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Emerging Carbon Capture Technologies
This page intentionally left blank
Emerging Carbon
Capture Technologies
Towards a Sustainable Future

Edited by
Mohammad Khalid
Graphene and Advanced 2D Materials Research Group, School of
Engineering and Technology, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia

Swapnil A. Dharaskar
CO2 Research Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of
Technology Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar,
Gujarat, India

Mika Sillanpää
Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Mining, Metallurgy and
Chemical Engineering, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein,
South Africa

Humaira Siddiqui
Department of Biological Sciences, School of Medicine and Life Sciences,
Sunway University, Malaysia
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Contents

List of contributors xiii

About the editors xvii
Preface xix

1. Introduction to carbon capture

Anirban Dey, Sukanta Kumar Dash and Bishnupada Mandal
1. Carbon cycle: source to sink 1
2. Sectors responsible for anthropogenic CO2 emission 4
3. Energy CO2-nexus and climate change 5
4. Overview of CO2 capture methods 7
4.1. Precombustion 7
4.2. Postcombustion 9
4.3. Oxyfuel combustion 9
4.4. Combustion technologies comparison for CO2 capture 10
5. CO2 capture from stationary industrial sources 10
5.1. Petroleum refining 14
5.2. Cement manufacturing 15
5.3. Iron and steel industries 16
5.4. Natural gas processing 16
5.5. Ethanol production 17
5.6. Ammonia processing 17
6. Technologies for CO2 separation 18
7. Thermodynamics of CO2 separation 18
7.1. Modeling phase and chemical equilibria of CO2
absorption 22
7.2. Thermodynamic models 23
8. CO2 capture economics 25
9. Challenges and future directions 26
10. Conclusions 27
References 28

2. CO2 capture by absorption

Bahareh Sadeghalvad, Hamid Ebrahimi, Niyayesh Khorshidi
and Amirreza Azadmehr
1. Introduction to the absorption process 33

v
vi Contents

2. Solvent systems for chemical absorption 34

3. Solubility criteria for CO2 absorption 35
4. Physical chemistry of CO2 absorption 36
4.1. Thermodynamic models 36
4.2. Chemical kinetic 36
4.3. Quantum chemistry 37
5. Novel solvents for CO2 absorption 37
5.1. Amine-based solvent system 37
5.2. Non-amine-based solvent system 39
5.3. Ionic liquids 40
5.4. Deep eutectic solvents 42
5.5. Solvent blends 46
5.6. Water-free solvents 46
5.7. Biphasic solvents 48
5.8. Enzyme-enhanced CO2 absorption 49
5.9. Physical absorption solvents 52
6. Absorption cost and energy requirement 52
6.1. Capital cost estimation based on bare module cost (CBM) 54
6.2. Energy requirement 54
7. Recycling and regeneration criteria 55
8. Challenges and future perspective 55
9. Conclusion 56
References 56

3. CO2 capture by adsorption

Bahareh Sadeghalvad, Hamid Ebrahimi and Amirreza Azadmehr
1. Introduction to gas-solid adsorption 63
2. Conventional solid adsorbents 65
2.1. Activated carbon 66
2.2. Zeolites 66
3. Flexible adsorbents 67
4. Novel adsorbent materials 68
4.1. Metal organic framework (MOFs) 68
4.2. Carbon nanomaterials 69
4.3. Hybrid materials 71
4.4. Amine-based solid materials 72
5. Recent developments in adsorption technology 73
5.1. Utilizing renewable energy 73
5.2. Hybrid processes or a combination of processes 74
6. Adsorption cost model and energy requirement 75
7. Challenges and future perspective 78
8. Conclusion 79
References 80

4. Chemical looping combustion for inherent CO2

capture
Hari C. Mantripragada
1. Gas separationdthe crux of CO2 capture 91
 Contents vii

