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Atlas of Small Animal
Diagnostic Imaging
 Atlas of Small Animal
Diagnostic Imaging
CLIFFORD R. BERRY, DVM,
DACVR (DI)
Clinical Assistant Professor, Diagnostic Imaging
Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC, USA
Courtesy Professor of Diagnostic Imaging
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL, USA
Edited by
NATHAN C. NELSON, DVM, MS,
DACVR (DI AND EDI)
Clinical Professor, Diagnostic Imaging
Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC, USA
MATTHEW D. WINTER, DVM,
DACVR (DI)
Veterinary Consultants in Telemedicine
Cambridge, UK
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Florida
Gainesville, FL, USA
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-­in-­Publication Data

Names: Berry, Clifford R., editor. | Nelson, Nathan, 1972- editor. |
Winter, Matthew D. (Matthew Damian), editor.
Title: Atlas of small animal diagnostic imaging / edited by Clifford R.
Berry III, Nathan Nelson, Matthew D. Winter.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley, 2023. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022027172 (print) | LCCN 2022027173 (ebook) | ISBN
9781118964408 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118964422 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781118964415 (epub)
Subjects: MESH: Diagnostic Imaging–veterinary | Animal
Diseases–diagnostic imaging | Animals, Domestic | Diagnosis,
Differential | Atlas | Case Reports
Classification: LCC SF757.8 (print) | LCC SF757.8 (ebook) | NLM SF 757.8
| DDC 636.089/60754–dc23/eng/20230103
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022027172
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022027173

Cover Image: © Clifford R. Berry and Elodie Huguet

Cover Design by Wiley

Set in 9.5/12.5pt SourceSans Pro by Straive, Pondicherry, India

 In general, this textbook is dedicated to those radiologists who have gone before us and shown us the
“light” for the acquisition and interpretation of radiographs. They have shown us the “art and science”
of diagnostic imaging. Some of those would include Drs Norman Ackerman, Timothy O’Brien, David
Hager, Ronald Burk, and the many others who are memorialized on the veterinary radiology website
(https://acvr.org/in-memoriam/). We would be remiss not to also dedicate this text to the next generation
of veterinary radiologists and diagnostic imagers who can build on some of these foundations and
provide new materials and insights to the “art and science” of diagnostic imaging in veterinary
medicine. We trust that your futures in veterinary imaging are as fruitful and rewarding as the
careers that we have had so far in this field.
– Kip

This book is dedicated to my wife and love of my life, Brigitt, who has put up with this veterinary radiology
stuff all our adult lives. There will be a special place in heaven for her with her patience. To God be
the Glory (John 3:16)!
– Nate

To Laura, Claire, Paul, and Sylvia, my bright lights in a dark room.

– Matt

To my wife, Brandy. Without her love, support, and twinkling spirit, none of this would be possible.
To my children, Mia and Damian, who make me the proudest person on the planet.
To my entire family, who have supported me always.
To all veterinarians and veterinary paraprofessionals that give of themselves day
in and day out – you are Superheroes.
 Contents
CONTRIBUTORS IX
8 Imaging of Joint and Tendon Diseases 104
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS X
Nathan C. Nelson
PREFACE XI
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE XII
9 Fractures and Fracture Healing 131
Nathan C. Nelson
SECTION I INTRODUCTION AND PHYSICS
10 Aggressive Bone Disease 149
Erin Porter and Nathan C. Nelson
1 The Science, Art, and Philosophy of
Radiographic Interpretation 3
11 Imaging of the Head 166
Matthew D. Winter
Nathan C. Nelson

2 Physics of Diagnostic Imaging 10

12 Imaging of the Spine 213
Elizabeth Huyhn, Elodie E. Huguet,
Nathan C. Nelson
and Clifford R. Berry

SECTION III THORAX

3 Computed Tomography and Magnetic
Resonance Imaging 16
Elodie E. Huguet, Elizabeth Huyhn, 13 Anatomy, Variants, and Interpretation
and Clifford R. Berry Paradigm 255
Clifford R. Berry and Elizabeth Huyhn
4 Ultrasonography 27
Elizabeth Huyhn, Elodie E. Huguet, 14 Extrathoracic Structures 307
and Clifford R. Berry Clifford R. Berry and Federico R.
Vilaplana Grosso
5 Nuclear Scintigraphy 36
Elizabeth Huyhn, Elodie E. Huguet, 15 Pleural Space 329
and Clifford R. Berry Clifford R. Berry and Elodie E. Huguet

16 Pulmonary Parenchyma 346

SECTION II MUSCULOSKELETAL
Clifford R. Berry and Elodie E. Huguet

6 Anatomy, Variants, and Interpretation 17 Mediastinum 392

Paradigm 43 Silke Hecht
Nathan C. Nelson
18 Cardiovascular System 444
7 Developmental Orthopedic Disease 79 Elodie E. Huguet, Sandra Tou,
Elizabeth Huynh and Clifford R. Berry

vii
viii Contents

19 Feline Thorax 497 24 Spleen 634

Martha M. Larson and Clifford R. Berry Cintia R. Oliveira

25 Gastrointestinal Tract 667

SECTION IV ABDOMEN Seamus Hoey

20 Anatomy, Variants, and Interpretation 26 Pancreas 687

Paradigm 545 Cintia R. Oliveira and Nathan C. Nelson
Elodie E. Huguet, Clifford R. Berry,
and Robson Giglio 27 Urogenital Tract 720
Elizabeth Huynh
21 Extraabdominal Structures and
the Abdominal Body Wall 598 28 Adrenal Glands and Lymph Nodes 758
Matthew D. Winter Elizabeth Huynh

22 The Peritoneal and Retroperitoneal APPENDIX I MUSCULOSKELETAL REVIEW PARADIGM 790

Space 605 APPENDIX II THORACIC RADIOLOGY CHECKLIST 791
APPENDIX III ABDOMINAL RADIOLOGY CHECKLIST 795
Matthew D. Winter
INDEX 798
23 Hepatobiliary Imaging 616
Matthew D. Winter
 Contributors
C L I F F O R D R . B E R RY, D V M , D A C V R M A RT H A M . L A R S O N , D V M , M S , D A C V R
Clinical Assistant Professor, Diagnostic Imaging Professor of Radiology
Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine VA-­MD College of Veterinary Medicine
North Carolina State University Virginia Tech
Raleigh, NC, USA Blacksburg, VA, USA

R O BS O N G I G L I O , D V M , M S , P H D , D A C V R N AT H A N C . N E LS O N , D V M , M S , D A C V R ( D I , E D I )
Assistant Professor, Radiology Clinical Professor, Diagnostic Imaging
College of Veterinary Medicine Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences
University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine
Athens, GA, USA North Carolina State University
Raleigh, NC, USA
F E D E RI CO R . VI LAPLAN A GRO SSO , LV,
DE CV D I , DACV R CINTIA R. OLIVEIRA, DVM, DACVR
Clinical Associate Professor, Diagnostic Imaging VetsChoice Radiology
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences Madison, WI, USA
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Florida E R I N P O RT E R , D V M , D A C V R ( D I , E D I )
Gainesville, FL, USA Clinical Associate Professor, Diagnostic Imaging
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences
S I L K E H E C H T, D V M , M S , D E C V D I , D A C V R College of Veterinary Medicine
Professor, Diagnostic Imaging University of Florida
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences Gainesville, FL, USA
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Tennessee S A N D R A TO U, D V M , D A C V I M ( I N T E R N A L
Knoxville, TN, USA ­M E D I C I N E A N D C A R D I O LO G Y )
Veterinary Cardiologist
S E A M US H O E Y, M V B , D E CV D I , DACV R ( D I A N D E D I ) Department of Clinical Sciences
Lecturer/Assistant Professor College of Veterinary Medicine
School of Veterinary Medicine North Carolina State University
University College Dublin Raleigh, NC, USA
Veterinary Science Centre
Dublin, Ireland M AT T H E W D . W I N T E R , D V M , D A C V R
Chief Medical Officer
E LO D I E E . H U G U E T, D V M , D A C V R Vet-­CT
Clinical Assistant Professor, Diagnostic Imaging Orlando, FL, USA
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences Clinical Associate Professor, Diagnostic Imaging
College of Veterinary Medicine Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences
University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine
Gainesville, FL, USA University of Florida
Gainesville, FL, USA
E L I Z A B E T H H UY N H , D V M , M S , D A C V R
Veterinary Radiologist
VCA West Coast Specialty and Emergency Animal Hospital
Fountain Valley, CA, USA

ix
Acknowledgments
We would like to acknowledge our colleagues, residents,
interns, and students who have asked the right questions and
helped us to shape our interpretation paradigms for diagnostic
imaging. A special shout out to the radiologists at the Univer-
sity of Florida, Michigan State University, and North Carolina
State University for their insights and help in our formulation of
Roentgen abnormalities, tying things together, and prioritizing
differentials. Of course, our programs would not be complete
without the veterinary imaging technicians who go above and
beyond the call of duty daily to ensure quality studies without
compromising patient care. A special shout out to the techni-
cians at the University of Florida, Michigan State University, and
North Carolina State University, especially Danielle Maruagis,
x
Bobbie Davis, Mary Wilson, and Theresa Critcher. The residents
over the years have always pushed us to be better and we
greatly appreciate that.
We want to acknowledge the incredible patience of the
editors and staff at Wiley Blackwell, especially Merryl Le Roux
and Erica Judisch, who have not relented in their efforts to help
us and have believed in this project from the beginning.
We want to acknowledge Elodie Huguet, DVM, DACVR,
for doing the textbook cover and the section pages for us.
She is incredibly gifted in art and gave us great images to work
with for these areas. We greatly appreciate you and your
­talents, Elodie.
Thank you.

