Number Sets Intervals of ℝ Function

Sets (Big to small) Symbol Meaning Cardinality Closure Properties Notation Range Name A function from a set 𝐀 to a set 𝐁 is a rule that associates with each and every
Real Numbers R All numbers less complex Uncountable +, -, ×, ÷ (a, b) a<x<b Open Interval element of 𝐀 (input) exactly one element of 𝐁 (output) – vertical line test
All numbers that can be expressed as a quotient
[a, b] a≤x≤b Closed Interval * Number of mappings from set 𝐀 to a set 𝐁 = 𝐁 𝐀
+, -, ×, ÷ [a, b) a≤x<b Half-open
Rational Numbers Q 𝑝 Countable (a, b] a<x≤b interval 𝐀 is the domain of the function, and every x ∈ 𝐀 can only map to one y ∈ 𝐁
𝑞, p , q ∈ Z, q ≠ 0 *Irrational numbers (a, ∞) a<x 𝐁 is the codomain of the function, but one y ∈ 𝐁 can be mapped from many 𝐱 ∈ 𝐀
have none Open ray
(−∞, b) x<b Domain, Codomain, and Range
Integers Z All Numbers without fractional component Countable +, -, × [a, ∞] a≤x
Closed ray The domain is the set of values of the image of f 3 Types of Functions
Whole Numbers W All positive integers Countable +, × [−∞, b] x≤b The codomain is the expected set of preimages of f Definition Proving/Disproving
Natural Numbers N All positive integers less 0 Countable +, × *** 0,1 ≠ 0,1 *** The range is actual set of preimages of f
Let f: X → Y be a function from set X to set Y. Proving a function is injective:
Subsets Ways to Write Sets Notation Suppose f x1 = f x2 , and derive that x1 = x2
Type Meaning Notation Way For sets with Example Remarks Functions are denoted by letters. 𝐟 𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 one − to − one 𝐢𝐟𝐟 .
Every element of A is also an Finite elements {3, -3} [≠(3,-3)] If f is a function from domain 𝐀 to codomain 𝐁, ∀ x1, x2 ∈ X, x1 ≠ x2 → f x1 ≠ f x2 or . Disproving a function is injective:
Set Roster Order and repetition do not matter 𝐟: 𝐀 → 𝐁, 𝐟(𝐱) = ⋯. Show that that x1 ≠ x2 but f x1 = f x2
element of B Fixed Pattern {…,-2,-1,0,1,2,…} ∀ x1, x2 ∈ X, f x1 = f x2 → x1 = x2.
Subset

Injective Function
(A is a subset of B) A⊆B Equality of Functions
General Form  { x ∈ S | P(x) }
Two functions f and g are equal provided: 𝐟 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐢𝐧𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐟𝐟. Proving a function of a cartesian product is injective:
* For any set A, A is a subset X Variable 1. The domain of 𝐟 equals the domain of 𝐠 ∃ x1, x2 ∈ X such that x1 ≠ x2 and f x1 = f x2 . Suppose f m, n = f p, q , and derive that m, n = (p, q)
of A, A ⊆ A. S Underlying set for x 2. The codomain of 𝐟 equals the codomain of 𝐠
Proper Subset A ⊆ B but A ≠ B A⊂B 3. For each 𝐱 in the domain of 𝐟, 𝐟 𝐱 = 𝐠(𝐱) All elements in codomain mapped Proving a function by case is injective:
Set Builder Anything {x ∈ R+| x<10} P(x) Underlying condition in terms of x
Examples Image and Pre-image from exactly one element in domain Split into cases where x1, x2 are in all possible
Sometimes the underlying set may be omitted from the combinations and use the normal proving techniques
1 ⊈ {{1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}} 1 ∉ {{1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}} 𝐟: 𝐀 → 𝐁, 𝐟(𝐱) = ⋯.
notation. Not all elements in codomain must be
{1} ⊈ {{1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}} {{1}} ∉ {{1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}} If x ∈ 𝐀, then the element of 𝐁 associated with x is f(x) mapped to Proving a function in ℤ × ℤis injective:
{{1}} ⊆ {{1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}} {1} ∈ {{1}, {2, 3}, {4, 5}} e.g. {n | n is an even integer} Suppose f x1, x2 = f y1, y2 , and derive that
Every element in the domain 𝐀 has exactly one image in the codomain 𝐁, * If 𝐗 > 𝐘 , 𝐟 𝐜𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐛𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 x1, x2 = y1, y2 using simultaneous equations
Cartesian Product Power Sets Partitions
But an element in the codomain 𝐁 can have more than one preimage in the domain 𝐀 Let f: X → Y be a function from set X to set Y.
