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Lecture Notes in Energy 38
Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus
Les E. Shephard
Low-Carbon
Energy in Africa
and Latin
America
Renewable Technologies, Natural Gas
and Nuclear Energy
Lecture Notes in Energy
Volume 38
Lecture Notes in Energy (LNE) is a series that reports on new developments in the
study of energy: from science and engineering to the analysis of energy policy. The
series’ scope includes but is not limited to, renewable and green energy, nuclear,
fossil fuels and carbon capture, energy systems, energy storage and harvesting,
batteries and fuel cells, power systems, energy efficiency, energy in buildings,
energy policy, as well as energy-related topics in economics, management and
transportation. Books published in LNE are original and timely and bridge between
advanced textbooks and the forefront of research. Readers of LNE include
postgraduate students and non-specialist researchers wishing to gain an accessible
introduction to a field of research as well as professionals and researchers with a
need for an up-to-date reference book on a well-defined topic. The series publishes
single and multi-authored volumes as well as advanced textbooks.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8874

Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus
Les E. Shephard
Low-Carbon Energy
in Africa and Latin America
Renewable Technologies, Natural Gas
and Nuclear Energy
123
Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus Les E. Shephard
Departmento de Física Department of Civil and Environmental
Universidad de La Laguna Engineering
La Laguna University of Texas at San Antonio
Spain San Antonio, TX
USA
ISSN 2195-1284 ISSN 2195-1292 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Energy
ISBN 978-3-319-52309-5 ISBN 978-3-319-52311-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-52311-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017930945
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from
the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
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The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To Inés, Claudia (pichi-pichi) and mami
To Darlene—831!
Preface
Africa and Latin America are comprised of some of the world’s most prosperous
nations and some of the world’s poorest. With more than 20% of the global pop-
ulation, these nations all strive to enhance their economic prosperity and to build a
social fabric and a business community that allows their citizens’ opportunities for
success in the future. For many nations, in these regions, any goals beyond basic
sustenance represent a marked improvement in the standard of living and basic
services, but all nations recognize the inextricable link between economic pros-
perity and energy consumption and the challenges associated with building a secure
energy future that fuels their long-term economic growth.
This book is intended to serve as an introduction and initial source of infor-
mation for students, researchers, and other professionals interested in the energy
sectors for nations that comprise both Africa and Latin America (Fig. 1) with a
specific focus on low-carbon energy systems. This book coalesces information that
is often difficult to find in the published literature to provide the most current
material on how the energy sector is evolving in these countries and the challenges
they face in moving from a disaggregated, nonstandard energy sector framework to
a fully integrated, yet distributed sector. The most important up-to-date numerical
data related to energy production, capacity, efficiencies, production costs, etc., are
exposed in 14 chapters, 208 figures, and 52 tables, integrated in terms of units and
methodology. We have attempted to rely on the recent (2014–2016) technical
peer-reviewed literature in our assessments of each technology and the role they
play in these nations, but for many countries, this information is often limited and
for some nearly nonexistent. As such, we have also relied on government,
non-government, and trade organization publications where necessary to supple-
ment insights gained from the refereed literature.
This book begins with an assessment of the current energy situation and trends in
Africa and Latin America and the significant constraints on meeting their future
energy needs with current practices. These constraints include social, political,
regulatory, financial, technical, economic, and policy considerations and chal-
lenges. We begin by examining the current energy trends in Africa and Latin
America and the constraints that current practices place on meeting future energy
vii
viii Preface
Fig. 1 African and Latin American priority countries and other countries considered in this book
needs. Later chapters present a more detailed description and analyses of each
low-carbon energy technology and the role they play in countries that comprise
these two regions. These chapters are supported by a large number of illustrations
and data summary tables to offer valuable insights into the topics and technologies
discussed. We have integrated 94 “Case examples” from the refereed literature in
each of the chapters that identify specific examples of technology developments and
deployments or a synthesis of the challenges, successes, and deliberations related to
specific technologies and/or the complementary capability that has arisen as a result
of access to low-carbon energy resources (e.g., ethanol gel stoves). Our case
examples incorporate experiences from nearly every nation in these two regions and
are intended in part to serve as “models for success” that may be emulated else-
where within African and Latin American countries.
This book is intended to provide a basis for understanding the energy context for
both Africa and Latin America by serving as a resource to help define strategies that
accelerate the deployment of indigenous low-carbon energy technologies in a
manner that enhances long-term economic prosperity. The authors enjoy
“real-world experience” in teaching energy concepts and principles in “emerging”
countries, and this book summarizes much of the information we use in the
classroom interactions with our students. Both of our universities draw significantly
upon students from African and Latin American countries, and our cities serve as
gateways to these regions for trade, commerce, and education. Also, we plan to use
this book as our resource for teaching classroom and online courses in the coming
years in our respective universities. The authors will be available for readers to
discuss any data or analysis published in the book (rglemus@ull.edu.es), and the
readers will be encouraged to propose any additional and recognized content that
they consider can enrich future editions. The readers who collaborate in the
Preface ix
enrichment of future edition content will be mentioned in the acknowledgements

of the edition where this content is added.
Priority countries for this book were identified based on the available reliable
data on the energy sector.
African Countries
Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of

Congo, Cote d’Ivore, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Ghana, Kenya, Libyan Arab
Jamahiriya, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa,
Sudan (covering South Sudan), United Republic of Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia,
Zambia, Zimbabwe, and other African countries briefly considered (Burkina Faso;
Burundi; Cape Verde; Central African Republic; Chad; Comoros; Djibouti;
Equatorial Guinea; Gambia; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Lesotho; Liberia; Madagascar;
Malawi; Mali; Mauritania; Mauritius; Niger; Reunion; Rwanda; Sao Tome and
Principe; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Somalia; Swaziland; Uganda; and Western
Sahara).
Latin American Countries
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican

Republic, El Salvador, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua,
Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela, and other Latin American countries
briefly considered (Antigua and Barbuda; Aruba; Bahamas; Barbados; Belize;
Bermuda; British Virgin Islands; Cayman Islands; Dominica; Falkland Islands;
French Guyana; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Guyana; Jamaica; Martinique; Montserrat;
Netherlands Antilles; Puerto Rico; St. Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Pierre et
Miquelon; St. Vincent and the Grenadines; Suriname; Trinidad and Tobago; and
Turks and Caicos Islands).
To discuss regional energy figures (mainly supply, capacities, and production),
we use the IEA and US EIA Statistics Databases. We consider these sources very
rigorous, but the methodology employed produces 2-year delayed data with respect
to present. To compensate this drawback, in many chapters, more updated esti-
mations, provided by global and prestigious associations related to the specific
technology, are referred.
This book would not have been possible without the selfless support of many
that believe as we do that we must improve the economic prosperity of global
citizens everywhere and that energy is key to a prosperous future. Brooke L.E.S.
Fontenot-Amedee has been gracious with her time and insight on information
technology, and The Good Shephard Foundation has provided financial and moral
x Preface
support from the onset. Also Prof. José Manuel Martínez-Duart and Prof. Antonio
Lecuona have provided significant content to this book.
The University of La Laguna, the University of Texas System, and the
University of Texas at San Antonio have continuously encouraged collaborative
research opportunities on renewable energy between our universities. Dr. Alfonso
“Chico” Chiscano, MD has dedicated his life to the spirit of collaboration between
San Antonio and the Canary Islands and has continuously nourished this rela-
tionship over decades.
We also want to make special mention to our image designer, Aneliya
Stoyanova, and to Oyinkansola Adeoye, who has contributed along with many
others technical support.
La Laguna, Spain Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus

San Antonio, TX, USA Les E. Shephard
December 2016
Contents
1 Executive Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus and Les E. Shephard
2 General Description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2 Carbon Emissions and Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Low Carbon Development Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.4 Main Country Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Carbon Capture and Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5.2 State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.3 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.5.4 Carbon Emissions from CCS Based Power Plants . . . . 34
2.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3 Current Energy Context in Africa and Latin America . . . . . . . .... 39
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2 Key Energy Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Energy Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.1 Renewable Energy Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.3.2 Fossil Fuel Pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.3.3 Power Grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.4 Energy Regulations and Jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.1 National Targets and Incentives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.4.2 Investment Climate and Jobs in Clean Energies . . . . . 51
3.4.3 Energy Subsidies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
xi
xii Contents
3.5 Energy Security and Trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3.6 Energy Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.7 National and Regional Energy Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4 Power Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 75
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2 Technology State of the Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.2.1 Power Transmission Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.2.2 Power Distribution Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.3 Integration of Non-dispatchable Renewable
Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.4 Rural Electrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.2.5 Smart Grids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2.6 Storage Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2.7 Distributed Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.2.8 Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.2.9 Net Metering and Interconnections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.3 Regional and National Perspectives on Technology . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3.1 Electricity Output and Power Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.3.2 Electricity Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.3 Electricity Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.4 Electrification Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3.5 Electricity Distribution Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5 Biomass for Heating and Power Production . . . . . . . . . . ......... 121
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.2.1 Energy Crops. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.2.2 Cook-stoves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.2.3 Technologies for Producing Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.2.4 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.2.5 CO2 Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.3.1 Biomass and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.3.2 Forest and Arable Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.3.3 Electricity from Biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Contents xiii
6 Photovoltaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 149