Why another diagnostic imaging textbook? There are many
excellent textbooks on veterinary imaging that have been pub-
lished previously and are still moving forward, with historical
editions being replaced with new ones. We felt that this text
should be first and foremost an introduction to diagnostic
imaging, although most of the text deals primarily with radiol-
ogy. But more importantly, this textbook was meant to be an
atlas so that we could show not necessarily the “classic” cases
but some average cases and how the same disease can look dif-
ferently depending on the stage of the disease at the time when
the images are made. Being an atlas, this textbook is not a com-
prehensive overview of all the different diseases that one may
find in the literature, but should serve as an approach for “com-
mon things occurring commonly.” And when there is overlap
between different disease presentations on the radiographs,
formulating a prioritized differential diagnosis list is given
precedence. It is hoped that the book will serve as a foundation
upon which the reader can add layers of information (science)
and clinical experience (art) over the course of their career in
veterinary medicine.
Preface
It would be impossible to present all the potential images
that a patient will present with any given disease process,
whether dealing with multicentric lymphoma or elbow dys-
plasia. Again, this atlas will form a foundational pillar upon
which other pillars can be built. We recognize that “pattern
recognition” is a lower-­order learning technique, but it is criti-
cal for building the foundation of interpretation of diagnostic
images that occurs each time a new set of images is made.
As with all published works, there will be mistakes in this
book. We have tried our best to minimize those mistakes, but
take the ultimate responsibility for errors.
We wish you the best in your future endeavors and hope
that this textbook can play some role in the diagnostic imaging
part of your veterinary medicine career.
CLIFFORD R. BERRY (KIP)
NATHAN C. NELSON (NATE)
MATTHEW D. WINTER (MATT)
xi
 About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website.

www.wiley.com/go/berry/atlas

The website includes figures from the book as downloadable PowerPoint slides and Radiology templates (Appendices I, II, III).

xii
 SECTION I

Introduction and Physics

 CHAPTER 1

The Science,
Art, and
Philosophy of
Radiographic
Interpretation
Matthew D. Winter
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College
of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville,
FL, USA

Introduction of the philosophies shared by the editors of this textbook

regarding radiographic interpretation.

Diagnostic imaging is an art and a science. The science of

­diagnostic imaging is didactic information that is learned dur-
ing veterinary training. The art is the experiential learning that
takes place over the course of a lifetime as one interprets radio-
graphs and the ability to extract information from an image.
As one studies radiographs, one moves from a lower order of
learning (pattern recognition) to a higher level of interpretation
where different aspects of the interpretation process impact the
final conclusions. Then, the interpretation is filtered through
the clinical information relevant to the patient at hand.
Interpretation of a radiograph should be directed by a par-
adigm. An interpretation paradigm is a map that guides you
along a path of thorough and complete evaluation of a radio-
graph. The paradigm is an essential tool to use for evaluation
of all radiographic studies, and examples are provided in each
section. This chapter presents an approach to and overview
Why Radiographs?
Why bother with radiography, or diagnostic imaging in general?
Specifically, radiography is relatively fast and readily available
as a diagnostic imaging test. The procedures for most stand-
ard examinations are well defined, and expectations for the
capabilities of the modality are relatively well understood. In
the realm of diagnostic imaging tests, it is also inexpensive
and noninvasive, a rapid test to perform. Therefore, it is a
great tool to monitor and stage disease and evaluate anatomy.
We also use radiographs to document the results of patient
management, to figure out if a treatment is working or not.
And of course, when possible, we use radiographs to actually
­diagnose disease.

Atlas of Small Animal Diagnostic Imaging, First Edition. Edited by Clifford R. Berry, Nathan C. Nelson, and Matthew D. Winter.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/berry/atlas

3
4 S ECT IO N I Introduction and Physics

Most often, imaging is used to decrease the level of

​​ Cone of certainty
­ ncertainty about a diagnosis. In most cases, we do not end up
u Specific diagnosis
with a definitive diagnosis, but we do use the imaging findings
as well as any other information to narrow the list of probable
diseases. We do this by gathering data. If we think of each
individual finding as a test, with each of those tests as having a
particular value, then when we add them together, we should
hopefully paint a picture or pattern of disease. So, think of each
finding as a piece of a larger pattern. As we fit more and more of
these diagnostic puzzle pieces together, the pattern becomes
more clear. As that pattern emerges, hopefully we can recog-
nize that it is consistent with a specific disease, or perhaps a
subset of diseases. The result should be a shorter list of poten-
tial or probable pathologic processes (differential diagnoses),
and we can direct our next steps accordingly.

Imaging Findings as Tests Non-Specific Change

FIGURE 1.1 The “cone of certainty.” A nonspecific change at the

As mentioned, tests can be characterized by their value, and
that value is best described by sensitivity, specificity, and accu-
racy as tested against a normal and abnormal population of
animals. If we think of each radiographic finding as a test, we
realize that each finding can be associated with a certain num-
ber of true and false positives as well as true and false negatives
when compared to a gold standard [1]. The gold standard would
be the test considered to be the best available to diagnose a
given disease. That said, the test may be relatively unavailable,
too expensive, or perhaps very invasive, and therefore cannot
always be done. The sensitivity or specificity for each and every
finding for each and every disease are not always known, but
we do have data for some of this, and we often can extrapolate.
We also have our clinical experience and diagnostic acumen to
draw on, which continue to grow over time. As more and more
clinical research is done, we get new information on the value
of findings as tests through science. Perhaps most importantly,
the combination of findings can be most powerful as a diagnos-
tic tool, and can further increase the sensitivity, specificity, and
accuracy of radiography as a diagnostic tool for a given disease.
It is important to recognize that some individual findings may
be very nonspecific, and that they are not exact for any particular
disease and can be features of many different, completely unrelated
diseases [1]. This means that, individually, they do not contribute
to the reduction of uncertainty that we hope to attain. However,
when we combine multiple findings, the added value of each find-
ing narrows our scope in the “cone of certainty” (Figure 1.1).
For example, an unstructured interstitial pulmonary
pattern that is moderate in severity and hilar in distribution
could result in a large list of potential differential diagnostic
considerations from multiple etiologies. If we combine this
finding with other radiographic changes, such as left-­sided
cardiomegaly, elevation of the carina on the lateral images,
widening of the caudal bronchi on the ventrodorsal image and
enlargement of the pulmonary veins in a dog, our differential
list narrows very quickly to pulmonary edema secondary to
mouth of the funnel does not help narrow the list of differential
diagnoses. However, a series of findings added together improves
our degree of certainty, narrowing the list of diagnoses at the tip
of the cone. There are few diseases for which imaging findings are
pathognomonic. However, a series of findings with varying degrees of
value can result in a short and prioritized list of differential diagnoses
that aid in decision making, clinical progress, and improved patient care.
left-­sided cardiac disease. Depending on other signalment and
physical examination findings (small breed dog with a grade
IV/V pansystolic cardiac murmur), our differential list narrows
even more to mitral valve degenerative disease (endocardiosis)
with secondary left heart failure.
This is why one of the most important and fundamental
interpretation skills is learning to describe abnormal radio-
graphic anatomy in an organized and systematic fashion. Being
systematic and organized helps us to recognize patterns that
might otherwise elude us.
Describing Abnormalities:
Roentgen Signs
The fundamental language of radiographic interpretation is the
Roentgen signs. These are the six features that we describe for
every organ or body system that we evaluate: location, size,
shape, number, margin, and opacity. The definitions as well as
some terminology for use in description of abnormalities are
listed in Table 1.1. Figure 1.2 is a radiograph that contains all
radiographic opacities.
Opacity is the term we use to characterize the relative radio-
graphic density of an organ or structure. The relative physical
density of a structure and the atomic number of its components
will dictate how many x-­rays are stopped, or attenuated, within
 CHAPTER 1 The Science, Art, and Philosophy of Radiographic Interpretation 5

TA B LE 1 .1 Roentgen signs, definitions, and terminology.

Roentgen sign Definitions Abnormal descriptive terminology

Size The relative extent or dimensions of an organ or object on the Enlarged
image. This can be an absolute measurement in mm or cm, or may Increased in size
be a ratio formed by comparison to a standard (i.e., vertebrae,
pelvic diameter). The description should always be relative to the Small
expectation of normal for a given species and breed Reduced in size
Distended
Dilated

Shape The external shape or contour of an organ or object. Most organs Round or rounded
have a narrow range of normal shapes. Intestines are tubular, Oval
­kidneys are, well, kidney shaped, etc.
Rectangular
Triangular
Fusiform
Broad-­based
Amorphous

Number A value representing quantity or amount. In its simplest form, we Value (i.e., 3 pulmonary nodules)
might identify that there are 2 kidneys, 7 lumbar vertebrae, or Increased in number (compared to
10 pulmonary nodules. But we also might use this to characterize normal or a prior study)
the specific quantity of cardiac chambers or liver lobes enlarged or
affected by disease Decreased in number
Numerous

Margin The edge or border of a structure or organ. Smooth

Well-­defined
Ill-­defined
Regular
Irregular
Sharp
Normal or abnormal contour

Location Place or position. Most organs have a normal, expected position that Normal
can be altered by disease. In many cases, the position of an organ Displaced (dorsally, ventrally, laterally, to
may be altered by an adjacent abnormality. Recognizing this is key the left, etc.)
to understanding the lesion. Knowledge of radiographic anatomy is
of the utmost importance. Remember that “Anatomy is Power!”