- A x B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B} Set of all subsets of A All 3 conditions that must be fulfilled for a set, S, to be a partition of A
- (a, b) ≠ (b, a) |P(A)| = 2|A| 1) Each subset(part) of S is non empty
𝐟 𝐢𝐬 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 onto 𝐢𝐟𝐟 . Proving a function is surjective:
- If u ∈ A x B, then u = (a, b), a ∈ A, b ∈ B 2) Every subset(part) of S is mutually disjoint
A = a, b, c ∀ y ∈ Y, ∃ x ∈ X such that y = f(x). Express x in terms of 𝑦 and show that f x = 𝑦
- A × B = A × |B| 3) The union of all subsets(parts) of S is A
- a, b ∈ A × B ↔ a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B 𝑆 ∈ P(A) ↔ 𝑆 ⊆ 𝐴 range f = codomain(f).
Disproving a function is surjective:
A = a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k

USE THIS PROPETY TO CONVERT TO LOGIC
Cartesian Distributive Laws
A × B ∪ C = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
(A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C)
A × B ∩ C = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
(A ∩ B) × C = (A × C) ∩ (B × C)
A × B − C = A × B − (A × C)
(A − B) × C = A × C − (B × C)
*A ⊆ B ≡ ∀ x ∈ U x ∈ A → x ∈ B *
Proving Subsets - Element Chasing Method
Disproving
Proving A ⊆ B
A⊆B
For an arbitrary element in A, show Find some x in A
Surjective Function
Find a 𝑦 and show that there does not exist an x where
a , b , {c} One example of a partition: S = { a, b , d, f , c, e, g , h , i, j, k } Inverse Image 𝐟 𝐢𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐟𝐟.
P(A) = a, b , a, c , {b, c} Not a partition: S = {{ }, d, c , c, e, g , h , i, j, k } ∃ y ∈ Y, such that ∀ x ∈ X, y ≠ f(x). f x = 𝑦, i.e., for all x, f x ≠ 𝑦
𝐟: 𝐀 → 𝐁, 𝐟(𝐱) = ⋯.
a, b, c , ∅ *A set can have many different partitions, but each is unique! If y ∈ 𝐁 is an image under f, then the set of all elements of 𝐀 that are the preimages range f ≠ codomain(f).
Proving a function by case is surjective:
of 𝐲 under f is called the inverse image of 𝐲,
Elements in codomain can be mapped Split codomain into cases and apply normal proving
P(∅) = ∅, {∅} Bn is the total number of partitions of a set with n elements, from B0, from more than one element in techniques
Inverse image of y = x ∈ A f x = y}, is a subset of the domain 𝐀
An empty set is considered an element
1, 1, 2, 5, 15, 52, 203, 877, 4140, 21147, 115975, 678570, domain
4213597, 27644437, 190899322, 1382958545, 10480142147, Proving a function in ℤ × ℤ is surjective:
All elements in codomain must be For a general x1, x2 in the co-domain, construct a y1, y2
mapped to, and range = codomain in the domain such that f y1, y2 will give you x1, x2
Indexed collection of sets Ways to count number of partitions of a set
Express x in terms of y to find the inverse function * If 𝐗 < 𝐘 , 𝐟 𝐜𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐛𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞
Notation Expanded Set of elements in Let 𝐵𝑛+1 = σ𝑛𝑘=0 𝑛𝑘 𝐵𝑘 denote the number of partitions of a Identity and Characteristic Functions Let f: X → Y be a function from set X to set Y.
k set with 𝑛 + 1 elements. Suppose we are partioning the set The identity function on a set of values, A, is the mapping
ሩ An A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ ⋯ ∩ Ak all of A1 to Ak {1,2, … , 𝑛 + 1}. Focus first on the block containing the
IA: A → A, IA x = x for all x ∈ A 𝐟 𝐢𝐬 𝐛𝐢𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 one − to − one correspondence 𝐢𝐟𝐟 .
n=1 element 1. Let 𝑘 denote the number of elements other than It is both injective and surjective.

Bijective function
1 that belong to this block. We can choose these elements in The characteristic function on a set of values, A, is the mapping Prove that it is both injective and surjective
that the element satisfies B as well such that x does ሩ An A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A 3 ∩ ⋯ all of An 𝑛
not exist in B n∈s
𝑘 ways. With this block, we can then partition the 1 if x ∈ A
remaining 𝑛 + 1 − 𝑘 + 1 = 𝑛 − 𝑘 elements in 𝐵𝑛−𝑘 ways. χA: S → ℤ, χA x = ቊ , where A ⊆ S All elements in codomain mapped To prove a set is infinite yet countable, show that all
A = {x ∈ Z | x = 8k –1, k ∈ Z} using a k 0 if x ∉ A from exactly one element in domain elements in the set can be mapped to the set of positive
B = {x ∈ Z | x = 4h + 3, h ∈ Z} counterexample at least one of
ራ An A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 ∪ ⋯ ∪ Ak Function on Cartesian Products
using the given A1 to Ak Summing over 𝑘 gives us σ𝑛𝑘=0 𝑛𝑘 𝐵𝑛−𝑘 = σ𝑛𝑘=0 𝑛
𝑘
𝐵𝑘 by integers using a bijective function
n=1 The domain and/or codomain of a function can be a Cartesian product of two or more All elements in the codomain are
Let x ∈ A conditions symmetry of binomial coefficients.