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.2.1 Wafer-Based Solar Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2.2 Thin Film Solar Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.2.3 Third Generation Solar Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.4 Efficiencies and Required Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.2.5 Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.2.6 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.2.7 Pico-Solar Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.3.1 Evolution on Electricity Produced from PV. . . . . . . . . 165
6.3.2 Electricity Share from PV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7 Solar Thermal Energy for Heating, Cooling and Power ......... 175
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
7.2.1 Solar Thermal Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.2.2 Cooling and Air Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.2.3 Solar Thermal Collectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.2.4 CSP Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7.2.5 Thermal Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.2.6 Solar Cookers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.2.7 Other Solar Thermal Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.2.8 Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.2.9 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.3.1 Evolution on Solar Thermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
7.3.2 Evolution on CSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8 Hydropower and Marine Energy . . . . . . . . . . . ................. 207
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.2.1 Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.2.2 Large Hydropower Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.2.3 Wave Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
xiv Contents
8.2.4 Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

8.2.5 Tidal Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.2.6 Other Marine Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
8.2.7 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
8.3.1 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
8.3.2 Pumping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
8.3.3 Marine Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9 Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.2.1 High Enthalpy Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.2.2 Geothermal Heat Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
9.2.3 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
9.3.1 Evolution on Electricity Produced from Geothermal
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
9.3.2 Electricity Share from Geothermal Energy . . . . . . . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10 Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 261
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
10.2.1 Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
10.2.2 Small Wind Turbines (SWT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
10.2.3 Offshore Wind Turbines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
10.2.4 Wind Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
10.2.5 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
10.3.1 Electricity Share from Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
10.3.2 Evolution on Electricity Produced from Wind
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 275
10.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 277
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 277
Contents xv
11 Biofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 279

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
11.2.1 Bioethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
11.2.2 Biodiesel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
11.2.3 Third Generation Biofuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
11.2.4 Ethanol as a Cooking Fuel Option . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
11.2.5 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
11.3.1 Supporting Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11.3.2 Biofuel Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
12 Waste-to-Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 301
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
12.2.1 Anaerobic Digestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
12.2.2 Incineration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
12.2.3 Pyrolysis and Gasification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
12.2.4 Hydrothermal Carbonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
12.2.5 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
12.3.1 MSW Production Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
12.3.2 MSW Collection Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
13 Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 323
13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
13.2.1 Shale Gas and Hydraulic Fracturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
13.2.2 Gas Turbine Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
13.2.3 Cogeneration and Trigeneration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
13.2.4 Combined Cycle Power Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
13.2.5 Flexibility for Non-dispatchable Generation . . . . . . . . 330
13.2.6 Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) and Off Grid
Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 333
13.2.7 Natural Gas Appliances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 334
13.2.8 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 334
xvi Contents

13.3.1 Production, Consumption and Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
13.3.2 Electricity Share from Natural Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
14 Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 345
14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
14.2.1 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
14.2.2 Conversion and Enrichment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
14.2.3 Fuel Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
14.2.4 Types of Nuclear Fuel Assemblies for Different
Reactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
14.2.5 Nuclear Plants and Electricity Production . . . . . . . . . . 357
14.2.6 Thorium as an Alternative Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
14.2.7 Reprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
14.2.8 Small Modular Reactors (SMR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
14.2.9 Nuclear Waste and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
14.2.10 Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
14.3.1 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
14.3.2 Evolution on Electricity Produced from Nuclear
Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 366
14.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 368
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 369
Acronyms
AC Alternating current
ACSR Aluminum conductor steel reinforced
AD Anaerobic digestion
AHWR Advanced heavy water reactor
BMP Biochemical methane potential
BWR Boiling water reactor
CANDU CANada Deuterium Uranium
CAPP Central African Power Pool
CC Combined cycle
CCGT Combined cycle gas turbine
CCS Carbon capture and storage
CFL Compact fluorescent light
CHP Combined heat and power
COD Chemical oxygen demand
DM Dry matter
DSO Distribution system operator
DU Depleted uranium
EAPP East African Power Pool
EIA US Energy Information Administration
EPA US Environmental Protection Agency
ETC Evacuated tube collector
FBR Fast breeder reactor
FPC Flat plate collector
GCR Gas-cooled reactor
GCV Gross calorific value
GDP Gross domestic product
GHG Greenhouse gases
HLW High-level waste
HTC Hydrothermal carbonization
HTGR High-temperature gas-cooled reactor
xvii
xviii Acronyms
HV High voltage
HVAC High-voltage alternating current
HVDC High-voltage direct current
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICE Internal combustion engine
IEA International Energy Agency
IGBT Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
ILW Intermediate level waste
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPP Independent power producer
IR Inferred resources
IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency
ISO Independent system operator
LCA Life cycle analysis
LCOE Levelized cost of electricity
LED Light-emitting diode
LHV Lower heating value
LLW Low-level waste
LNG Liquid natural gas
LPG Liquified propane gas
LRMC Long-run marginal cost
LV Low voltage
lwg Live weight gain
LWGR (RBMK) Light water gas reactor
LWR Light water reactor
MOX Mixed oxide
MSR Molten salt reactor
MSW Municipal solid waste
MV Medium voltage
NEP National energy plan
NG Natural gas
NGO Nongovernmental agency
NGV Natural gas-fueled vehicles
NORM Naturally occurring radioactive material
OCGT Open cycle gas turbine
OTEC Ocean thermal energy conversion
PHWR Pressurized heavy water reactor
PPA Power purchase agreement
PWR Pressurized water reactor
RAR Reasonably assured resources
RDF Refused derived fuel
RepU Reprocessed uranium
RES Renewable energy sources
RPS Renewable purchase standards
RTO Regional transmission organization
Acronyms xix
SAPP South African Power Pool

SHC Solar heating and cooling
SMR Small modular reactor
SRF Solid refuse fuel
SRMC Short-run marginal cost
STP Standard temperature and pressure
SWH Solar water heating
SWT Small wind turbine
SWU Separative work unit
TPEC Total primary energy consumption
TPES Total primary energy supply
TRE Tradable renewable energy
TSO Transmission system operator
UMA Arab Maghreb Union
USEC United States Enrichment Corporation
VAT Value-added tax
VLLW Very low-level waste
WAPP West African Power Pool
WtE Waste to energy
Countries
AGO Angola
ARG Argentina
ATG Antigua and Barbuda
BDI Burundi
BEN Benin
BFA Burkina Faso
BHS Bahamas, The
BLZ Belize
BMU Bermuda
BOL Bolivia
BRA Brazil
BRB Barbados
BWA Botswana
CAF Central African Republic
CHL Chile
CIV Cote d’Ivoire
CMR Cameroon
COD Congo, Dem. Rep
COG Congo, Rep
COL Colombia
COM Comoros
CPV Cabo Verde
CRI Costa Rica
xx Acronyms
CUB Cuba
CUW Curacao
CYM Cayman Islands
DJI Djibouti
DMA Dominica
DOM Dominican Republic
DZA Algeria
ECU Ecuador
EGY Egypt, Arab Rep
ERI Eritrea
ETH Ethiopia
EU European Union
GAB Gabon
GHA Ghana
GIN Guinea
GMB Gambia, The
GNB Guinea-Bissau
GNQ Equatorial Guinea
GTM Guatemala
GUY Guyana
HND Honduras
HTI Haiti
JAM Jamaica
KEN Kenya
LBR Liberia
LBY Libya
LSO Lesotho
MAR Morocco
MDG Madagascar
MEX Mexico
MLI Mali
MOZ Mozambique
MRT Mauritania
MUS Mauritius
MWI Malawi
NAM Namibia
NER Niger
NGA Nigeria
NIC Nicaragua
PAN Panama
PER Peru
PRY Paraguay
RWA Rwanda
SDN Sudan
SEN Senegal
Acronyms xxi
SLE Sierra Leone