2. Chemical looping combustion (CLC) 91

2.1. Calcium looping (CaL) for postcombustion CO2
capture 93
3. Fuels for chemical looping combustion 94
4. Oxygen carriers for chemical looping combustion 96
5. Reactor systems for chemical looping combustion 99
5.1. Reactors for gaseous fuels 100
5.2. Reactors for solid fuels 102
6. Performance model for chemical looping combustion 105
6.1. Mass balance equations 105
6.2. Energy balance equations 109
6.3. Application of performance model 109
7. Power plant applications of chemical looping combustion 112
8. Outlook for CLC 117
9. Conclusions 118
References 118

5. Membrane for CO2 separation

Harri Nieminen, Arto Laari and Tuomas Koiranen
1. Introduction 121
2. Membrane contactors 123
2.1. Background and theory 123
2.2. Membrane contactors in CO2 absorption 130
2.3. Absorbent solutions 131
2.4. Membrane contactors in CO2 stripping 134
2.5. Feasibility and demonstrations 135
3. Gas separation membranes 136
3.1. Background and theory 136
3.2. Membrane materials 139
3.3. Process design, optimization, and cost estimates 148
4. Challenges and future prospects 151
5. Conclusions 153
References 153

6. Electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to

hydrocarbons: techniques and methods
Reyad Shawabkeh, Akram Al-Absi, Mohamed Shamlooh,
Mazen Khaled and Ibnelwaleed A. Hussein
1. Introduction 161
2. Reaction mechanism 162
2.1. First pathway 162
2.2. Second pathway 163
3. Techniques and concepts in electrochemistry 163
3.1. Cyclic voltammetry 163
3.2. Linear sweep voltammetry 168
3.3. Chronopotentiometry 169
3.4. Chronoamperometry 170
viii Contents

3.5. Faradaic efficiency 173

3.6. Overpotential 173
4. Experimental investigations 174
4.1. Electrode structure 174
4.2. Gas diffusion electrodes 178
4.3. Electrolyte 179
4.4. Temperature and pressure effects 182
4.5. Rotating disk electrode (RDE) 182
5. Analytical techniques for formic acid/formate 183
6. Conclusions 184
References 184

7. Hydrate-based CO2 separation

Tinku Saikia and Abdullah Sultan
1. Introduction 193
2. CO2 separation technologies 194
2.1. Absorption 194
2.2. Adsorption technology 195
2.3. Membrane technology 196
2.4. Cryogenic separation 197
3. Technical drawbacks associated with conventional CO2
separation technologies 197
4. Gas hydrates 198
4.1. Gas hydrate formation and dissociation kinetics 199
4.2. Nucleation 200
4.3. Hydrate growth 201
5. Gas hydrateebased CO2 capture 202
5.1. CO2 capture mechanism 202
5.2. Operational parameters of hydrate-based CO2 separation 204
6. CO2 hydrate-based separation process and reactor designs 206
6.1. Continuous process 206
6.2. Stirred reactors 207
6.3. Ejector-type loop reactor (based on microbubble
technology) 208
6.4. Fixed-bed reactor 210
6.5. Unstirred reactor 213
7. Different hydrate promoters (chemical additives) 214
7.1. Tetra-n-butyl ammonium bromide 214
7.2. Tetrahydrofuran 217
7.3. Propane 218
7.4. Cyclopentane 219
7.5. Surfactants 220
8. Cost comparison calculation for hydrate-based
CO2 separation 224
9. Conclusions 226
Acknowledgment 226
References 226
 Contents ix

8. Innovations in cryogenic carbon capture

Tushar Patil, Swapnil A. Dharaskar and B. Rajasekhar Reddy
1. Introduction 239
2. CO2 capture approaches and technologies 241
3. Cryogenic technologies 242
3.1. Cryogenic distillation 244
3.2. Cryogenic packed bed 246
3.3. CryoCell process 247
3.4. Antisublimation (AnSU) 248
3.5. External cooling loop cryogenic carbon capture
technology (CCCECL) 249
3.6. Stirling cooler system technique 250
4. Benefits of cryogenic carbon capture techniques 251
4.1. Energy storage 251
4.2. High purity of CO2 product 251
5. Challenges and limitations of cryogenic carbon capture
techniques 252
5.1. Operating cost 252
5.2. Operation efficiency 252
5.3. Impurities 252
6. Conclusion 253
Acknowledgment 253
References 253