sets mapped to, and range = codomain
Then x = 8k − 1 for some integer k ራ An A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A 3 ∪ ⋯ at least one of An Examples:
So x = 4 2k − 4 + 3 n∈s Indexed collection of sets Example
f: ℤ × ℤ → ℤ, g: ℝ2 → ℝ2 , h: ℝ3 → ℝ2 , * If 𝐗 ≠ 𝐘 , 𝐟 𝐜𝐚𝐧𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐛𝐞 𝐛𝐢𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞
= 𝟒 𝟐𝐤 − 𝟏 + 𝟑 1 1
Notation Meaning An = x ∈ ℝ | ≤ x≤ 1+ for all n ∈ ℤ+ f m, n = 2m + n, g x, y = 2x + y, y2 − 1 , h x, y, z = 2x + z, x − 3y + 5z ,
n n Countable Sets
k Inverse Functions
Prove A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A to prove A = B A set 𝐒 is countable iff it is finite or countably infinite. Else, it is an uncountably infinite set.
x ∈ ሩ An x ∈ A n for all integers n from 1 to k 1 1 1 1 1 1 f x = y iff f −1 y = x, where f −1 is the inverse function of f.
Disproving Set Relations n=1
ሩ An =
1
, 1 + ∩ , 1 + ∩ , 1 + ∩ ⋯ = 1,1 = {1}
1 2 2 3 3 A set 𝐒 is countably infinite iff 𝐒 = |ℤ+ |, and there exists a bijection 𝐟, 𝐬𝐮𝐜𝐡 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐟: ℤ+ → 𝑺
n∈ℤ+
- Find a counterexample of sets that disproves the The inverse of a function exists iff the function is bijective. To find the inverse,
x ∈ ሩ An x ∈ A n for all elements n in S Examples of countably infinite sets:
relation 1 1 1 1 1 1 express x in terms of y
n∈s ራ An = , 1 + ∩ , 1 + ∩ , 1 + ∩ ⋯ = (0, 2] ℤ+ , O+ , 2ℤ+ , ℤ− , ℤ, ℤ × ℤ, Q+ , …
Set Relations with Conditions k 1 1 2 2 3 3 Composite Functions
n∈ℤ+
Use ‘if’ to prove ‘then’ x ∈ ራ An x ∈ A n for some integer n from 1 to k Let f: A → B and g: B → C be functions, where C ⊆ A.
Indexed Collection Distributions How to show an infinite set A is countably?
- ‘If’ condition is not always used at the start n=1 - Construct a bijection from ℤ to A
- Use element method, and use ‘if’ condition when
k k k k The 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐟 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐠 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐟𝐮𝐧𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐠 ∙ 𝐟: 𝐀 → 𝐂.
x ∈ ራ An - Construct a bijection from A to ℤ
necessary x ∈ A n for some element n in S 𝐴 ∪ ሩ Bn = ሩ 𝐴 ∪ Bn 𝐴 ∩ ራ Bn = ራ 𝐴 ∩ Bn defined by 𝐠 ∙ 𝐟 𝐱 = 𝐠 𝐟 𝐱 for all x ∈ A. - Construct a bijection from A to a known countably infinite set
n∈s
n=1 n=1 n=1 n=1
Proving Set Identity – Element Method - Show that A is a subset of a countable set
Set Logic If f and g are bijective, then g ∙ f −1 = f −1 ∙ g −1. - Show that A is the union of two known countable sets
Proving A ⊆ B Composition, Inverse, and Identity
Commutative Law A∪B= B∪A A∩B= B∩A - Show that A is the Cartesian product of two known countable sets
For an arbitrary element in LHS/RHS, show that it Let f: A → B be a bijection.
exists in RHS/LHS using set operations Associative Law A∪B ∪C = A∪ B∪C A∩B ∩C = A∩ B∩C MI and Well-Ordering Principal (MORE MI ON NEXT PAGE)
i) For all 𝐱 ∈ 𝐀, 𝐟 −𝟏 ∙ 𝐟 𝐱 = 𝐱 and hence, 𝐟 −𝟏 ∙ 𝐟 = 𝐈𝐀 .