SLV El Salvador
SOM Somalia
SSD South Sudan
STP São Tomé and Principe
SUR Suriname
SWZ Swaziland
SYC Seychelles
TCD Chad
TGO Togo
TTO Trinidad and Tobago
TUN Tunisia
TZA Tanzania
UGA Uganda
URY Uruguay
USA United States
VCT St. Vincent and the Grenadines
VEN Venezuela, RB
ZAF South Africa
ZMB Zambia
ZWE Zimbabwe
List of Case Examples
Case Example 4.1. Mobile Phone Call Data as a electricity proxy

indicator in Côte d’Ivoire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80
Case Example 4.2. Electrification planning tool applied to Ghana . . . . . .. 82
Case Example 4.3. Socioeconomic impacts of access to electricity
in a Brazilian Amazon reserve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88
Case Example 4.4. Human behaviour in household energy efficiency
in a town in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 90
Case Example 4.5. Flow battery for a telecommunications base
transceiver site (TBS) in Dominican Republic . . . . . .. 94
Case Example 4.6. Uganda’s liberalized energy market
and energy poverty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
Case Example 4.7. Battery selection for a off-grid school lighting
in Angola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99
Case Example 4.8. Adaptation of feed-in tariff for remote mini-grids
in Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Case Example 4.9. The economics of grid interconnection in Africa . . . . . 107
Case Example 4.10. Simulating electricity market coupling between
Colombia and Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Case Example 4.11. The energy poverty penalty in a rural area in Peru . . . 110
Case Example 4.12. Local and national energy planning in Senegal . . . . . . 111
Case Example 4.13. Rural distribution meter failures in Colombia . . . . . . . 115
Case Example 5.1. Briquettes as an alternative to firewood
and charcoal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Case Example 5.2. The flexible role of charcoal production in
smallholders in Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Case Example 5.3. Household fuel mix vs. income in transition
economies, Botswana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Case Example 5.4. Corn food processing and the gasification of cobs
in Cameroon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Case Example 5.5. Gabon land-based strategy for contributing to the
UN Framework Convention on Climate Change . . . . . 137
xxiii
xxiv List of Case Examples
Case Example 5.6. Rwanda’s policies for reducing the impact

of using biomass for cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Case Example 5.7. Positive impacts of fuelwood sourcing in Maun,
Botswana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Case Example 5.8. Fuelwood characteristics of fast-growth species
in Costa Rica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Case Example 6.1. Protection of PV systems against theft in South
Africa and Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Case Example 6.2. Ghana’s PV development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Case Example 6.3. The lowest bid for PV worldwide in 2016: Chile . . . . 160
Case Example 6.4. Brazil auctions and currency depreciation,
and Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Case Example 6.5. The lowest bid for PV in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Case Example 6.6. An off-grid power kiosk in rural Zambia . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Case Example 6.7. Pay-as-you-go approaches for solar home systems
in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Case Example 6.8. Appliances adapted for African rural areas . . . . . . . . . 165
Case Example 6.9. Medium size PV-diesel-battery system for an
isolated power system in Namibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Case Example 6.10. A small PV powered reverse osmosis system
for water purification in a remote
Mexican community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Case Example 6.11. Chile’s PV plants selling electricity
in the spot market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Case Example 7.1. Real solar adsorption refrigeration system working
in Bou-Ismail, Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Case Example 7.2. Solar cooking experiences in Central America . . . . . . 191
Case Example 7.3. Sun dryers in Togo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Case Example 7.4. PROSOL program to promote solar water heating
in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Case Example 7.5. Solar thermal refrigeration in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Case Example 7.6. Solar water heater technology transferred to rural
communities in Argentina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Case Example 7.7. CSP in Tunisia and interconnection with Europe. . . . . 201
Case Example 7.8. Integration of CSP in the Brazilian electric power
system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Case Example 8.1. Designing a micro-dam reservoir
in northern Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Case Example 8.2. Hydropower conflicts and resettlements in Brazil . . . . 215
Case Example 8.3. Wave energy resource assessment in Uruguay . . . . . . . 219
Case Example 8.4. Beach response to wave energy converter farms
acting as coastal defense in Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Case Example 8.5. Lack of maintenance and drought effects . . . . . . . . . . . 226
List of Case Examples xxv
Case Example 8.6. Potential use of water spilled for producing

hydrogen in Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Case Example 8.7. Grand Inga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Case Example 8.8. La Esperanza run-of-river hydroelectric project
in Honduras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Case Example 8.9. Hydropower planning in fragile and conflict states:
South Sudan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Case Example 8.10. Alternative use of the spilled water at Itaipu
14GW hydraulic plant in Paraguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Case Example 8.11. Economic changes after the NGO-based
implementation of a small-scale off-grid hydropower
system in Tanzania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Case Example 9.1. Study of a solar-geothermal hybrid power plant
in northern Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Case Example 9.2. Geothermal power plants impact on surrounding
plants and soil in Kenya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Case Example 9.3. Evaluation of earth-air heat exchanger for cooling
and heating a poultry house in Morocco . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Case Example 9.4. Self-powered desalination of geothermal saline
groundwater in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Case Example 9.5. The Corbetti Geothermal Power Plant in Ethiopia . . . . 254
Case Example 9.6. KenGen and geothermal policy support in Kenya . . . . 255
Case Example 9.7. San Jacinto-Tizate geothermal power plant
in Nicaragua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Case Example 9.8. Geothermal energy in El Salvador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Case Example 10.1. Social response to the installation of a wind farm
in Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Case Example 10.2. Determinants of community acceptance of a wind
energy project in Tunisia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Case Example 10.3. Wind pumps for greenhouse microirrigation in
Ciego de Ávila, Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Case Example 10.4. Grid parity for wind energy in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Case Example 10.5. Cabeolica wind farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Case Example 10.6. 310 MW Lake Turkana wind farm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Case Example 10.7. The largest wind farm
in Central America (Panama) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Case Example 11.1. Case study of a small scale ethanol production
in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Case Example 11.2. Failure of many large-scale jatropha plantations in
Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Case Example 11.3. South African Airways first flight using biofuels . . . . . 290
Case Example 11.4. The sustainability of sugarcane-ethanol systems in
Guatemala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Case Example 11.5. Evolution of the biofuel policy in Zimbabwe . . . . . . . 295
xxvi List of Case Examples
Case Example 11.6. Impact of biofuel projects in food security

in Mozambique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Case Example 11.7. Jatropha adoption by smallholders in Mexico . . . . . . . 298
Case Example 12.1. Landfill gas projects in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Case Example 12.2. Methane production from sanitation improvement
in Haiti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Case Example 12.3. Biogas technology and production of fertilizers
in Bolivia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Case Example 12.4. Factors affecting household’s decisions in biogas
technology adoption in northern Ethiopia . . . . . . . . . . 307
Case Example 12.5. Development of biogas technology in Colombia . . . . . 309
Case Example 12.6. Planning waste-to-energy integration in the
Venezuelan grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Case Example 12.7. Anaerobic digestion in a beef cattle feedlot
in Brazil and GHG emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Case Example 12.8. Overview of solid waste in Libya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Case Example 12.9. The potential of biogas production from waste
in Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Case Example 13.1. Gas flaring and its impact on electricity generation
in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Case Example 13.2. Toward the hybridization of gas-fired power plants
in Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
Case Example 13.3. Natural gas engines to power a gold mine and the
grid in the Dominican Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Case Example 13.4. Developing compressed natural gas for vehicles in
Africa and Latin America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Case Example 13.5. LPG’s policies in Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Case Example 13.6. Effect of low natural gas prices in Bolivia . . . . . . . . . . 335
Case Example 13.7. Diesel vs. natural gas fuelling for power distribution
in Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Case Example 13.8. The impact of natural gas consumption in Tunisia’s
output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Case Example 13.9. Decision-making tool for a LNG regasification plant
in Argentina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Case Example 14.1. Multicriteria decision analysis for the location of a
nuclear power plant in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Case Example 14.2. South Africa - Moving Full Cycle
on Non-Proliferation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
Case Example 14.3. Argentina builds the world’s first SMR . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
Case Example 14.4. Calibration of the Nigeria Research
Reactor-1 (NIRR-1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
Chapter 1
Executive Summary
Abstract Energy consumption in Africa and Latin America has grown at a rate
greater than the total energy consumption worldwide since 1980, consuming nearly
10% of the total global energy and *20% of global renewable energy, largely
biomass. Other significant sources of renewables include hydropower and
geothermal. Both regions have diverse energy resources distributed non-uniformly
between nations. Coal, oil and natural gas production is restricted to a few nations
but is often used for electricity production across several countries. Natural gas
reserves are prolific in parts of both regions and are likely to contribute to expanded
electricity production in future decades particularly if investments in energy
infrastructure occur as suggested.