9. CO2 capture from the atmospheric air using

nanomaterials
Mohammed Al Hinaai
1. Introduction 257
2. Direct atmosphere CO2 capture 258
3. Nanomaterials for DACC 261
3.1. Carbon nanomaterials 261
3.2. Inorganic nanomaterials 267
4. Challenges and future perspective 270
5. Conclusions 271
References 272

10. CO2 transportation: safety regulations and energy

requirement
Ahmad K. Sleiti and Wahib A. Al-Ammari
Nomenclature 279
1. Introduction 280
2. CO2 pipelines design and technical characteristics 282
3. Pipeline safety and integrity 288
4. Pipeline access and tariff regulation 290
5. CO2 maritime transportation system 291
6. Land transportation 295
x Contents

7. Cost estimation 299

8. Environment, safety, and risk aspects 305
9. Energy requirement 306
9.1. International codes and standards 313
10. Legal issues and international conventions 314
11. Conclusions 315
References 316

11. Techno-economic analysis and optimization models

for CO2 capture processes
Tero Tynjälä
1. Introduction 321
2. Parameters describing CO2 capture process technical
performance 323
3. Economical parameters and cost functions 329
4. Methodology for CO2 capture process analysis 333
5. Example case calculation and performance analysis 335
6. Cost structure of different CO2 capture technologies 337
7. Life cycle assessment for various CO2 capture processes 339
8. Potential improvement and cost reduction 340
9. Challenges and future perspective 342
10. Conclusion 343
References 343

12. Modeling and molecular simulation methods

for CO2 capture
Abhishek Kumar Gupta
1. Introduction 347
2. Molecular simulations of materials employed for
CO2 capture 349
2.1. Metal-organic frameworks 349
2.2. Amorphous polymers and polymeric membranes 352
2.3. Amine solutions 355
2.4. Ionic liquids 357
3. Process modeling and simulation 359
3.1. Amine solutions 360
3.2. Carbonates 362
3.3. Ionic liquids 363
4. Challenges and future directions 364
5. Conclusions 365
References 365

13. Biological processes for CO2 capture

Ramesh K. Guduru, Anurag Ateet Gupta and Uttakantha Dixit
1. Introduction 371
1.1. CCS technologies based on biological processes 374
 Contents xi

2. Biological approaches for CO2 capture 374

2.1. Approaches based on photosynthetic algae 377
3. The extent of CO2 fixation by microalgae 379
3.1. Suspended growth reactors 380
3.2. Attached growth reactors 385
3.3. Bioscrubbers 386
4. Approaches based on nonphotosynthetic
organisms 387
5. Approaches based on bioelectrochemical systems 388
6. Forestation for CO2 capture 389
6.1. Forestry activities to mitigate climate change 391
7. Improve forestry techniques to reduce emissions 391
8. Carbon sequestration on agricultural lands 391
9. Oceanic fertilization 392
9.1. The ocean carbon cycle 393
9.2. Ecosystem restoration 394
9.3. Large-scale seaweed cultivation 394
10. Challenges and future trends 394
11. Conclusions 396
References 396

14. Decarbonization: regulation and policies

Mohamed Chaker Necibi, Youssef Brouziyne and
Abdelghani Chehbouni
1. Introduction 401
2. The Paris Agreement 402
2.1. Overview 402
2.2. Estimated impacts of the Paris Agreement 403
2.3. Weak points of the Paris Agreement 406
2.4. Future endeavors related to the PA 406
3. Carbon tax and credit 407
4. Role of government in enforcing the policies: Morocco
as a case study 410
4.1. Morocco in brief 410
4.2. Emissions pattern 410
4.3. Political commitment 412
4.4. Main sectors of action 413
4.5. Opportunities and challenges 415
4.6. Current challenges and future trends in carbon
capture 416
4.7. Challenges and barriers 416
4.8. Future trends of carbon capture 419
4.9. Connecting with big data and artificial intelligence 421
5. Conclusion 422
References 422
xii Contents

