O then they all sang as before,
And the prophets they came rushing down;
And skipping, they came to that shore
Where saints shall forever be crowned!

To find the “concealed sense” (concealed nonsense!) of the

verses that follow, the first and third, second and fourth lines, are
read consecutively:

That man must lead a happy life,

Who’s free from matrimonial chains;
Who is directed by a wife,
Is sure to suffer for his pains.

Adam could find no solid peace,

When Eve was given for a mate;
Till he beheld a woman’s face,
Adam was in a happy state.
 In all the female race appear
Hypocrisy, deceit, and pride,
The tokens of a heart sincere,
In woman never did reside.

What tongue is able to unfold

The failings that in woman dwell?
The merits in her we behold,
Are almost imperceptible.

Confusion take the man, I say,

Who makes a woman his delight!
Who will no court to women pay,
Keeps always reason in his sight.

This is nonsense, too; though, certainly, women are the faultiest

of human beings—except men.
Be that as it may, few women have ever been more severely, or,
perhaps, more justly, cauterized, than poor Job’s poor wife, in
Coleridge’s celebrated Epigram:

Sly Beelzebub took all occasions

To try Job’s constancy and patience.
He took his honor, took his health,
He took his children, took his wealth,
His servants, horses, oxen, cows—
But cunning Satan did not take his spouse.

But Heaven, that brings out good from evil,

And loves to disappoint the Devil,
Had predetermined to restore
Twofold all Job had lost before:
His servants, horses, oxen, cows.
Short-sighted Satan! NOT to take his spouse?

SECRET CORRESPONDENCE.