Keywords Africa Latin America Energy Electricity Renewable technolo-

gies Natural gas Nuclear energy Carbon emissions
Energy consumption in Africa and Latin America has grown at a rate greater than
the total energy consumption worldwide since 1980, consuming nearly 10% of the
total global energy and *20% of global renewable energy, largely biomass. Other
significant sources of renewables include hydropower and geothermal. Both regions
have diverse energy resources distributed non-uniformly between nations. Coal, oil
and natural gas production is restricted to a few nations but is often used for
electricity production across several countries. Natural gas reserves are prolific in
parts of both regions and are likely to contribute to expanded electricity production
in future decades particularly if investments in energy infrastructure occur as
suggested.
In terms of production, Africa and Latin America represent more than 23% of
the global renewable energy produced, with most (*21%) of this energy provided
by traditional biofuels and waste (36% of total global production) to support daily
sustenance needs for heating and cooking rather than electricity production char-
acteristic of nations with mature economies. These regions possess tremendous
potential for significant growth of renewable energy resources derived from access
to large land areas (more than 37% of the combined global surface area), the
availability of abundant renewable resources (i.e., wind, water and solar), regional
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1
R. Guerrero-Lemus and L.E. Shephard, Low-Carbon Energy in Africa
and Latin America, Lecture Notes in Energy 38,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-52311-8_1
2 1 Executive Summary
commitments to cut global emissions by 2030 and a growing recognition by some

nations that low carbon development can enhance economic prosperity while
reducing potential impacts on climate change. Considerations that influence future
energy decisions for African and Latin American nations include life cycle CO2,
land requirements, water consumption, surface area, population and population
density, cost and the ease of business transactions including financing. As the ease
of transactions within the business environment improves there is likely to be
greater diversification of energy sources and expansion of entrepreneurial activities.
Moreover, Africa and Latin America have diverse energy reserves that vary
between nations but seldom achieve capacity levels necessary for the long-term
sustainment, or more importantly growth, of an individual national or regional
economy. Current demand for energy in many nations is low (i.e., energy con-
sumption per capita) so existing fossil fuel reserves are often adequate to meet
existing needs and projections for growth in the future. An energy paradox exists
for Africa and Latin America driven largely by socioeconomics that suggests
current energy resources are adequate for sustainment, but substantial energy
resource development is necessary to improve regional GDP. Comparisons of GDP
and CO2 emissions per capita for the different countries in Africa and Latin
America show that only a few nations have been capable of increasing their GDP
per capita while at the same time reducing their CO2 emissions (Figs. 1.1 and 1.2).
However, both regions have substantial opportunities to increase their GDP based
on the expanded penetration of low carbon indigenous energy technologies into
their infrastructure (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.1 Changes in CO2 emissions (2000–2013) and GDP (2000–2015) for African countries
1 Executive Summary 3
Fig. 1.2 Changes in CO2 emissions (2000–2013) and GDP (2000–2015) for Latin American
countries
Fig. 1.3 Variations in cost for traditional renewable energy resources located in Africa and Latin
America
• Energy infrastructure has a significant impact on energy consumption in both

Latin America and Africa. Electric grid integration in both Africa and Latin
America is limited by variations in frequency, sub-regional power pools that
lack interconnections, geographic barriers and political differences (Fig. 1.4).
4 1 Executive Summary
Fig. 1.4 Interconnections of the electric grid in Africa and Latin America limits the sharing of
electricity between nations
Significant efforts in both regions are directed at improving the connectivity

between nations but still less than 8% of power crosses international borders in
any African region. Sub-Saharan Africa contains one of the least electrified
regions in the world with an overall electrification rate below 50% and with 17
nations having electrification rates less than 20%. This contrasts significantly
with North Africa and the majority of urban Latin America (Haiti is an
exception), where more than 99% of the population has access to electricity.
Electricity consumption in both regions remain well under the global average
(21 and 60% of the world electricity output per capita, respectively). Rural
electrification remains challenging for both regions, and those nations that rely
heavily on biomass typically lack a modern energy infrastructure of any type,
hence access to electricity is very limited.
• Electric grid reliability remains problematic in many nations where proper
maintenance is limited, power theft is prevalent and power outages frequent,
limiting the availability of power in many countries with the concomitant impact
on local economies. In many countries the traditional grid extension model
requires a multidimensional approach covering regulation, finance, economic
development and social dimensions to analyze the business case of each elec-
trification project.
• De-centralized and off-grid electricity supply is related to scale and to vari-
ations in daily power demand (e.g., lighting load 3–4 h after sunset). The base
load for many nations with decentralized generation approaches zero, further
reducing the financial viability of the system until the local economy develops to
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“Fear not a constraining measure!
—Yielding to the gentle spell,
Lucida! from domes of pleasure,
Or from cottage-sprinkled dell,
Comes to regions solitary,
Where the eagle builds her aery,
Above the hermit’s long-forsaken cell!
—She comes!—behold
That figure, like a ship with silver sail!
Nearer she draws; a breeze uplifts her veil;
Upon her coming wait
As pure a sunshine, and as soft a gale,
As e’er, on herbage-covering earthly mold,
Tempted the bird of Juno to unfold
His richest splendour,—when his veering gait,
And every motion of his starry train,
Seem governed by a strain
Of music, audible to him alone.”
And then we have a picture of the lady:—

“worthy of earth’s proudest throne!
Nor less, by excellence of nature, fit
Beside an unambitious hearth to sit
Domestic queen, where grandeur is unknown;
What living man could fear
The worst of fortune’s malice, wer’t thou near,
Humbling that lily stem, thy sceptre meek,
That its fair flowers may brush from off his cheek
The too, too, happy tear?
—Queen, and handmaid lowly!
Whose skill can speed the day with lively cares,
And banish melancholy
By all that mind invents, or hand prepares;
O thou, against whose lip, without its smile
And in its silence even, no heart is proof;
Whose goodness, sinking deep, would reconcile
The softest nursling of a gorgeous palace,
To the bare life beneath the hawthorn roof
Of Sherwood’s archer, or in caves of Wallace—
Who that hath seen thy beauty could content
His soul with but a glimpse of heavenly day?
Who that hath loved thee, but would lay
His strong hand on the wind, if it were bent
To take thee in thy majesty away?
Pass onward (even the glancing deer
Till we depart intrude not here;)
That mossy slope, o’er which the woodbine throws
A canopy, is smooth’d for thy repose!”
The next lady that he invokes before the astonished youth is his own
daughter—sweet Dora—the previous one was Miss Southey.
“Come, if the notes thine ear may pierce,
Come, youngest of the lovely three,
Submissive to the mighty verse
And the dear voice of harmony,
By none more deeply felt than thee!
I sang; and lo! from pastures virginal
She hastens to the haunts
Of Nature, and the lonely elements.
Air sparkles round her with a dazzling sheen;
And mark, her glowing cheek, her vesture green!
And, as if wishful to disarm
Or to repay the potent charm,
She bears the stringed lute of old romance,
That cheered the trellissed arbour’s privacy,
And soothed war-wearied knights in raftered hall.
How vivid, yet how delicate, her glee!
So tripped the muse, inventress of the dance;
So, truant in waste woods, the blithe Euphrosyne!”
But the ringlets of that head,

Why are they ungarlanded?
Why bedeck her temples less
Than the simplest shepherdess?
Is it not a brow inviting
Choicest flowers that ever breathed,
Which the myrtle would delight in,
With Idalian rose enwreathed?
But her humility is well content
With one wild floweret (call it not forlorn),—
Flower of the Winds—beneath her bosom worn—
Yet more for love than ornament.”
Then follows that beautiful description of her moral graces, already quoted
in these pages, beginning—
“Open ye thickets! let her fly,

Swift as a Thracian nymph, o’er field and height;”
the whole picture being as fine a conception, and as rich an embodyment, of

this sweet Dora,—judging from her portrait in the second volume of the
“Memoirs,” and from numerous written and spoken reports of her person
and character,—as the highest genius and the highest art combined, could
possibly have produced. And now for Miss Coleridge:—
“Last of the three, tho’ eldest born,