15. Circular carbon economy

Ricky Saputra, Mohammad Khalid, Rashmi Walvekar and
Agamuthu Pariatamby
1. Introduction 427
2. Moving toward a low carbon economy using circular
economy principle 429
3. The circular economy opportunity for industries 442
3.1. Opportunity in manufacturing and construction
industries 442
3.2. Opportunity in food industry 444
3.3. Opportunity in the mobility industry 446
4. Policy levers for a low carbon circular economy 448
5. Challenges and future directions 453
6. Conclusions 458
References 459

Index 463
List of contributors

Akram Al-Absi, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of

Calgary, Calgary, Canada
Wahib A. Al-Ammari, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, College
of Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
Mohammed Al Hinaai, A’ Sharqiyah University, College of Applied and Health
Sciences, Department of Basic Sciences, Ibra, Oman
Amirreza Azadmehr, Department of Mining & Metallurgical Engineering, Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Youssef Brouziyne, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), International
Water Research Institute (IWRI), Green City Benguerir, Morocco
Abdelghani Chehbouni, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), International
Water Research Institute (IWRI), Green City Benguerir, Morocco
Sukanta Kumar Dash, CO2 Research Group, Department of Chemical Engineering,
Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Anirban Dey, CO2 Research Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Pandit
Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Swapnil A. Dharaskar, CO2 Research Group, Department of Chemical Engineering,
School of Technology Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat,
India
Uttakantha Dixit, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal Energy
University (PDEU), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Hamid Ebrahimi, Wilson College of Textiles, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, NC, United States
Ramesh K. Guduru, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal
Energy University (PDEU), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Abhishek Kumar Gupta, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of
Technology, Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Anurag Ateet Gupta, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pandit Deendayal
Energy University (PDEU), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Ibnelwaleed A. Hussein, Gas Processing Center, College of Engineering, Qatar
University, Doha, Qatar; Chemical Engineering Department, College of Engineering,
Qatar University, Doha, Qatar

xiii
xiv List of contributors

Mazen Khaled, Department of Chemistry and Earth Sciences, Qatar University, Doha,
Qatar
Mohammad Khalid, Graphene and Advanced 2D Materials Research Group, School
of Engineering and Technology, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia; ElastiCities
Research Cluster, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Niyayesh Khorshidi, Department of Mining & Metallurgical Engineering, Amirkabir
University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Tuomas Koiranen, Department of Separation Science, LUT School of Engineering
Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Lappeenranta,
Finland
Arto Laari, Department of Separation Science, LUT School of Engineering Science,
Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Lappeenranta, Finland
Bishnupada Mandal, Department of Chemical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Guwahati, Guwahati, Assam, India
Hari C. Mantripragada, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering,
Swanson School of Engineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United
States
Mohamed Chaker Necibi, Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Interna-
tional Water Research Institute (IWRI), Green City Benguerir, Morocco
Harri Nieminen, Department of Separation Science, LUT School of Engineering
Science, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT, Lappeenranta,
Finland
Agamuthu Pariatamby, Jeffrey Sachs Center on Sustainable Development, Sunway
University, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Tushar Patil, CO2 Research Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of
Technology Pandit Deendayal Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
B. Rajasekhar Reddy, Department of Fuel, Minerals & Metallurgical Enigineering,
Indian Institue of Technology (Indian School of Mine) Dahnbad, Jharkhand, India;
Delaware Energy Institute, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, United States
Bahareh Sadeghalvad, Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction
Engineering, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, United States
Tinku Saikia, Department of Petroleum Engineering and Center for Integrative
Petroleum Research, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia
Ricky Saputra, School of Computer Science and Engineering, Taylor’s University
Lakeside Campus, Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
Mohamed Shamlooh, Gas Processing Center, College of Engineering, Qatar University,
Doha, Qatar
Reyad Shawabkeh, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Jordan,
Amman, Jordan
 List of contributors xv