Opacity The relative ability to attenuate x-­rays. There are five radiographic Gas, fat, soft tissue/fluid, mineral/
opacities. Relative differences in the soft tissue opacity of organs are bone, metal
often related to physical density or thickness

the x-­ray beam as it passes through a patient. Gas has a small
physical density and does not attenuate x-­rays. Therefore, things
that contain gas are black, or less opaque on a radiograph. We see
this in the lungs and the gastrointestinal tract. We should note the
presence of gas where it is unexpected. Fat is more dense than gas
and attenuates more x-­rays. Therefore, it appears gray on radio-
graphs. Soft tissue attenuates even more x-­rays than fat, and has
the same density as fluid. It is important to realize that soft tissue
structures (e.g. aortic walls) and fluid (e.g. the blood within the
aorta) cannot be distinguished radiographically. As with gas, it is
always important to document the presence of fluid in a space in
which it does not belong or is excessive (pleural space, peritoneal
space, retroperitoneal space, subcutaneous tissues).
Next on the opacity continuum is mineral. Bone is prob-
ably the most recognizable mineral opacity on a radiograph, but
recall that many processes result in accumulation of abnormal
mineral, including but not limited to dystrophic mineralization,
metastatic mineralization, uroliths, nephroliths, etc. At the end of
the continuum is metal. Metal attenuates, or stops, all x-­rays, and
therefore appears white (radiopaque) on a radiograph. Examples
are barium, microchips, surgical plates, and some foreign bodies.
In addition to describing abnormal opacities, one may also
identify the relative uniformity of an organ or structure by using
terms such as homogeneous or heterogeneous. The presence of
variable opacities in a structure that is normally uniform can be
described in terms of heterogeneity. Recognizing heterogeneity in
a normally homogeneous structure can be an important finding.
While the above process is described in the context of radio-
graphic interpretation, this tool set is similar for all imaging
modalities. The Roentgen approach is still the method by which
abnormalities should be characterized, though we modify
the terminology around the Roentgen sign of opacity, which
6 S ECT IO N I Introduction and Physics

Relative consistency (optical density on the

TA B L E 1. 2
image) by modality.

Modality Characteristic Terminology

Radiographs Opacity Gas, fat, soft tissue,
­mineral, metal

Ultrasound Echogenicity Hyperechoic,

hypoechoic,
anechoic

Computed Attenuation/density Hyperattenuating/

tomography hyperdense
Hypoattenuating/
hypodense

Magnetic ­ (Signal) Intensity Hyperintense, increased

resonance signal intensity
imaging Hypointense, decreased
signal intensity

Nuclear Radiopharmaceutical Increased/decreased

medicine Uptake radiopharmaceutical
Activity uptake

abnormalities. Your knowledge base and clinical acumen will

FIGURE 1.2 Postoperative lateral radiographic image of the right
crus of a dog that contains all radiographic opacities. Gas is evident
outside the patient, but also notice the subcutaneous gas cranial
to the femur and caudal to the distal tibia (arrowheads). Gas is also
superimposed/within the musculature caudal to the crus (open
arrowheads). Fat is present in the subcutaneous tissues (asterisk).
The musculature of the limb is soft tissue opaque. The variable shades of
soft tissue are related to thickness. The femur, tibia, fibula, tarsal and
metatarsal bones are mineral opacity. The implants are metal opaque.
represents the relative signal or consistency of an object as
defined by its ability to attenuate x-­rays. Other imaging modal-
ities also characterize the consistency of tissue relative to the
signal that they generate (Table 1.2).
Using this tool set is predicated on our understanding
of normal radiographic anatomy, and the many normal
breed and species variations that exist. You can imagine that
a dachshund and Great Dane will differ dramatically from
one another, yet still be normal for the breed. Each of these
Roentgen signs can be normal or abnormal and, depend-
ing on the type of abnormality we describe, can help paint
a picture of disease. This tool set also requires careful and
intentional application. It is very easy and tempting to skip
portions of the process, which can result in clinical errors. Fol-
lowing a regular, standardized, and consistent approach to
image evaluation will ensure that you are thorough, and that
you understand your findings.
The standard approach begins with the interpretation par-
adigm, or map, that guides you through the anatomy present in
the image. This map ensures that you do not skip any portion
of the process, and you use the appropriate tools to describe
help you determine the value of each finding. Connecting the
abnormal findings to abnormal pathophysiologic mechanisms
is the next step, allowing you to generate differential diagnoses
and, ultimately, your next clinical step.
General Interpretation
Concepts
There are a few concepts that will come up regularly as we
review images. In Figure 1.3 the image on the left has a plastic
container and two surgical gloves filled with water. One glove is
suspended over the box, while the fingers of the other glove are
immersed in the container. On the right, the same two water-­
filled gloves are there, and you’ll notice that some of the fingers
overlap. Remember, water is soft tissue/fluid opaque, therefore
these items should attenuate the same number of x-­rays and
therefore have the same opacity. However, you’ll notice that
not all of these areas have the same exact opacity. In the upper
left of the first image (Figure 1.3A), you see that in the region
of the image where the glove and the container overlap, the
opacity is greater than the container alone. In the right image
(Figure 1.3B), where the fingers overlap, you see that the opac-
ity is greater, and that the palms of the gloves are more opaque
than the individual fingers. This is because there is a difference
in the physical thickness of these regions, and that difference
translates to a difference in x-­ray attenuation. The thicker part
attenuates more x-­rays than the thinner part, despite the fact
that both are fluid. When multiple soft tissue opaque structures
are superimposed on one another, the overall attenuation of
x-­rays is additive, and is called summation.
 CHAPTER 1 The Science, Art, and Philosophy of Radiographic Interpretation 7

A B

FIGURE 1.3 Radiographs of a plastic container and two surgical gloves filled with water (A) and of two surgical gloves in which the fingers have
various degrees of superimposition (B). In both gloves, there are small gas bubbles (black arrowheads). In (A), note that the thumb in the lower right
of the image and the palm of the glove in the upper left are more opaque than the water in the container due to summation (S). The index finger
of the glove in the lower right (-­) is less opaque than the thumb and the palm of the same glove. Some of this can be explained by summation, but
some is also a result of differences in the physical thickness of these structures. The margins of the fingers of the glove in the upper left are almost
completely lost in the container. These margins are border effaced as they are immersed in the water. Both the fingers and the water in the container
have the same opacity. The thumb of the glove in the upper left (+) is also very opaque. This thumb is viewed “end-­on”, as if pointing down at the
container, creating even greater summation in this orientation. The margins of this thumb remain visible, as it is not immersed in the water. In
(B), note that in the regions in which the fingers of the two gloves overlap, the overall opacity is increased compared to the individual fingers
alone (S). This is another example of summation. Note that the margins of these digits are all well defined. While there is summation, there is gas
surrounding each digit, highlighting the margins. There is no border effacement here. Also, the palms of each glove (+) appear slightly more opaque
than the digits. This is due to the greater physical thickness of the palms compared to the digits. There is more water for the x-­rays to penetrate,
therefore more x-­rays are attenuated, creating a more opaque region despite the fact that this is the same material (water).