Reveal thyself, like pensive morn
Touched by the skylark’s earliest note,
E’er humble-gladness be afloat.
But whether in the semblance drest
Of dawn, or eve, fair vision of the west,
Come, with each anxious hope subdued
By woman’s gentle fortitude,
Each grief, thro’ meekness, settling into rest.
—Or I would hail thee when some high-wrought page
Of a closed volume, lingering in thine hand,
Has raised thy spirit to a peaceful stand
Among the glories of a happy age.”
And, behold! she is here:—

“Her brow hath opened on me—see it there,
Brightening the umbrage of her hair;
So gleams the crescent moon, that loves
To be descried thro’ shady groves.
Tenderest bloom is on her cheek;
Wish not for a richer streak;
Nor dread the depth of meditative eye;
But let thy love, upon that azure field
Of thoughtfulness and beauty, yield
Its homage offered up in purity.
What would’st thou more? In sunny glade,
Or under leaves of thickest shade,
Was such a stillness e’er diffused
Since earth grew calm while angels mused?
Softly she treads, as if her foot were loth
To crush the mountain dew-drop—soon to melt,
On the flower’s breast; as if she felt
That flowers themselves, whate’er their hue,
With all their fragrance, all their glistening,
Call to the heart for inward listening—
And tho’ for bridal wreaths and tokens true
Welcomed wisely; tho’ a growth
Which the careless shepherd sleeps on,
As fitly spring from turf the mourner weeps on—
And without wrong are cropped the marble tomb to strew.
And now the charm is over;
——“the mute phantom’s gone,

Nor will return—but droop not, favoured youth,
The apparition that before thee shone
Obeyed a summons covetous of truth.
From these wild rocks thy footsteps I will guide
To bowers in which thy fortunes may be tried,
And one of the bright three become thy happy bride.”
A fairer subject than this, for the imagination of the true painter, does
scarcely exist in poetry. The gorgeous magnificence of Miss Southey—the
wild, bird-like nature of Dora, the mystic, spiritual, meditative beauty of
Miss Coleridge. Here is material enough for the highest effort of art.
A number of poems followed this exquisite “Triad”—viz., “The Wishing
Gate,” in 1828—“The Lawn,” “Presentiments,” “The Primrose on the
Rock,” “Devotional Incitements;” these last were written between 1828 and
’32. A number of gold and silver fishes presented to the poet by Miss H. J.
Jewsbury, who subsequently died of the cholera in India,—and afterwards
removed to the pond already alluded to, under the oak in “Dora’s field,”
suggested the verses “Gold and Silver Fishes in a Vase,” and likewise
“Liberty,” and “Humanity;” “The Poet and the caged Turtle Dove” was
likewise suggested by real circumstances. Miss Jewsbury had given Dora a
pair of these beautiful birds; one of them was killed by an un-necessary cat,
and not a “harmless one;” the other survived many years, and had a habit of
cooing the moment Wordsworth began “booing” his poems, as the country
people called it.
Wordsworth gives an amusing account of a visit which he paid about this
time to “Chatsworth.” He had undertaken to ride his daughter’s pony from
Westmoreland to Cambridge, that she might have the use of it during a visit
she was about to make to her uncle at Trinity; and on his way from
Bakewell to Matlock, he turned off to see the splendid mansion of the great
Duke of Devonshire. By-and-bye a tremendous storm came on, and the poet
was drenched through to the very skin, whilst the pony, to make his rider’s
seat the more easy, went “slantwise” all the way to Derby. Notwithstanding
this, however, and the pelting of the pitiless storm, Wordsworth managed to
hold sweet and sad converse with his muse, and composed his “Lines to the
Memory of Sir George Beaumont,” who died 7th February, 1827. It is a
picture which we cannot readily forget, and shows how completely the poet
was master of himself. Sir George Beaumont and his lady were friends and
benefactors of Wordsworth—he loved them both intensely. Walking
through the grounds and gardens of Coleorton with Sir George—the
successor in the Baronetcy to his friend—and after the death of Lady
Beaumont, which took place in 1822, he comes suddenly to her ladyship’s
grotto, near the fountain, and is overwhelmed with his feelings, and the
recollection of the dead, and the happy memories which rush over his mind
in connection with this place, so that he cannot speak for tears. On his
return home he wrote the elegiac musings, already mentioned in these
memoirs, which are full of love, and the sanctity of a sweet sorrow. In the
same year (1831) were composed “The Armenian Lady’s Love,” “The
Egyptian Maid,” and “The Russian Fugitive,” poems in which all the
beauties of language are pressed, along with the simplicity which marks the
old English ballads. Lines on his portrait, painted by Pickersgill, and
preserved with sacred veneration in St. John’s College, Cambridge, were
likewise written in this year, as well as the inscription already quoted, for
the stone at Rydal.
Besides these poetical compositions, however, Wordsworth interested
himself in public affairs; and having fixed principles of political and social
economy in his own mind, regarded all public measures at variance with
them, as fatal errors, and subversive in their consequences of the highest
human concerns. In 1806, he wrote a letter to a friend, who had consulted
him respecting the education of his daughter—in which he gives some
sound and excellent advice respecting the training and development of
youthful minds. For Wordsworth had at an early period devoted his
attention to the subject of education, and had his own views respecting it—
views which were marked by the spiritual peculiarity of his mind. When he
wrote “The Excursion,” he seems to have had the highest hopes for man,
when education should become universal; and insisted that the State should
teach those to obey, from whom she exacted allegiance:—
“O for the coming of that glorious time,

When, prizing knowledge, as her noblest work
And best protection, this imperial realm
While she exacts allegiance, shall admit
An obligation on her part to teach
Them who are born to serve her and obey;
Binding herself, by statute, to secure
For all the children whom her soil maintains
The rudiments of letters, and inform
The mind with moral and religious truth,
Both understood, and practised.”
Excursion, Book ix.
He was an avowed enemy, however, at a later period—for his views