Ahmad K. Sleiti, Department of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering, College of

Engineering, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
Abdullah Sultan, Department of Petroleum Engineering and Center for Integrative
Petroleum Research, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia
Tero Tynjälä, LUT School of Energy Systems, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of
Technology LUT, Lappeenranta, Finland
Rashmi Walvekar, Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Energy and
Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Selangor, Malaysia
This page intentionally left blank
About the editors

Dr. Mohammad Khalid is a Research Professor and Head of Graphene and

Advanced 2D Materials Research Group at Sunway University, Malaysia. His
research interests lie in the area of advanced nanomaterial synthesis, heat
transfer fluids, energy harvesting, and storage. He is among the top 2% of sci-
entists in the field of materials, with over 200 research publications in peer-
reviewed international journals. He has supervised more than 30 postgraduate
students and has over 15 years of research and teaching experience. He is also a
Fellow of the Higher Education Academy, UK.
Professor Mika Sillanpää received his M.Sc. (English) and D.Sc. (En-
glish) degrees from Aalto University, where he also completed an MBA degree
in 2013. He has supervised over 50 PhDs and been a reviewer in over 250
academic journals, many of which are top-ranked in their fields. He is also a
highly cited researcher with over 900 research articles in peer-reviewed
international journals. Mika Sillanpää has served on the editorial boards of
several scholarly publications. He is currently an Editor in Inorganic Chem-
istry Letters (Elsevier), an Associate Editor in Environmental Chemistry
Letters (Springer), and a Field Chief Editor in Frontiers in Environmental
Chemistry.
Dr. Swapnil A. Dharaskar is an Associate Professor and Head of the
Chemical Engineering Department, School of Technology at Pandit Deendayal
Energy University, Gandhinagar, Gujarat. His research interests are CO2
separations, deep eutectic solvents/ionic liquids, desulfurization process, and
nanotechnology. He is the principal investigator of a CO2 separation project
funded by the Department of Science and Technology, India, as part of the
Mission Innovation carbon capture scheme. He has supervised 6 PhDs and 20
MTech students and has published over 50 research papers in international
journals. He is a member of various professional organizations, including
IIChE, AIChE, ACS, IWA, IEI, ISTE, IAENG, ISRD, IAN, etc. He also serves
on the editorial boards of several prestigious international journals.
Humaira Siddiqui graduated with a bachelor’s degree in biotechnology
engineering from Integral University, India. She completed her M.Sc. from the
School of Medicine and Life Sciences, Sunway University, Malaysia. Her
research focuses on carbonic anhydrase enzyme-mediated carbon capture from
extremophiles.

xvii
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Back to puzzle

Note.—“A headless man had a letter,” etc., page 78. Was “the
letter” the letter O—equivalent to a cipher, to nought, or nothing? If
this is the solution, then the headless man had “nothing” to write;
“nothing” was read by the blind man; the dumb repeated and the deaf
heard “nothing.”
 Footnotes
[1] Reminichia—overhanging the water—the Indian name of a
bluff at the entrance of a certain Minnesota city.
[2] Full of delights: blessed.
[3] The book was written in good faith, and was published for the
benefit of the Syracuse University.
[4] Emerson, in his “Parnassus,” and the Atlantic Monthly for
April, 1875, accredit “A Colusion between A Water-Snaik and A
Aligater,” to G. H. Derby (“John Phenix”). It was contributed by “K. N.
Pepper” to the Knickerbocker Magazine, in 1854.
 Transcriber’s Notes

Inconsistent word hyphenation and spelling have been

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