Also note that the fingers that are immersed in the water-­
filled container are not visible. This is because the fingers are
surrounded by the same opacity, and the margins of the fingers
have become border effaced. This means that the margins of
two structures of the same opacity, when in contact with one
another, cannot be differentiated as separate structures (called
border effacement). This is why you will not see hepatic veins
or portal veins in the liver, why you will not differentiate fluid in
the urinary bladder or intestines from the wall of those struc-
tures, or why you cannot see the individual chambers of the
heart on a plain radiograph. These changes are seen commonly
on radiographs, so make sure that you have an understanding
of these radiographic concepts.
Organizing Information/
Abnormalities
It is important to organize data to assist in pattern recognition.
The process of organization can be divided into four parts:
the description of abnormalities, the conclusion or summary
statement, the differential diagnosis list, and next steps. The
first step, the description, is the process of using Roentgen
signs to evaluate anatomic abnormalities noted in the image.
The second step, the conclusion, consists of interpreting the
findings individually and in the context of other abnormalities
and recognizing patterns. In the third step, we construct a list
of probable diseases that have pathophysiologic mechanisms
that could explain the imaging abnormalities or that fit the
pattern observed.
There are a large number of possible radiographic pre-
sentations for a disease process. Although this text is an atlas,
it cannot present all possibilities, just common examples of
them. Part of the reason for this is the timeline of the disease
process. The image created during radiography represents a
snapshot in the timeline of a disease process. When are we tak-
ing the image relative to the severity of disease? Other factors
such as individual variations in response to disease (dealing
with a biological system) as well as the severity of disease are
important factors.
In the final part, one must strategically select next steps
that might help to arrive at a definitive or final diagnosis,
or list possible treatment options for the disease process
that is the primary consideration based on the signalment,
8 S ECT IO N I Introduction and Physics
physical examination, and other tests done in assessing
the patient.
In the description, you will use Roentgen signs to identify
and describe any abnormalities on the image. Be sure to use
all available projections and ensure there is a complete study
(technique and position are critical).
In the next section, you draw conclusions based on your
observations. For example, you may have described a soft
tissue bulge in the region of the left atrium and lateral displace-
ment of the principal bronchi on the ventrodorsal/dorsoventral
image. Your conclusion on this could be “left atrial enlarge-
ment.” If you also described a bulge or enlargement in the
region of the left ventricle and an increase in apical to basilar
length of the heart with dorsal displacement of the carina, you
might also conclude that there is “left ventricular enlargement.”
If you indeed have both, you might draw a broader conclusion
of “left-­sided cardiomegaly.” This broader conclusion will feed
into the next step, defining your differential diagnoses.
For differential diagnoses, one must reflect on the conclu-
sions, and list the most probable diseases that might explain
the conclusions or summary statements by trying to tie all the
concluding statements together as one disease process. To con-
tinue with the above example, you would list the most probable
diseases that could cause left-­ sided cardiomegaly, with
consideration of the patient’s signalment. If this is a 12-­year-­old
toy poodle, you would likely list myxomatous degeneration of
the mitral valve as the primary differential diagnosis. If this is
a 6-­month-­old lab, you might consider congenital dysplasia
of the mitral valve primarily. If this is a 10-­year-­old German
shepherd, you might consider endocarditis. And if this is an
8-­year-­old domestic shorthair cat, you might consider feline
cardiomyopathy in all its various forms, which you might pri-
oritize based on likelihood and prevalence. Other diseases may
also be on your list, and the prioritization of this list should be
filtered through all the other information available at the time
of interpretation. As new data is presented, always review the
differential list. New information could serve to eliminate or
reprioritize your differentials.
As you consider your differentials, remember that the goal
is to reduce the level of uncertainty. However, you do not want
to inadvertently or erroneously eliminate diseases that should
remain in contention as possible causes of the patient’s disease
pattern. One way to accomplish this is to consider broad cate-
gories of disease first and then decide if any can or should be
eliminated. This process is incredibly important as it keeps us
from excluding diseases that we might dismiss due to any of
our biases.
One scheme is the DAMN IT V mnemonic. Each letter
stands for one or more general disease categories that might
account for the constellation of data that you have before you
(Table 1.3). For those potentially offended by this scheme,
you might choose to use CITIMITVAN, which functions in the
same way (Table 1.4). Always evaluate these lists as you gen-
erate differentials to be sure that a disease process is not over-
looked. Equally, try to eliminate categories for which a disease
Acronym for different disease etiologies
TA B L E 1. 3
(DAMN IT V).
D Degenerative/developmental
A Anomalous (congenital)/autoimmune
M Metabolic
N Neoplastic/nutritional
I Inflammatory/infectious/iatrogenic/idiopathic
T Trauma/toxic
V Vascular
Acronym for different disease etiologies
TA B L E 1. 4
(CITIMITVAN).
C Congenital
I Inflammatory
T Trauma
I Infectious
M Metabolic
I Idiopathic/iatrogenic
T Toxic
V Vascular
A Autoimmune
N Neoplasia/nutritional
in the specific patient is highly unlikely, improbable, or even
nonexistent.
Within each of these broad categories, consider specific
disease types that might explain your imaging findings and
conclusions. In our cardiac example, we considered con-
genital, degenerative, and infectious etiologies for left-­sided
cardiac enlargement, and would prioritize them based on the
information we have about the patient, including species,
breed, and age. Always run through this list to be sure you
do not unintentionally exclude diseases that may explain the
patient’s history, clinical signs, and imaging findings.
Finally, you need to determine your next steps. These
may be additional diagnostics, or may consist of therapeutic
options. In our example, echocardiography might be the next
best step in truly determining the underlying pathology and
creating a treatment plan. This will obviously differ depend-
ing on the diseases that we identify or suspect. To continue the
example, if the patient is in left heart failure and has clinical
signs related to the radiographic changes identified, one
should always stabilize the patient prior to other diagnostic
tests that might add to respiratory stress and compromise the
patient further.
 CHAPTER 1
Pitfalls of Interpretation
Many interpretation pitfalls have been characterized. Some
are called different names by different specialists. Aware-
ness of the major pitfalls can be important in their avoid-
ance. While the following list is not exhaustive, it serves as
a reminder of the more common pitfalls and biases that
you may encounter as you continue on the journey toward
becoming a radiologist. These are biases that should be
avoided. One way to do this is to present the case and radio-
graphic images to a colleague without the clinical informa-
tion (history and signalment) to hear their interpretation and
conclusions. This will help to eliminate some of the biases
presented below.
Framing Bias
Framing bias is a particularly common error. The problem pre-
sented in the clinical history may erroneously or incompletely
implicate a particular system that influences both the evalu-
ation and interpretation process [2]. A patient is presented
for acute vomiting, and the owner suspects that the dog ate
something that they can no longer find. We are programmed
to look for the foreign body, and we may be sensitized or
biased to identify something abnormal in the gastrointestinal
tract. The problem may be elsewhere, and if the clinical con-
text we were given was a bit different, we may have directed
our search differently. This is why some radiologists choose to
review the history and clinical findings after their first review
of a study.
Confirmation Bias
We are often guilty of confirmation bias, which is simply look-
ing for evidence that supports what you already know, or think
you know [2]. It is human nature to see only what we actively
look for; who does not prefer to have their opinions or ideas
validated rather than refuted? When our awareness is raised by
new knowledge, whether that is a new journal article identify-
ing a novel finding or an addition to our process that forces rec-
ognition of previously ignored features, we hopefully increase
our ability to diagnose diseases.
References
1. Scrivani, P.V. (2002). Assessing diagnostic accuracy in veterinary
imaging. Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound 43: 442–448.
The Science, Art, and Philosophy of Radiographic Interpretation 9
Satisfaction of Search
Satisfaction of search bias is also common. It is the tendency to
halt the search for abnormalities once one has been found [2].
Often patients have more than one abnormality, and while not
all abnormalities may be related to the clinical complaint, addi-
tional findings may further support a diagnosis. Alternatively,
additional findings may implicate an occult process that has not
yet declared itself clinically. The radiologist’s goal is always to
provide a complete diagnostic assessment of the study at hand.
Availability Bias
Availability bias is probably less common but still prevalent. Also
known as heuristic bias, this error occurs when we allow easily
recalled experiences to have a large influence on our thinking. It
makes us consider diseases that we know about and recall eas-
ily, even if they do not apply specifically to a particular case [2].
Inattention Bias
Inattention bias is also called a location-­related error. It is the
inability to recognize an abnormal finding within the study
because it does not appear in the purposefully evaluated area,
or is at the periphery of the study [2]. This is a particular risk
when one does not follow an interpretation paradigm, which
can help ensure that the entire image is examined thoroughly.
Conclusion
Diagnostic image interpretation is exciting, challenging, and
fun. This chapter has introduced the concepts on which to build
a successful interpretation paradigm for evaluating all forms of
imaging. Interpretation paradigms will be presented for each of
the sections in this book (musculoskeletal, thorax, and abdo-
men). These paradigms should be used as a starting point for
ensuring complete evaluation of the radiographic images.
The formulation of conclusions or summaries, differentials
and next steps is a critical piece of the puzzle when interpret-
ing radiographic studies. Remember that this process involves
continuous learning strategies, and journal clubs/evaluations
should be a routine part of the practice of a veterinarian.
2. Gunderman, R.B. (2009). Biases in radiologic reasoning. Am.
J. Roentgenol. 192: 561–564.
 CHAPTER 2

Physics of
Diagnostic
Imaging
Elizabeth Huyhn1, Elodie E. Huguet2, and
Clifford R. Berry3
1
VCA West Coast Specialty and Emergency Animal Hospital,
­Fountain Valley, CA, USA
2
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, College of
Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
3
Department of Molecular Biomedical Sciences, College
of ­Veterinary Medicine, North ­Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, USA

Overview: Uses Computed tomography uses ionizing radiation recon-

structed by a computer to create multiple transverse images of

and Advantages
Radiography is an imaging technique that uses x-­ray attenu-
ation within veterinary patients to obtain two-­dimensional
images of internal organs and to assess for the presence or
absence of disease. Radiography in veterinary medicine can be
subdivided into projectional radiography, computed tomogra-
phy (CT), and fluoroscopy.
Projectional radiography utilizes electromagnetic or ion-
izing radiation to obtain static two-­dimensional images of a
three-­dimensional patient (body part), which in and of itself
presents projection artifacts that have to be properly inter-
preted as normal or abnormal. Common uses for projection
radiography in veterinary medicine include thoracic, abdom-
inal, musculoskeletal, and contrast imaging (Figure 2.1).
the patient based on the various physical densities compared
with the normal attenuation of water (called a Hounsfield
unit or HU).
Fluoroscopy also utilizes ionizing radiation to obtain
dynamic, real-­time images (usually limited by a frame rate of
30 frames/second) that are viewed over time. This modality is
used to observe the movement of contrast through the esoph-
agus, cardiac structures, or different vessels, as well as diag-
nosing dynamic diseases such as a collapsing trachea.
Contrast radiography can be used in projectional radiog-
raphy, computed tomography, and fluoroscopy to supplement
information gained from these modalities. Types of contrast
radiography include positive contrast and negative contrast.
Common positive contrast agents used include barium sul-
fate paste or liquid or iodine (i.e., nonionic, iodinated positive
contrast medium). In radiography, positive contrast is metallic,

Atlas of Small Animal Diagnostic Imaging, First Edition. Edited by Clifford R. Berry, Nathan C. Nelson, and Matthew D. Winter.
© 2023 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2023 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/berry/atlas

10
 A

D E

FIGURE 2.1 (A) Left lateral thoracic radiograph in a normal dog. (B) Right lateral abdominal radiograph in a normal dog. (C) Ventrodorsal
pelvis radiograph in a normal dog. (D) Right lateral abdominal radiograph after barium positive contrast administration in a normal dog.
(E) Ventrodorsal abdominal radiograph after barium positive contrast administration in the same patient. Note the positive barium contrast in
the stomach (black arrow), duodenum (black arrowheads), and some segments of the jejunum.
12 S ECT IO N I Introduction and Physics

so it increases the visibility of the organ or vessel within which
it is introduced (Figure 2.1). Negative contrast agents typically
used are room air or carbon dioxide which is gas opaque (radio-
lucent) on the image (Figure 2.2). Double-­contrast studies can
be done using a combination of positive and negative contrast
media to give optimal detail of a mucosal surface such as the
urinary bladder (Figure 2.3) [1].
Digital projectional radiography is used as a common
­first-­step modality in diagnostic imaging as it is relatively
affordable and can be obtained quickly. Digital radiography has
an increased dynamic range which implies that the anatomy
has varying density values that can be visualized. Using a
broad scale contrast display, all the anatomy can be seen in
the radiographic image within the displayed range of optical
densities. The displayed densities can be adjusted according
to the contrast and brightness of the image. The contrast and
brightness of the image are attained through window width
and window level. If changes to the window width are made,
the contrast of the image will change; when the window width
narrows, there is increase in the displayed contrast. If changes
to the window length are made, the brightness of the image
will change.
Basics of X-­Ray
Interaction in Matter
To understand how radiographs are made, it is important to
recognize how photons interact with matter. Photons can
interact with matter via (i) coherent scattering, (ii) photoelec-
tric effect, (iii) Compton scattering, (iv) pair production, and
(v) photodisintegration [2]. Pair production and photodisinte-
gration have no relevance to diagnostic radiology so they will
not be reviewed further.