respecting the modus operandi of teaching, had undergone some change
since “The Excursion” was written—to all Infant Schools, Madras Systems,
and Bell Systems. The former he regarded as usurping the functions of
motherly duty; the latter, as dead mechanism. Speaking of the education of
girls, he says:—“I will back Shenstone’s ‘School Mistress,’ by her winter
fire, and in her summer garden seat, against all Dr. Bell’s sour-looking
teachers in petticoats. What is the use of pushing on the education of girls
so fast, and moving by the stimulus of Emulation, who, to say nothing
worse of her, is cousin-german to Envy? What are you to do with these
girls? What demand is there for the ability that they may have prematurely
acquired? Will they not be indisposed to bend to any kind of hard labour or
drudgery? And yet many of them must submit to it, or go wrong. The
mechanism of the Bell System is not required in small places; praying after
the fugleman, is not like praying at a mother’s knee. The Bellites overlook
the difference: they talk about moral discipline; but wherein does it
encourage the imaginative feelings? in short, what she practically
understands is of little amount, and too apt to become the slave of the bad
passions. I dislike display in everything; above all, in education.... The old
dame (Shenstone’s) did not affect to make theologians and logicians; but
she taught to read; and she practised the memory, often no doubt by rote,
but still the faculty was improved; something, perhaps, she explained, but
trusted the rest to parents and masters, and to the pastor of the parish. I am
sure as good daughters, as good servants, as good mothers and wives, were
brought up at that time as now, when the world is so much less humble-
minded. A hand full of employment, and a head not above it, with such
principles and habits as may be acquired without the Madras machine, are
the best security for the chastity of wives of the lower rank.”
The above extract is from a letter dated 1828, and addressed to the Rev.
Hugh Jones Rose, formerly principal of King’s College, London. It
exemplifies, in a very striking manner, the change which had come over
Wordsworth’s mind upon the subject of education, and does not strike me as
being particularly creditable to him.
On the 13th of April, 1836, Wordsworth took part in the ceremony of
laying the foundation-stone of certain new schools, about to be erected at
Bowness, Windermere, and made a speech upon the occasion; in which he
advocates a very humble kind of instruction for the working classes;
forgetting that man is to be educated because he is a man, and not neglected
because he happens to be one of the “lower orders.” I have no sympathy
with this foolish cant about educating people according to their station, and
am sorry that Wordsworth’s sanction can be quoted in its favour. I must
reserve what I have to say upon this subject, however, for my analysis of
the mind and writings of the poet.
In 1835, Wordsworth published his “Yarrow Revisited, and other
Poems.” Speaking of “Yarrow Re-visited,” he says: “In the autumn of 1831,
my daughter and I set off from Rydal, to visit Sir Walter Scott, before his
departure for Italy. This journey had been delayed by an inflammation in
my eyes, till we found that the time appointed for his leaving home would
be too near for him to receive us without considerable inconvenience.
Nevertheless we proceeded, and reached Abbotsford on Monday. I was then
scarcely able to lift up my eyes to the light. How sadly changed did I find
him from the man I had seen so healthy, gay, and hopeful, a few years
before, when he said, at the inn at Patterdale, in my presence, his daughter,
Ann, also being there, with Mr. Lockhart, my own wife and daughter, and
Mr. Quillinan: ‘I mean to live till I am eighty, and shall write as long as I
live.’ Though we had none of us the least thought of the cloud of misfortune
which was then going to break upon his head, I was startled, and almost
shocked, at that bold saying, which could scarcely be uttered by such a
man, without a momentary forgetfulness of the instability of human life.
But to return to Abbotsford. The inmates and guests we found there, were
Sir Walter, Major Scott, Anne Scott, and Mr. and Mrs. Lockhart; Mr.
Laidlaw, a very old friend of Sir Walter’s; one of Burns’s sons, an officer of
the Indian service, had left the house the day before, and had kindly
expressed his regret that he could not wait my arrival, a regret that I may
truly say was mutual. In the evening, Mr. and Mrs. Liddell sang, and Mrs.
Lockhart chaunted old ballads to her harp; and Mr. Allan, hanging over the
back of a chair, told, and acted, odd stories in a humourous way. With this
exhibition, and his daughters’ singing, Sir Walter was much amused, and,
indeed, so were we all, as far as circumstances would allow.”
On the following morning (Tuesday) Sir Walter accompanied
Wordsworth, and most of his friends, to Newark Castle, on the Yarrow, and
it was upon this occasion that the lines, “Yarrow Revisited,” were written.
On the morning of Thursday following, when the poet left Abbotsford, he
had a serious conversation with Sir Walter, who spoke with gratitude of the
happy life he had led. Sir Walter wrote also a few lines in Dora’s album,
addressed to her; and when he presented her with the book, in his study, he
said: “I should not have done a thing of this kind, but for your father’s sake;
they are probably the last verses I shall ever write.” “They shew,” says,
Wordsworth, “how much his mind was impaired; not by the strain of
thought, but by the execution—some of the lines being imperfect, and one
stanza wanting corresponding rhymes.” Poor Sir Walter!—what a spectacle
it was to see that colossal intellect tumbling into ruins.
Several poems were the result of this short tour, beside the “Yarrow
Revisited,”—such as “The Place of Burial,” “On the Sight of a Manse in the
South of Scotland,” &c., &c.—Wordsworth’s health, too, was much
improved by this tour, and a violent inflammation of the eyes—a complaint
to which he was much subject,—left him whilst walking through the
Highlands, by the side of his “open carriage,” driven by Dora!
Amongst the poems contained in the volume entitled, “Yarrow
Revisited,” were many of a political character, for they were written
between the years 1830 and 1834, when the Revolution of France, and the
Reform party in England, were agitating society to its centre. Wordsworth
now hated revolution, and reform also; was opposed to a large and
enlightened system of education; and to the admission of Dissenters to the
Universities. His plea was the old constitution of things, which could not,
he thought, be mended without being broken up and destroyed. “Since the
introduction of the Reform Bill, I have been persuaded,” he says, “that the
Constitution of England cannot be preserved. It is a question, however, of
time.” The poem entitled, “The Warning,” will give the best idea of
Wordsworth’s strong political opinions and feelings at this time. As a
contrast, however, to these narrow yet patriotic views, we turn to the
“Evening Voluntaries,” a collection of sweet poems, which were published
in the same volume as the “Yarrow.” They were written on a high part of
the coast of Cumberland, on April 7th (Easter Sunday), the author’s 63rd
birth-day, between Moresby and Whitehaven, whilst he was on a visit to his
son, who was then rector of Moresby.—Very beautiful, indeed, are these
poems, which read like twilight vespers in some old abbey’s chancel.
Wordsworth says of them—“With the exception of the eighth and ninth, this
succession of voluntaries originated in the concluding lines of the last
paragraph of this poem, [i.e. of the poem, written on the author’s birth-day,
and marked No. 2, in the “Voluntaries,” commencing, “The sun that seemed
so mildly to retire.”] With this coast I have been familiar from my earliest
childhood, and remember being struck, for the first time, by the town and
port of Whitehaven, and the white waves breaking against its quays and
piers, as the whole came into my view from the top of the high ground,
down which the road, that has since been altered, descended abruptly. My
sister, when she first heard the voice of the sea from this point, and beheld
the scene spread before her, burst into tears. Our family then lived at
Cockermouth, and this fact was often mentioned amongst us, indicating the
sensibility for which she was remarkable.”
As a specimen of the “Evening Voluntaries,” take the following:—
“Calm is the air, and loth to lose