A B

FIGURE 2.2 (A) Survey ventrodorsal abdominal radiograph. (B) Ventrodorsal abdominal radiograph after a pneumocolon. Note the
distinguishing margins of the colon (black arrows) in relation to the fluid-­and gas-­dilated segments of the small intestine (black arrowheads).

FIGURE 2.3 Double contrast medium cystogram outlining the
inner mucosal wall with negative contrast medium (room air) and
there is a central pool of positive iodinated contrast medium for the
evaluation of cystoliths, clots, masses, etc.
Coherent Scattering (Figure 2.4)
Coherent scattering is not useful in the production of a radio-
graphic image. When a photon interacts with an object with
subsequent directional change, the object does not absorb
the photon but rather scatters it, and consequently degrades
the image and increases personnel exposure if present
within the x-­ray room at the time of exposure. The goal of
all radiographic procedures would be “hands free” imaging,
where all personnel are out of the x-­ray room at the time the
­exposure is made.
γ
FIGURE 2.4 Coherent scatter. Note the incoming photon (γ) is
absorbed then immediately reemitted with minimal direction and
energy change. This photon may result in radiographic film fog and is
only significant at very low diagnostic x-­ray energies.
CHAPTER 2 Physics of Diagnostic Imaging 13
Photoelectric Effect (Figure 2.5)
Photoelectric effect is the most important type of photon
­interaction that produces a radiographic image. The photon
striking the patient is completely absorbed by an inner k-­shell
electron without scatter. The photons that are not absorbed or
attenuated create the radiographic image. Differential absorp-
tion is based on the physical density, patient thickness, atomic
number (Z), and the energy (kVp) of the x-­ray beam.
Compton Scattering (Figure 2.6)
When a photon interacts with a peripheral shell electron of an
atom, this electron is ejected, and the photon is then scattered
in any direction at a lower energy. The probability of a Comp-
ton reaction increases with increasing photon energy. If Comp-
ton absorption predominates in a reaction, the radiographic
image will have poor contrast, degrading the image. Compton
scattering will also increase personnel exposure.
Radiation Safety
Basic principles of radiation safety should always be prac-
ticed when making radiographic images (Table 2.1). All levels
of ionizing radiation should be considered dangerous and the
ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable) principle should be
observed at all times [3].
The three major principles of ALARA are time, distance, and
shielding. Time is important to reduce the time of exposure.
e–
FIGURE 2.5 Photoelectric effect. Note the incoming photon (γ)
interacting with the orbital electron in the inner shell. The orbital
electron (e-­) becomes dislodged (the energy of the incoming photon
must be greater than or equal to the electron’s energy). The incoming
photon gives up all its energy and the ejected electron is now a
photoelectron. The photoelectron can interact with other atoms
which results in increased patient dose, contributing to biological
damage. When the orbital electron is dislodged, the vacancy is
filled by an electron from the outer shell. Once the vacancy is filled,
that electron releases its energy in the form of a characteristic
photon. Emission of characteristic photons continues until the atom
becomes stable.
14 S ECT IO N I Introduction and Physics
γ However, personnel excluded from the x-­ray room during an
e–
γ gloves, thyroid shield, and eyeglasses. Lead aprons and gloves
FIGURE 2.6 Compton scatter. Note the incoming photon (γ) is
partially absorbed in an outer shell electron, which absorbs enough
energy to break the binding energy, and then becomes ejected (e−).
The ejected electron is a Compton electron. The incoming photon (γ)
continues on a different path with less energy as scattered radiation.
The scattered photon can interact with other atoms via photoelectric
effect or Compton scattering.
Principles of radiation safety for
TA BLE 2 .1
veterinary medicine.
1. The use of “hands free” exposures (all personnel out of the
x-­ray room at the time of x-­ray exposure of the patient) should
be the goal of every practice.
2. Sandbags, sponges, tape, and positioning devices should
be used to accomplish “hands free” exposures. Adequate
sedation or general anesthesia should be used when
appropriate.
3. Collimate the primary beam to the area of interest, recognizing
that the smaller the collimated field, the greater the reduction
in x-­ray scatter.
4. All personnel operating the equipment should be properly
trained in usage of the equipment, proper anatomic posi-
tioning, technique, and transfer of images to different worksta-
tions and work environments (i.e., telemedicine).
5. If personnel are in the room at the time of the exposure, then:
• always wear lead apron, gloves, and thyroid shields
• always wear radiation detection badges to monitor exposure
and adhere to strict guidelines for rotating personnel in radi-
ology to minimize exposure to any one individual
• never have any part of the personnel in the primary x-­ray
beam even if wearing lead (lead only protects against scatter
radiation, not the primary beam)
• personnel must be over 18 years of age
• pregnant personnel should never be used for holding
patients for x-­ray studies.
Note: all states will have different regulations related to radiation safety and
it is incumbent upon the end user to determine these rules and laws for the
individual practice.
exam include those younger than 18 years old and pregnant
individuals. All personnel involved with radiography should
wear a radiation detection badge and appropriate shielding
(gloves, apron, thyroid shields) when making exposures. If
the distance is doubled between the personnel and radiation
source, the radiation exposure is reduced by a factor of four
(called the inverse square law). The most effective personal
shielding for radiation personnel is lead-­impregnated aprons,
are designed exclusively to protect against scattered radiation
and must never be placed in the primary beam because they do
not attenuate high-­energy x-­rays [3, 4].
Digital Radiography
Digital imaging is the current standard of care for diagnos-
tic radiography, replacing analog film-­screen combinations
that have been used for decades in human and veterinary
­medicine [5, 6].
Digital detectors fall into two broad categories: computed
radiography (CR) and digital radiography (DR). The DR cat-
egory is really a misnomer as CR is a form of DR. In CR, an
imaging plate (also called the PSP or photostimulable plate)
and cassette are placed on the tabletop or in the table tray
for radiographic exposures. After an exposure is made, the CR
cassette is processed through a reader and the reader then
produces an image based on the digital information stored
in the imaging plate. This information is then erased and
reloaded into the cassette for the next exposure. In DR (direct
or indirect), photon-­ sensitive hardware within the digital
plate directly interacts with the photons that are not attenu-
ated by the patient.
The digital systems (DR) available currently include hard-
wired and wireless indirect, direct or CCD (charge coupled
device) types of detectors. A full explanation of these is beyond
the scope of this text, but needless to say, digital radiography is
here to stay and has replaced the older analog systems.
Limitations
The primary limitation of projectional radiography is the
superimposition of organs causing summation or border
effacement (flattening of a three-­dimensional object into a
two-­dimensional image). Orthogonal projections are made
to help create a three-­dimensional image in the interpreter’s
brain. Radiography is a great first step to diagnosing and treat-
ing diseases in veterinary patients. When referring to digital
radiography, the main disadvantage in relation to film-­screen
radiography is decreased spatial resolution, but enhancement
techniques are used to improve the perceived spatial ­resolution
of an image.

References
1. Wallack, S. (2003). Handbook of Veterinary Contrast Radiography.
San Diego, CA: Veterinary Learning Systems.
2. Bushberg, J.T. (2012). The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging. 5.
Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2015). ALARA – As Low
As Reasonably Achievable. www.cdc.gov/nceh/radiation/alara.html. 6.
4. Thrall, D.E. and Widmer, W.R. (2018). Radiation protection
and physics of diagnostic radiology. In: Textbook of Veterinary
CHAPTER 2 Physics of Diagnostic Imaging 15
Diagnostic Radiology, 7e (ed. D.E. (e.) Thrall). St Louis, MO:
Elsevier.
Robertson, I.D. and Thrall, D.E. (2018). Digital radiographic imag-
ing. In: Textbook of Veterinary Diagnostic Radiology, 7e (ed. D.E.
(e.) Thrall). St Louis, MO: Elsevier.
Widmer, W.R. (2008). Acquisition hardware for digital imaging.
Veterinary Radiology and Ultrasound, 49: s2–s8.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Cross-head Designed by Mr. Porter.