Day’s grateful warmth, tho’ moist with falling dews.
Look for the stars, you’ll say that there are none;
Look up a second time, and one by one,
You mark them twinkling out with silvery light,
And wonder how they could elude the sight!
The birds, of late so noisy in their bowers,
Warbled awhile with faint and fainter powers,
But now are silent as the dim-seen flowers.
Nor does the village church clock’s iron tone
The time’s and season’s influence disown;
Nine beats distinctly to each other bound
In drowsy sequence—how unlike the sound
That in rough winter, oft inflicts a fear
On fireside listeners, doubting what they hear!
The shepherd, bent on rising with the sun,
Had closed his door before the day was done,
And now with thankful heart to bed doth creep,
And joins the little children in their sleep.
The bat, lured forth where trees the lane o’ershade,
Flits and reflits along the dark arcade;
The busy dor-hawk chases the white moth
With burring note, which industry and sloth
Might both be pleased with, for it suits them both.
A stream is heard—I see it not but know
By its soft music where the waters flow:
Wheels and the tread of hoofs are heard no more;
One boat there was, but it will touch the shore
With the next dipping of its slackened oar;
Faint sound that for the gayest of the gay,
Might give to serious thought a moment’s sway,
As a last token of man’s toilsome day.”
Wordsworth does not seem, during any period of his life, to have been on
intimate terms with any of his contemporaries. He preferred the flower of
the literateurs, Coleridge, Scott, Southey; and these, with the exception
perhaps of Rogers, were his chief friends. We have letters of his, however,
to much smaller fry; to Mrs. Hemans, and Miss Jewsbury, for example—
and to sundry editors of other men’s wares; but there is little or no
recognition of Byron, Shelly, Keats, Tennyson, Baily, Campbell, Moore, nor
yet of Dickens or Bulwer. His letters represent his character even better than
his poetry; they are Wordsworth in undress, without the “garland and
singing robe,” and are worthy to be studied. I like much what he says to the
Rev. Robert Montgomery, author of “The Devil and Father Luther,” and
pious Robert would do well even at this late day to think on it. Montgomery
had sent Wordsworth a copy of his poems, and in reply, the poet answers: “I
cannot conclude without one word of literary advice which I hope you will
deem my advanced age entitles me to give. Do not, my dear sir, be anxious
about any individual’s opinion concerning your writings, however highly
you may think of his genius, or rate his judgment. Be a severe critic to
yourself; and depend upon it no person’s decision upon the merit of your
works will bear comparison in point of value with your own. You must be
conscious from what feeling they have flowed, and how far they may or
may not be allowed to claim on that account, permanent respect; and above
all I would remind you, with a view to tranquillise and steady your mind,
that no man takes the trouble of surveying and pondering another’s writings
with a hundredth part of the care which an author of sense and genius will
have bestowed upon his own. Add to this reflection another, which I press
upon you, as it has supported me through life—viz.: That posterity will
settle all accounts justly, and that works which deserve to last will last; and
if undeserving this fate, the sooner they perish the better.”
In the year 1836 the sister of the poet’s wife—Miss Sarah Hutchinson,
who had resided with the family at Rydal, died, and was buried in Grasmere
church, “near the graves of two young children removed from a family to
which through life she was devoted.”
In the following year, 1837, Wordsworth, accompanied by his friend H.
C. Robinson, Esq., set off from London for Rome, returning in August. The
“Itinerary” of the travellers is contained in the “Memoirs,” along with some
memoranda by the poet; but they are not of much interest. Many fine
pieces, however, sprung as usual from the journey, as well as a goodly
number of sonnets. They originally appeared in a volume entitled “Poems,
chiefly of Early and Late Years,” in 1842. In 1839, Wordsworth received
the degree of D.C.L., from the University of Oxford, which was conferred
on him in the Sheldonian Theatre, amidst shouts of rejoicing such as had
never before been heard in that city, except upon the occasion of an
unexpected visit of the Duke of Wellington. In 1838, Wordsworth prepared
a new edition of his poems, to be published by Moxon, and continued to
live at Rydal, in his quiet and musical manner, writing poems, taking
rambles, and conducting his correspondence until 1843, when he was
appointed Poet Laureate of England, Southey having died on the 21st of
March of that year, and the appointment having been offered to Wordsworth
on the 31st of the same month. One occurrence only broke the even tenor of
the poet’s life in the interim alluded to, and this was an accident by which
he was upset from his gig, and thrown violently into a plantation. The
accident was owing to the carelessness and want of skill in the driver of a
coach, which they met on the road. No serious consequences followed,
however, and inquiries and congratulations flowed in on all sides, from the
peasant up to Queen Adelaide.
From the time of Wordsworth’s appointment as Laureate,—which it
ought to be said he at first refused, and only accepted with the
understanding that it should be an honorary office,—he wrote very little
poetry. His work, indeed, was done, his mission accomplished; and his old
days were spent in rambling over the hills, and in the quiet enjoyment of his
family, friends, fame, and fortune. Honours of a high order were
subsequently heaped upon him. In the year 1838, the University of Durham
took the initiative in conferring an academic degree on the poet; then the
grand old Mother, Oxford, followed,—and in 1846 he was put in
nomination, without his knowledge, for the office of Lord Rector of the
University of Oxford, and gained a majority of twenty-one votes, in
opposition to the premier, Lord John Russell. “The forms of election,
however,” says Wordsworth, in a letter to Sir W. Gomm, of Port Louis,
Mauritius, dated November 23, 1846, “allowed Lord John Russell to be
returned through the single vote of the sub-rector voting for his superior. To
say the truth, I am glad of this result, being too advanced in life to
undertake with comfort any considerable public duty, and it might have
seemed ungracious to have declined the office.”
On the 20th of January, 1847, Mr. William Wordsworth, the younger son
of the poet, was married at Brighton, to Fanny Eliza Graham, youngest
daughter of Reginald Graham, Esq., of Brighton, who was a native of
Cumberland; and whilst the joy of this event was still fresh in the hearts of
the Rydal household, a dread calamity awaited them in the death of Mrs.
Quillinan—the sweet Dora so often spoken of in these pages, the beloved
daughter of the poet. As previously stated, she had accompanied her
husband to Portugal for the benefit of her health,—and although the change
seemed at first to have operated favourably upon her, it was soon evident,
on her return home, that she was doomed for the silent bourne of all
travellers in this world. She died on the 9th day of July, 1847, and was
buried in Grasmere church-yard. Her death was a terrible blow to the
venerable poet, now in his eightieth year,—but he bore up patiently, with
the heart and hope of a Christian.
Three years after this sad loss, Wordsworth himself was summoned
away. On Sunday, the 10th of March, 1850, he attended at Rydal chapel for
the last time, visiting, during the day, a poor old woman, who had once
been his servant, and another person who was sick, and as the poet said,
“never complained.”
“On the afternoon of the following day, he went towards Grasmere, to
meet his two nieces, who were coming from Town End. He called at the
cottage near the White Moss Quarry, and the occupant being within, he sat
down on the stone seat of the porch, to watch the setting sun. It was a cold,
bright day. His friend and neighbour, Mr. Roughsedge, came to drink tea at
Rydal, but Mr. Wordsworth not being well, went early to bed.”
From this time he gradually grew worse; and in order to convey to him
the impressions of his physicians, Mrs. Wordsworth whispered in a soft
voice, full of deep devotion, “Dear William, you are going to Dora.” How
delicate, how affectionate, how poetical! But the poet did not hear, or did
not seem to hear; and yet, twenty-four hours after, when one of his nieces
came into the room, and gently drew aside the curtains of his bed, he caught
a glimpse of her figure, and asked, “Is that Dora?”
On the 23rd of April—the birth-day, and death-day of Shakspeare, the
great-hearted Wordsworth went back again to God.
He was buried on the 27th, in Grasmere church-yard.
Those who would know more of the poet must go to his writings; and, I
may add, that the “Memoirs” of Dr. Wordsworth are indispensable to a full
understanding both of the Poet and the Man. His letters, containing his most
private thoughts, are printed there with plentiful profuseness; and the
“Memoranda” respecting the origin of his poems are intensely interesting
and important to all students of Wordsworth. The reminiscences of various
persons who knew him, set the character of the poet before us in strong
relief. All agree in speaking of him as a most kindly, affectionate, and
hospitable man, living with the simple tastes and manners of a patriarch, in
his beautiful home. My limits prevent me from entering into an analysis of
his mind and character, as I had intended to do; I must reserve this work,
therefore, for another occasion, and will conclude with a few quotations
from the poet’s “Table-Talk,” respecting his cotemporaries.—Speaking of
Goethe, he says:—
“He does not seem to me to be a great poet in either of the classes of
poets. At the head of the first I would place Homer and Shakspeare, whose
universal minds are able to reach every variety of thought and feeling,
without bringing his own individuality before the reader. They infuse, they
breathe life into every object they approach, but you cannot find themselves.
At the head of the second class, those whom you can trace individually in
all they write, I would place Spenser and Milton. In all that Spenser writes,
you can trace the gentle, affectionate spirit of the man; in all that Milton
writes, you find the exalted, sustained being that he was. Now, in what
Goethe writes, who aims to be of the first class, the universal, you find the
man himself, the artificial man, where he should not be found; so that I
consider him a very artificial writer, aiming to be universal, and yet
constantly exposing his individuality, which his character was not of a kind
to dignify. He had not sufficiently clear moral perceptions to make him
anything but an artificial writer.
And again:—
“I have tried to read Goethe. I never could succeed. Mr.—— refers me to
his ‘Iphigenia,’ but I there recognise none of the dignified simplicity, none
of the health and vigour which the heroes and heroines of antiquity possess
in the writings of Homer. The lines of Lucretius describing the immolation
of Iphigenia are worth the whole of Goethe’s long poem. Again there is a
profligacy, an inhuman sensuality, in his works, which is utterly revolting. I
am not intimately acquainted with them generally. But I take up my ground
on the first canto of ‘Wilhelm Meister;’ and as the attorney-general of
human nature, I there indict him for wantonly outraging the sympathies of
humanity. Theologians tell us of the degraded nature of man; and they tell
us what is true. Yet man is essentially a moral agent, and there is that
immortal and unextinguishable yearning for something pure and spiritual
which will plead against these poetical sensualists as long as man remains
what he is.”
Of Scott he says:—
“As a poet, Scott cannot live, for he has never in verse written anything
addressed to the immortal part of man. In making amusing stories in verse,
he will be superseded by some newer versifier; what he writes in the way of
natural description is merely rhyming nonsense. As a prose writer, Mr.
Wordsworth admitted that Scott had touched a higher vein, because there he
had really dealt with feeling and passion. As historical novels, professing to
give the manners of a past time, he did not attach much value to those
works of Scott’s, so called, because that he held to be an attempt in which
success was impossibility. This led to some remarks on historical writing,
from which it appeared that Mr. Wordsworth has small value for anything
but contemporary history. He laments that Dr. Arnold should have spent so
much of his time and powers in gathering up, and putting into imaginary
shape, the scattered fragments of the history of Rome.”
And again:—
“He discoursed at great length on Scott’s works. His poetry he
considered of that kind which will always be in demand, and that the supply
will always meet it, suited to the age. He does not consider that it in any
way goes below the surface of things; it does not reach to any intellectual or
spiritual emotion; it is altogether superficial, and he felt it himself to be so.
His descriptions are not true to nature; they are addressed to the ear, not to
the mind. He was a master of bodily movements in his battle-scenes; but
very little productive power was exerted in popular creations.”
Moore:—
“T. Moore has great natural genius; but he is too lavish of brilliant
ornament. His poems smell of the perfumer’s and milliner’s shops. He is
not content with a ring and a bracelet, but he must have rings in the ear,
rings on the nose—rings everywhere.”
Shelley:—
“Shelley is one of the best artists of us all: I mean in workmanship of
style.”
Tennyson:—
“I saw Tennyson, when I was in London, several times. He is decidedly
the first of our living poets, and I hope will live to give the world still better
things. You will be pleased to hear that he expressed in the strongest terms
his gratitude to my writings. To this I was far from indifferent, though
persuaded that he is not much in sympathy with what I should myself most
value in my attempts—viz., the spirituality with which I have endeavoured
to invest the material universe, and the moral relations under which I have
wished to exhibit its most ordinary appearances.”
Hartley Coleridge—
He spoke of with affection. “There is a single line,” he added, “in one of
his father’s poems, which I consider explains the after life of the son. He is
speaking of his own confinement in London, and then says,—
‘But thou, my child, shalt wander like a breeze.’
“He thought highly also of some of Hartley’s sonnets.

Southey—
He said had outlived his faculties. His mind he thought had been
wrecked by long watching by the sick bed of his wife, who had lingered for
years in a very distressing state.
Coleridge—
He said the liveliest and truest image he could give of Coleridge’s talk
was that of “a mystic river, the sound or sight of whose course you caught
at intervals, which was sometimes concealed by forests, sometimes lost in
sand, and then came flashing out broad and distinct; then again took a turn
which your eye could not follow, yet you knew and felt that it was the same
river....[M] Coleridge had been spoilt as a poet by going to Germany. The
bent of his mind, at all times very much inclined to metaphysical theology,
had there been fixed in that direction.”
Lord Byron—
“Has spoken severely of my compositions. However faulty they may be,
I do not think I ever could have prevailed with myself to print such lines as
he has done, for instance—
‘I stood at Venice on the Bridge of Sighs,

A palace and a prison on each hand.’
“Some person ought to write a critical review analising Lord Byron’s
language, in order to guard others against imitating him in these respects.”
Emerson and Carlyle—
“Do you know Miss Peabody of Boston? She has just sent me, with the
highest eulogy, certain essays of Mr. Emerson. Our—— and he appear to be
what the French called esprits forts, though the French idols showed their
spirit after a somewhat different fashion. Our two present Philosophes, who
have taken a language which they suppose to be English, for their vehicle,
are, verily, par nobile fratrum, and it is a pity that the weakness of our age
has not left them exclusively to this appropriate reward—mutual
admiration. Where is the thing which now passes for philosophy at Boston
to stop?”
Such are a few random selections from the spoken opinions of the poet.
He hated innovation, hence his attack upon the two last named authors, not
made, I think, in the very best spirit. I must here leave him, however. He
will stand well upon his honours in all future generations, and must
certainly be ranked as a poet in the same category with Milton.
FINIS.
——————
J. S. Pratt, Stokesley, Yorkshire.
FOOTNOTES:
[A] These remarks do not of course apply to Cowper and Burns, to whom our
modern literature is so deeply indebted, but to their predecessors, from Pope
downwards.
[B] Memoirs of William Wordsworth, by Dr. Wordsworth, vol. 1, page 7.
[C] De Quincy, Tait’s Magazine, for 1839.
[D] It is related by De Quincy, that during Wordsworth’s early residence in the
lake country—after his return from Cambridge—his mind was so oppressed by the
gloomy aspect of his fortunes, that evening card-playing was resorted to, to divert
him from actual despondency.
[E] Dr. Wordsworth’s Memoir, page 53.
[F] Memoir, page 71-2.
[G] Chambers’ Papers for the People, article Wordsworth.
[H] Vol. 1, page 149 to 154.
[I] Memoirs, Vol. 1., page 156
[J] Dr. Wordsworth’s “Memoirs,” vol. 2, p. 94.
[K] “Memoirs,” vol. 2, p. 102-105.
[L] Memoirs, vol. ii., p. 121.
[M] This view of Coleridge is confirmed by Carlyle, in his “Life of John Sterling,”
just published.
“Coleridge sat on the brow of Highgate-hill, in those years, looking down on
London and its smoke tumult, like a sage escaped from the inanity of life’s battle;
attracting towards him the thoughts of innumerable brave souls still engaged there.
His express contributions to poetry, philosophy, or any specific province of human
literature or enlightenment, had been small and sadly intermittent; but he had,
especially among young inquiring men, a higher than literary,—a kind of prophetic,
or magician character. He was thought to hold,—he alone in England,—the key of
German and other transcendentalisms; knew the sublime secret of believing by ‘the
reason’ what ‘the understanding’ had been obliged to fling out as incredible; and
could still, after Hume and Voltaire had done their best and worst with him, profess
himself an orthodox Christian, and say and point to the Church of England, with its
singular old rubrics and surplices at Allhallowtide, Esto perpetua. * * * * He
distinguished himself to all that ever heard him as at least the most surprising talker
extant in this world,—and to some small minority, (by no means to all,) the most
excellent. The good man, he was now getting old, towards sixty perhaps,—and gave
you the idea of a life that had been full of sufferings; a life heavy-laden, half-
vanquished, still swimming painfully in seas of manifold physical and other
bewilderment. * * * * * I still recollect his ‘object’ and ‘subject,’ terms of continual
recurrence in the Kantean province; and how he sung and snuffled them into ‘om-m-
mject’ ‘sum-m-mject,’ with a kind of solemn shake or quaver, as he rolled along. No
talk, in his century or in any other, could be more surprising.
* * * * *
“He had knowledge about many things and topics,—much curious reading; but
generally all topics led him, after a pass or two, into the high seas of theosophic
philosophy, the hazy infinitude of Kantean transcendentalism, with its ‘sum-m-
mjects’ and ‘om m-mjects.’ Sad enough, for with such indolent impatience of the
claims and ignorances of others, he had not the least talent for explaining this or
anything unknown to them; and you swam and fluttered in the mistiest, wide,
unintelligible deluge of things,—for most part in a rather profitless, uncomfortable
manner. Glorious islets, too, I have seen rise out of the haze; but they were few, and
soon swallowed in the general element again. * * * * * * One right peal of concrete
laughter at some convicted flesh-and-blood absurdity, one burst of noble indignation
at some injustice or depravity rubbing elbows with us on this solid earth,—how
strange would it have been in that Kantean haze-world, and how infinitely cheering
amid its vacant air-castles, and dim-melting ghosts and shadows! None such ever
came. His life had been an abstract thinking and dreaming, idealistic one, passed
amid the ghosts of defunct bodies and of unborn ones. The mourning sing-song of
that theosophico-metaphysical monotony left on you, at last, a very dreary feeling.”

Low Carbon Energy in Africa and Latin America Renewable Technologies Natural Gas and Nuclear Energy 1st Edition Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus

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Low Carbon Energy in Africa and Latin America Renewable Technologies Natural Gas and Nuclear Energy 1st Edition Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus

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Low Carbon Energy in Africa and Latin

America Renewable Technologies

Advances in Carbon Management Technologies-Carbon

Low Carbon Energy Supply Technologies and Systems 1st

Chemical energy from natural and synthetic gas 1st

Multiphase Reactor Engineering for Clean and Low Carbon

Renewable energy technologies for water desalination

Hydroelectric energy: renewable energy and the

Energy Technology 2016 Carbon Dioxide Management and

Carbon Nanomaterials for Electrochemical Energy

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8874

ISSN 2195-1284 ISSN 2195-1292 (electronic)

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

enrichment of future edition content will be mentioned in the acknowledgements

Algeria, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Cameroon, Congo, Democratic Republic of

Latin American Countries

Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican

La Laguna, Spain Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus

3.5 Energy Security and Trading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

6 Photovoltaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 149

8.2.4 Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

11 Biofuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... 279

13.3 Regional and National Perspectives on Technology . . . . . . . . . . 337

SAPP South African Power Pool

SLE Sierra Leone

Case Example 4.1. Mobile Phone Call Data as a electricity proxy

Case Example 5.6. Rwanda’s policies for reducing the impact

Case Example 8.6. Potential use of water spilled for producing

Case Example 11.6. Impact of biofuel projects in food security

Ricardo Guerrero-Lemus and Les E. Shephard

commitments to cut global emissions by 2030 and a growing recognition by some

• Energy infrastructure has a signiﬁcant impact on energy consumption in both

Signiﬁcant efforts in both regions are directed at improving the connectivity

And then we have a picture of the lady:—

But the ringlets of that head,

“Open ye thickets! let her fly,

the whole picture being as fine a conception, and as rich an embodyment, of

“Last of the three, tho’ eldest born,

And, behold! she is here:—

And now the charm is over;

——“the mute phantom’s gone,

“O for the coming of that glorious time,

He was an avowed enemy, however, at a later period—for his views

“Calm is the air, and loth to lose

‘But thou, my child, shalt wander like a breeze.’

“He thought highly also of some of Hartley’s sonnets.

‘I stood at Venice on the Bridge of Sighs,

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