The cross-head which I designed at this time has always

interested me, not only on account of its success, but also for the
important lesson which it teaches. I abolished all means of
adjustment. The cross-head was a solid block, running on the lower
guide-bars if the engine were running forward, as was almost always
the case, and these guide-bars were formed on the bed. The pin was
of steel, with the surface hardened and ground truly cylindrical, set in
the middle of the cross-head, and formed with square ends larger
than the cylindrical portion. These were mortised parallel into the
cross-head, and a central pin was forced through the whole. The
flats on the pin I afterwards copied from a print. These prevent the
formation of shoulders at the ends of the vibration of the boxes. I
would like to know to whom we are indebted for this valuable feature.
Every surface was scraped to absolute truth. The lubrication was
internal, as shown. There are many of these cross-heads which have
been running at rapid speeds in clean engine-rooms from twenty to
thirty years, where the scraping marks on the lower bars are still to
be seen.
The lesson is a most important one for the future of steam
engineering. It is this. Two flat cast-iron surfaces, perfectly true and
incapable of deflection, with the pressure equally distributed over a
sufficient area, protected from dirt and properly lubricated, will never
have the clean film of oil between them broken or even varied in
thickness, and will run together without wear perpetually and at any
speed whatever. The conclusion is also abundantly warranted that a
tendency to heat need not exist anywhere in even the least degree,
in engines running at the greatest speeds. This can always be
prevented by truth of design and construction, and the selection of
suitable material. This fact is abundantly established by varied
experience with cylindrical as well as with flat surfaces, and for other
materials, though not for all, as well as for cast iron.
The solid end connecting-rod appears in this engine. This was
shown to me by Mr. James Gulland, a Scotch draftsman at Ormerod,
Grierson & Co.’s. He did not claim to have originated it, but only told
me that it was designed in Scotland. I saw at once its peculiar value
for high-speed engines. Every locomotive designer knows the pains
that must be taken to prevent the straps on the crank-pins from
spreading at high speeds, under the pressure exerted by the
transverse fling of the connecting-rod. This solid end renders the
connecting-rod safe in this respect, even at thousands of revolutions
per minute. For single-crank engines, on which only it can be
applied, it is invaluable. This solid rod-end possesses also another
advantage. The wear of the crank-pin boxes and that of the cross-
head-pin boxes are both taken up in the same direction, so the
position of the piston in the cylinder will be varied only by the
difference, if any, between the two. With a strap on both ends, the
connecting-rod is always shortened by the sum of the wear in the
two boxes. The solid rod-end enabled me to reduce the clearance in
the cylinder to one eighth of an inch with entire safety. The piston
never touched the head.
As this construction was shown to me, the wedge was tapered on
both sides. It seemed that this would be difficult to fit up truly, and it
also involved the necessity of elongating the bolt-holes in the rod, so
that the wedge might slide along in taking up the wear. I changed it
by putting all the taper of the wedge on the side next to the brass,
making the other side parallel with the bolt-holes. This enabled the
opening in the rod-end to be slotted out in a rectangular form, and
made it easy for the wedge-block to be truly fitted.
While on this subject I may as well dispose of the connecting-rod,
although the other changes were made subsequently, and I do not
recollect exactly when. The following shows the rod and strap as
they have been made for a long time. The taper of the rod, giving to
it a great strength at the crank-pin neck to resist the transverse fling,
was, I presume, copied by me from a locomotive rod. The rounded
end of the strap originated in this way. I had often heard of the
tendency of the cross-head-pin straps to spread. This was in the old
days, when these pins were not hardened, indeed were always part
of the iron casting. The brasses, always used without babbitt lining,
would wear these pins on the opposite acting sides only. Brass, I
learned afterwards, will wear away any pin, even hardened steel,
and not be worn itself. When this wear would be taken up, the
brasses would bind at the ends of their vibration, coming in contact
there with the unworn sides of the pin. To relieve this binding it was
common for engineers to file these sides away. All I knew at that
time was that the straps would yield and spread. It occurred to me to
observe this deflection in a spring brass wire bent to the form of a
strap. The pressure being applied on the line of the pin center, the
deflection appeared to take place mostly at the back, and so I
stiffened it. Since the introduction of the flats on the pin, which
prevent the exertion of any force to spread the strap, this form
seems to be rather ornamental than useful.
 Connecting-rod and Strap.

To this strap I added a wiper for lubricating the cross-head pin

automatically. The drop of oil hung from the center of a convex
surface provided above the wiper. The latter was inclined forward,
and its edge partook of the vibration of the connecting-rod. On the
backward stroke this edge cleared the drop. At the commencement
of the forward stroke it rose to take it off.
A note of the change then made by me in stop-valves will
conclude the record of these changes. The valve and its seat had
always been made of brass. The latter was fitted in a cast-iron
chamber, and, expanding more than the iron, was apt to work loose.
I disused brass entirely, employing a cast-iron valve in the cast-iron
seat. These always remained perfectly tight, showing the additional
cost and trouble of brass to be unnecessary.
At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science in 1863, held in Newcastle, I read before the Mechanical
Section a paper on the Richards indicator, illustrated by one of the
instruments and diagrams taken by it from locomotives. The paper
was very favorably received. The description of the action of the
arms, in preventing by their elasticity in combination with a stop any
more than a light pressure being applied to the paper, called out
especial applause. The president of the Mechanical Section that
year was Professor Willis, of Cambridge, the designer of the
odontograph form of tooth, which enables gear-wheels of the same
pitch to run together equally well, whatever may be the difference in
their diameters. I felt very deeply impressed at standing before a
large assembly of the leading mechanical engineers of Great Britain,
and where so many important things had first been presented to the
world, where Sir William Armstrong had described his accumulator,
by which enormous power is supplied occasionally from small pumps
running continuously, and where Joule had explained his practical
demonstration of the mechanical equivalent of heat.
On my journeys to Newcastle and back to London I met two
strangers, each of whom gave me something to think about. It
happened that each time we were the only occupants of the
compartment. Englishmen, I observed, were always ready to
converse with Americans. Soon after leaving London, my fellow-
passenger, a young gentleman, said to me, “Did you observe that
young fellow and young woman who bade me good-by at the
carriage door? He is my brother, and they are engaged. He is first
mate on a ship, and sails to-morrow for Calcutta. He hopes on his
next voyage to have command of a ship himself, and then they
expect to be married.” I did not learn who he was, but he said they
were making large preparations to welcome the scientists, and
added that he owned about six hundred houses in Newcastle.
Evidently he was the eldest son.
On my return my companion was an elderly gentleman, a typical
Tory. He waxed eloquent on the inhumanity of educating the laboring
classes, saying that its only effect must be to make them
discontented with the position which they must always occupy.
I told him I had thought of a motto for the Social Science
Congress, which was just then in session. It was a parody on
Nelson’s celebrated order, “England expects every man to do his
duty.” My proposed motto was, “England expects every man to know
his place.” He did not see the humor, but took me seriously, and
thought it excellent.
 CHAPTER X

Contract with Ormerod, Grierson & Co. Engine for Evan Leigh, Son & Co. Engine
for the Oporto Exhibition. Getting Home from Portugal.

could do nothing with the engine in England unless it

was put on the market as a condensing engine. This
fact was finally revealed to me, and I applied myself to
meet the requirement. The question as it addressed
itself to me was, not “How do you work your air-
pump?” but “How are you going to work your air-
pump?” My friends Easton, Amos & Sons told me frankly that in their
judgment I could not do it at all. Their opinion was expressed very
decidedly, that as a condensing engine the high-speed engine was
not to be thought of. This was not surprising, seeing that the beam
Wolff engines made by them ran at only 25 revolutions per minute,
which was the speed of beam-engines generally, and all stationary
engines were beam-engines; but it was discouraging. I made up my
mind that they did not know everything, and I would show them a
thing or two as soon as I got a chance. This I found easier to get
than I expected, when I had matured a satisfactory system of
condensation. My first plan was to use an independent air-pump
running at the usual slow speed and driven by a belt, the speed
being reduced by intermediate gearing.
I was able very readily to make an agreement on this basis with
the firm of Ormerod, Grierson & Co., of Manchester, for the
manufacture of the engines and governors, and we started on our
first order on the first day of January, 1864.
The ground occupied by these works bordered on the Duke of
Bridgewater’s canal from Liverpool to Manchester, where I one day
saw a cow and a woman towing a boat, a man steering.
 A railway ran through these works, parallel with the canal, at about
300 feet distance, but it was not at all in the way. It was built on brick
arches, and the construction was such that the passing of trains was
scarcely heard. The arches were utilized for the millwright shop,
pattern shop, gear-cutting shop, and the storage of lumber and gear-
wheel patterns, the number and size of which latter astonished me.
On a previous visit Mr. Grierson had shown me several things of
much interest. The one most worthy of being related was a multiple
drill, capable of drilling ninety holes, ³⁄₄ inch diameter,
simultaneously. This had been designed and made by themselves
for use in building a lattice-girder bridge, for erection over the river
Jumna, near Delhi, to carry a roadway below and a railway above.
The English engineers then made all bridge constructions on this
system, having no faith in the American truss. One length of this
bridge still stood in their yard, where it had been completely riveted
up for testing, after which all the rivets would have to be cut out. The
other lengths had been shipped in pieces. The advantage of this
multiple drill was twofold—the ability to drill many holes
simultaneously and the necessary accuracy of their pitch.
I was especially interested in the massiveness of this tool and
impressed with the importance of this feature. The drills rotated in
place, and the table carrying the work was fed upward by two
hydraulic presses. The superintendent told me that they never broke
a drill, and that to exhibit its safety in this respect they had
successfully drilled a single hole ¹⁄₁₆ of an inch in diameter through
one inch of steel. He attributed this success partly to the steady feed,
but chiefly to absolute freedom from vibration. He said a toolmaker
had had an order for a similar drill, and on visiting this one
pronounced its great weight to be absurd. He made one weighing
about half as much, which proved a failure, from the liability of the
drills to break. This gave me one of the most valuable lessons that I
ever received.
We soon had our first engine running successfully, in spite of some
annoyances. I insisted on having the joints on the steam-chest and
cylinder heads made scraped joints, but the foreman put them
together with the white and red lead putty just the same, so that work
was thrown away, and when we wanted to open a joint we had to
resort to the familiar wedges. The pipes were of cast iron, with
square holes in the flanges. The ends were left rough. They were put
together with the same putty. The joints were encircled by clips,
which prevented the putty from being forced outward to any great
extent in screwing the flanges together. What went inside had to
work its way through as it was broken off by the rush of steam and
hot water. When the engine was started we could not get much
vacuum. On taking the pipes apart to find what the matter was, we
discovered that the workmen had left a wooden plug in the
condenser-nozzle, where it had been put to prevent anything from
getting in during its transportation. The proper mode of protection
would of course have been to bolt a board on the flange.
The worst trouble was from a blunder of my own. My exhibition
engine had cast-iron valves running on cast-iron seats, and the
friction between these surfaces under the steam pressure was so
little that it did not injure the governor action appreciably. But I could
not let well enough alone. Mr. Lee had told me that in the steam fire-
engines they used gun-metal valves on steel seats, which I thought
must have some wonderful advantages, so at considerable
additional expense I fitted up my first engine in the same way. The
governor worked very badly. I had the pleasure of demonstrating the
fact that brass on steel is the very best combination possible for
producing friction. I went back to cast-iron valves, when the trouble
disappeared.
We had an order for an engine to drive the works of Evan Leigh,
Son & Co. Mr. Leigh was quite a famous man, the inventor of Leigh’s
top roller, used universally in drawing-machines. I was told he was
the only man then living who had invented an essential feature in
spinning machinery. I struck out a new design, which proved quite
successful. They wished to give 100 revolutions per minute to their
main line of shafting running overhead through the center of their
shop. I planned a vertical engine, standing on a bed-plate, which
carried also an A frame.
The engine-room was located at the end of the shop. The line of
shaft passed through a wall-box and then 3 feet further to its main
bearing at the top of this upright frame. The latter was stayed from
the wall by two ample cast-iron stays. The fly-wheel was outside this
frame and carried the crank-pin. The shaft was continued quite stiff
through the wall-box, with long bearings. By this plan I got rid of
gears. Belts for taking power from a prime mover were then
unknown in England. The fly-wheel was only 10 feet in diameter, with
rim 8×10 inches, and was of course cast in one piece. It proved to be
ample. The engine was the largest I had yet made, 22 inches
diameter of cylinder by 36 inches stroke, making 100 revolutions. I
was still tied to 600 feet piston travel per minute. I did not venture to
suggest any greater speed than that; could not have sold an engine
in Lancashire if I had.
I introduced in this engine a feature which I afterwards sincerely
wished I had not done, though not on my own account. This was a
surface condenser. It worked well, always maintaining a good
vacuum. I shall have more to say respecting this engine later, which
will explain my regret about the condenser. I had about this time the
pleasure of a visit from two American engineers, Robert Briggs and
Henry R. Towne, who were traveling together in England, and were
at the trouble to look me up. I took them to see this engine, and I am
sorry to say they were not so much carried away with the novel
design as I was. But if I had the same to do again I do not think I
could do better.
The last time I saw that engine I found no one in the engine-room.
I inquired of some one where the engineer was, and was told I would
find him in the pipe-shop. I found him there at work. He told me he
had not been staying in the engine-room for a long time, he had
“nowt to do,” and so they gave him a job there.
When I went with Ormerod, Grierson & Co., they were deep in the
execution of a large order known as the Oporto Crystal Palace.
Portugal was behind every other country in Europe in its arts and
manufactures. In fact, it had none at all. At Oporto there was a large
colony of English merchants, by whom all the trade of the port was
carried on. These had conceived the idea of holding at Oporto an
international exposition, which idea was put into execution. Our firm
had secured the contract for all the iron-work for a pretty large iron
and glass building, and for the power and shafting for the Machinery
Hall.
 I was soon called on for the plans for an Allen engine to be shown
there. This was to be a non-condensing engine, 14×24, to make 150
revolutions per minute, and which accordingly was made and sent,
with two Lancashire boilers. I went on to attend the opening of the
exposition on the first of May, 1865, and see that the engine was
started in good shape.
I sailed from London on a trading-steamer for Oporto, and on the
voyage learned various things that I did not know before. One of
these was how to make port wine. I asked the captain what his cargo
consisted of. He replied: “Nine hundred pipes of brandy.” “What are
you taking brandy to Portugal for?” “To make wine.” “But what kind of
brandy is it that you take from England?” “British brandy.” “What is it
made from?” “Corn.” By this word he meant wheat. In England Indian
corn is called maize. I do not know whether “corn” included barley
and rye or not.
We had the pleasure in Oporto of meeting a Portuguese inventor.
In England there then existed the rude method of announcing at
each principal seaport the instant of noon by firing a cannon by an
electric current from the Greenwich Observatory. The more accurate
method now in use substitutes sight for sound. This inventor
proposed planting a cannon for this purpose in an opening in a
church tower, of which there were plenty. The hammer, by the fall of
which a pill of fulminate was to be exploded and the cannon fired,
was to be held up by a string. The rays of the sun were focused by a
burning-glass on a point, which at the instant that the sun reached
the meridian would reach this string. The string would be burned off,
and the cannon would go off. In the rare case for Oporto of a cloudy
day, or if for any reason the automatic action failed, it would be the
duty of a priest, after waiting a few minutes to be sure of the failure,
to go up and fire the gun. The enthusiastic inventor urged it on the
English. It was thought, however, that the more feeble power of the
sun’s rays in the higher latitude of England would not warrant the
application of this ingenious invention there, and besides neither
perforated church towers nor idle priests were available for the
purpose.
In order to get the full point of the following story it must be
remembered that at that time there was not a stationary steam-
engine in Portugal. English enterprise and capital had recently built a
line of railway between Lisbon and Oporto, and the locomotives on
that line furnished the only exhibition of steam power in the country.
To the educated classes of the Portuguese, therefore, the steam-
engine to be shown at the Oporto Crystal Palace was the object of
supreme interest.
In one respect they used to have on the Continent a way of
managing these things which was better than ours. The exhibitions
were completely ready on the opening day. For example, in the
French Exposition of 1867, which was the last one I attended, the
jurors commenced their work of examination on the day after the
opening, and completed it in three weeks. The only exception, I
think, was in the class of agricultural machinery, the examination of
which had to wait for the grain to grow. No imperial decree could
hasten that. So the Oporto Exposition was to be complete in all its
departments when the King of Portugal should declare it to be open.
I arrived in Oporto a week before the day fixed for the opening,
and found a funny state of affairs existing in the engineering
department. A very capable and efficient young man had been
placed by our firm in charge of their exhibit. I found his work finished.
The engine and shafting were in running order. Only the boilers were
not ready, in explanation of which I heard this statement: Some time
previously an Englishman had presented himself, bearing a
commission, duly signed by the executive officials, constituting him
“Chief Engineer of the Oporto Exposition,” and demanded charge of
our engine and boilers, which were all there was for him to be chief
engineer of. Our man very properly refused to recognize him, telling
him that he had been placed in charge of this exhibit by its owners,
and he should surrender it to nobody. But the new man had a pull.
The managers were furious at this defiance of their authority. On the
other hand, the guardian of our interests was firm. Finally, after much
altercation and correspondence with Manchester, a compromise had
been arranged, by which our representative retained charge of the
engine and shafting, and the boilers were handed over to the “chief
engineer.”
I was introduced to this functionary, and received his assurance
that the boilers would be “in readiness to-morrow.” This promise was
repeated every day. Finally the morning of the opening day arrived.
The city put on its gala attire. Flags and banners waved everywhere.
The people were awakened to a holiday by the booming of cannon
and the noise of rockets, which the Portuguese sent up by daylight to
explode in the air. The King and Queen and court came up from
Lisbon, and there was a grand opening ceremonial, after which a
royal procession made the circuit of the building.
At the hour fixed for the opening the “chief engineer” was just
having a fire started under the boilers for the first time. I was, of
course, pretty nervous, but our man said to me: “You go and witness
the opening ceremonies. They will last fully two hours, and we shall
doubtless be running when you get back.” When at their conclusion I
hurried through the crowds back to Machinery Hall, there stood the
engine motionless. The door to the boiler-room was shut as tightly as
possible, but steam was coming through every crevice. I could not
speak, but looked at our man for an explanation. “The fool,” said he,
“did not know enough to pack the heads of his drum-bolts; he can
get only two pounds of steam, and it blows out around all the bolts,
so as to drive the firemen out of the boiler-room.” There was no help
for it. The boilers had to be emptied and cooled before a man could
go inside and pack those bolt-heads.
 Attaching a Steam-drum to a Lancashire Boiler.

I must stop here and explain how a steam-drum is attached to a

Lancashire boiler, or, at least, how it was in those days. The
accompanying section will enable the reader to understand the
description. The “drum” was of cast iron. The upper part, not shown,
was provided with three raised faces on its sides, to two of which
branch pipes were bolted, each carrying a safety-valve, while the
steam-pipe was connected to the third. The manhole was in the top.
A cast-iron saddle was riveted on the boiler, and was provided at the
top with a broad flange turning inward. This flange and the flange at
the base of the drum had their surfaces planed, and a steam-joint
was made between them with the putty. Square bolt-holes were
cored in the flange of the saddle, and corresponding round holes
were bored in the flange of the drum. The bolts were forged square
for a short distance under the heads, so that they would be held from
turning in the square holes. These bolts were inserted from the
inside of the saddle, and were packed by winding them, under the
heads, with long hemp well filled with this putty. As the nut on the
outside was tightened the putty was squeezed into the square hole
around the bolt, and soon became hard. This packing was what the
“chief engineer” had omitted. The reader is now prepared to
appreciate the situation.
It was not long before the royal procession appeared at the
extreme end of the hall, the King and Queen in advance, and a long
line of the dignitaries of state and church, with a sprinkling of ladies,
following at a respectful distance. Slowly, but inevitably, the
procession advanced, between the rows of silent machinery and
mad exhibitors, until, arriving near us, the King stopped. An official
immediately appeared, of whom the King inquired who was present
to represent the engine, or at least I suppose he did, for in reply I
was pointed out to him. He stepped briskly over to me, and what do
you think he said? I defy any living Yankee to guess. With a manner
of the utmost cordiality, and speaking in English as if it were his
native tongue, he said: “I am extremely sorry that the neglect of
some one has caused you to be disappointed to-day.” Me
disappointed! It almost took my breath away. Without waiting for me
to frame a reply (I think he would have had to wait some time), His
Majesty continued cheerily: “No doubt the defect will be remedied
directly, and your engine will be enabled to run to-morrow.” Then,
looking the engine over quite leisurely, he observed: “It certainly
presents a fine appearance. I expect to visit the exposition again
after a few days, when I shall have more leisure, and will then ask
you to explain its operation to me.” He then turned and rejoined the
Queen, and the procession moved on, leaving me with food for
reflection for many a day. I had met a gentleman, a man who under
the most sudden and extreme test had acted with a courtesy which
showed that in his heart he had only kind feelings towards every
one. An outside imitation must have been thrown off its guard by
such a provocation as that. In reflecting on the incident, I saw clearly
that in stopping and speaking to me the King had only one thought,
and that was to say what he could to relieve my feelings of
disappointment and mortification. He had evidently been informed
that I could not get any steam, and took pains and went out of his
way to do this; showing a kindly and sympathetic feeling that must
express itself in act and conduct even towards a stranger. I left the
next day for England with some new ideas about the “effete
monarchies,” and with regret that I should see His Majesty no more.
 One or two observations on the Portuguese peasantry may be
interesting. They did not impress me so favorably as did their King.
On my first arrival I wished to have the engine turned over, that I
might see if the valve motions were all right. The engineer ordered
some men standing around to do this. Six of them laid hold of the
flywheel, three on each side, and tugged away apparently in earnest.
It did not move. I looked at the engineer in surprise. He said, “I will
show you what is the matter,” ordered them all away, and himself
pulled the wheel around with one hand. Then he explained: “I only
wanted you to see for yourself what they are good for. We have had
to bring every laborer from England. These men are on the pay-roll,
and spend their time in lounging about, but no Portuguese man will
work. Women do all the work in this country.”
The exposition buildings were located on a level spot on a hilltop
overlooking the river Douro, at an elevation, I judged, of about 200
feet. They wished to surround them with a greensward. Between the
heat and the light soil, the grass could be made to grow only by
continual watering, and this is the way they did it. About 400 women
and children brought up water from the river in vessels on their
heads. All day long this procession was moving up and down the hill,
pouring the water on the ground, performing the work of a steam-
pump and a 2-inch pipe.
I went to Portugal without a passport. Our financial partner told me
it would be quite unnecessary. He himself had just returned from
Oporto, where he went without a passport, and found that half a
crown given the custom-house inspector on his arrival and departure
was all he needed. I understood the intimation that if I got a
passport, the fee of, I believe, a guinea would not be allowed me.
So, although I went from London and could very conveniently have
obtained a passport at the United States legation, I omitted to do it.
On landing at Oporto the two-and-sixpenny piece opened the
kingdom of Portugal to me quite readily. Getting out, the process was
different. I found that the steamer on which I had come from London
would not return for a week or more after the opening of the
exposition, and I was impatient to get back. A line between Liverpool
and Buenos Ayres made Lisbon a port of call, and a steamer was
expected en route to Liverpool in the course of three or four days
after the opening; so I determined to come by that. The morning after
the opening I was awakened early by a telegram informing me that
the steamer had arrived at Lisbon during the preceding night, having
made an unexpectedly quick run across the South Atlantic, and
would sail for Liverpool that evening. The railroad ran only two trains
a day, and my only way to get to Lisbon in time was to take the nine-
o’clock train from Oporto. The station was on a hill on the opposite
side of the Douro. There was only one bridge across the river, and
that was half a mile up the stream from the hotel and from the
station. Oporto boasted no public conveyance. So I hired a couple of
boys to take my trunk down to the river, row me and it across, and
carry it up the hill to the station. I got off with two minutes to spare.
On applying at the steamship office in Lisbon for a passage ticket,
I was informed by the very gentlemanly English clerk that they were
forbidden to sell a ticket to any one without a passport. “However,”
he added, “this will cause you no inconvenience. The United States
legation is on the second block below here. I will direct you to it, and
you can obtain a passport without any trouble.” By the way, how did
he recognize me as an American, and how was it that I was always
recognized as an American? I never could explain that puzzle.
On knocking at the door of the legation, it was opened by a
colored man, who informed me that this was a fête day, and that the
minister was attending a reception at the palace (this was the first
time I ever heard of a royal reception in the forenoon), but if I would
call again at three o’clock the passport would be ready for me. So,
leaving with him my address, I left, to amuse myself as best I could
till three o’clock.
On presenting myself at that hour I was informed by the same
darkey that the minister would not give me a passport; that he had
bidden him tell me he knew nothing about me; I might be an
American or I might not: at any rate, he was not going to certify that I
was. I had got into the country without a passport, and I would have
to get out without one for all him. I inquired if the minister were at
home. “Yes, sir,” replied the darkey, “he is at home, but he will not
see you; he told me to tell you so,” and with that he bowed me out
and shut the door.
 I went back to the steamship office and reported my failure to my
friend the clerk. He drew a long whistle. “Not see you! What’s he
here for? He must be drunk; that’s it, he’s drunk.” After a minute’s
reflection he added: “We must see the Secretary of State; I am well
acquainted with him, and he will get you out of this mess directly. If
you will kindly wait till I have finished my correspondence, which will
occupy me for about half an hour, I will take you to his office. You
can amuse yourself with this copy of the Times,” handing it to me.
When we reached the office of the Secretary of State we found the
door locked. “Oh,” said he, “I had forgotten, this is a saint’s day, and
the public offices are closed. We must go to his house.” We found
the Secretary at home. I was introduced, and the Englishman told
my case, of course in Portuguese. As he proceeded I saw the official
brow darken. I woke up to the enormity of my offense. Little kingdom,
big dignity. I had defied their laws and corrupted their official. The
case looked serious. The Secretary, in fact, found it so serious that
he did not feel like taking the sole responsibility of its decision, but
sent out for two others of His Majesty’s advisers to consult with him.
The assembling of this court caused a delay of half an hour, during
which I had time to conjure up all sorts of visions, including an
indefinite immurement in a castle and a diplomatic correspondence,
while the deuce would be to pay with my business at home.
Finally the officials sent for arrived. The instant they entered the
room I was recognized by one of them. He had accompanied the
King to the opening of the exposition the day before, which the
pressure of public business or some game or other had prevented
the Secretary of State from doing. In fact, he had headed the
procession behind their Majesties and so had seen the graciousness
of the King’s favor to me.
He spoke a few words to the Secretary of State, when, presto,
everything was changed. The court did not convene, but instead
cordial handshaking with the man on whom the beams of royal favor
had shone.
I left my smiling friends with a passport or something just as good,
added my twelve pounds sterling to the account of the ship, and had
time before it sailed to eat a sumptuous dinner at the hotel. I was in
the land of olives, and ate freely of the unaccustomed delicacy, in
consequence of which I lost my dinner before the ship was well out
of the Tagus and have never cared much for olives since.
I was full of wrath against the United States minister, and
determined to send a protest to the State Department as soon as I
reached Manchester. But there I found something else to attend to
and dropped the matter. I read, however, with satisfaction, a few
months after, that the item of the salary of the minister to Portugal
had been cut out of the appropriation bill by the House of
Representatives.
 CHAPTER XI

Trouble with the Evan Leigh Engine. Gear Patterns from the Whitworth Works.
First Order for a Governor. Introduction of the Governor into Cotton Mills.
Invention of my Condenser. Failure of Ormerod, Grierson & Co.

he Evan Leigh engine was not quite ready to be

started when I left England. On my return I found an
unexpected trouble and quite an excitement. The
engine had been started during my absence, and ran
all right, but it was found almost impossible to supply
the boilers with water. Two injectors were required,
and two men feeding the furnaces, and everybody was agreed that
the fault lay with the engine. The boilers were a pair of Harrison
boilers, from which great results had been expected. These were
formed of cast-iron globes, 8 inches internal diameter, with 3-inch
necks, held together by bolts running through a string of these
globes. They were an American invention, and naturally Mr. Luders
(who was introducing them in England) and I fraternized. I felt greatly
disappointed. I did not then see Mr. Leigh, but had the pleasure of an
interview with his son. This young gentleman denounced me in good
Saxon terms as a fraud and an impostor, and assured me that he
would see to it that I never sold another engine in England. He knew
that the boilers were all right. His friend Mr. Hetherington, an
extensive manufacturer of spinning and weaving machinery, and
who had taken the agency to sell these boilers, had had one working
for a long time in company with a Lancashire boiler, and there was
no difference in their performance. He finished by informing me that
the engine would be put out as quickly as they could get another.
I put an indicator on the engine, and show here the diagrams it
took. I could not see that much fault was to be found with those
diagrams. Old Mr. Leigh, after looking at them, said nothing, but he
did something. He went to an old boiler-yard and bought a second-
hand Lancashire boiler, had it carted into his yard and set under an
improvised shed alongside his boiler-house, and in two or three days
it was supplying the steam for my engine, and all difficulties had
vanished. The consumption of steam and coal fell to just what it had
been calculated that it should be, and everybody felt happy, except
my friend Mr. Luders, who, notwithstanding his grievous
disappointment, had never gone back on me, and young Mr. Leigh,
who owed me an apology which he was not manly enough to render.
Repeated efforts were tried to make the Harrison boilers answer, but
the result was always the same, and they were abandoned.

Diagrams from Engine of Evan Leigh, Son & Co. Sixteen Pounds to the Inch.

And, after all, the fault was largely mine. I did not think of it till long
afterwards, and it did not occur to anybody else, not even to those
most deeply interested in the boiler. My surface condenser was the
cause of all the trouble, and that was why I have to this day deeply
regretted having put it in. The oil used in the cylinder was all sent