A∪ B∩C = A∪B ∩ B∪C A∩ B∪C = A∩B ∪ B∩C
ii) For all 𝐲 ∈ 𝐁, 𝐟 ∙ 𝐟 −𝟏 𝐲 = 𝐲 and hence, 𝐟 ∙ 𝐟 −𝟏 = 𝐈𝐁
A − B ⊆ A ∩ Bc Distributive Law A ∩ B ∪ C ∩ D = (A ∪ C) ∩ (A ∪ D) ∩ (B ∪ C) ∩ (B ∪ D)
Let x ∈ A − B A ∪ B ∩ C ∪ D = (A ∩ C) ∪ (A ∩ D) ∪ (B ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ D) Let f: A → A be a bijection.
x ∈ A and x ∉ B → x ∈ A and x ∈ B c If f: A → A and f ∙ f = IA, then f −1 = f.
Identity Law A∪∅ =A A∩𝑈 = A
So x ∈ 𝐀 ∩ 𝐁𝐜
Complement Law A ∪ A𝑐 = 𝑈 A ∩ A𝑐 = ∅ Composition of Injective, Surjective, and Bijective Functions
Prove A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A to prove A = B
Double Complement Law A𝑐 c = A - If f: A → B and g: B → C are injective, then g ∙ f is injective as well
Proving Set Identity – Algebra of Sets If f: A → B and g: B → C are surjective, then g ∙ f is surjective as well
Idempotent Law A∪A =A A∩A =A
Proving A = B If f: A → B and g: B → C are bijective, then g ∙ f is bijective as well
Universal Bound Law A∪𝑈 =𝑈 A∩∅ =∅
Use set logic to derive the result. Same as normal logic
De Morgan’s Law (A ∪ B)𝑐 = Ac ∩ B c (A ∩ B)𝑐 = Ac ∪ B c If 𝐠 ∙ 𝐟 𝐢𝐬 𝐢𝐧𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞, then 𝐟: 𝐀 → 𝐁 𝐦𝐮𝐬𝐭 𝐛𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞, but not necessarily g: B → C
Set Operations (Biconditional) Absorption Law A∪ A∩𝐵 = A A∩ A∪𝐵 = A If 𝐠 ∙ 𝐟 𝐢𝐬 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞, then 𝐠: 𝐁 → 𝐂 𝐦𝐮𝐬𝐭 𝐛𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞, but not necessarily f: A → B
x ∈A∩B x ∈ A and x ∈ B Complements of 𝑈 and ∅ 𝑈𝑐 = ∅ ∅𝑐 = 𝑈 If 𝐠 ∙ 𝐟 𝐢𝐬 𝐛𝐢𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞, then 𝐟: A → B must be 𝐢𝐧𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 and 𝐠: B → C must be 𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞
x ∈A∪B x ∈ A or x ∈ B Relative Complements of 𝑈 Attaching and Cancelling Functions
A−∅ = A A−𝑈 = ∅
x ∈ AC x ∈ 𝑈 and x ∉ A and ∅ For normal functions: x = y → f x = f y
x∈ A−B x ∈ A and x ∉ B Set Difference Law A − B = A ∩ Bc Only for injective functions: x = y ↔ f x = f y
 Congruence Modulo n
Relation Remainder of Large Powers Greatest Common Divisor
𝐋𝐞𝐭 𝐚, 𝐫, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐧 𝐛𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐧 > 𝟏, 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝐫 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐦𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐫 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐧 𝐚 𝐢𝐬 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐧.
To define a relation, we need two sets A and B, and a “rule” that decides whether an Let a, b be integers, at least one non − zero,
Find remainder before raising power Binary Sum
element in A is associated (or related) to an element in B. Together, this is called a relation The 𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐬𝐭 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐞𝐫, 𝐝, that 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐝𝐞𝐬 𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝐚 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐛 is the greatest common divisor of a and b
i) a ≡ r mod n
from A to B. Find the last 2 digits of 1227 d = gcd a, b iff d a and d b, and ∀ k ∈ ℤ+ , if k a and k b, then k ≤ d .
2 ii) n | a − r
The number of relations on a set A is 2|A| . iii) a = r + nk, for some integer k Same as finding the remainder when 1227
Properties of GCD:
iv) a and r have the same remainder when divided by n divided 100
A is called the domain of the relation. i) gcd a, b > 0
v) a ≡ 0 mod n iff n | a Find the remainder when 37999 is divided by 5
B is called the codomain of the relation. Express 27 as a binary sum, 27 = 1 + 2 + ii) gcd a, a = gcd a, 0 = |a|
vi) r is the residue of a modulo n, and 0 < r < n − 1 is the complete set of residues of modulo n
8 + 162 iii) gcd a, b = gcd −a, b = gcd a, −b =
Notation
37 ≡ 2 mod 5 . gcd −a, −b .
Let R be a relation from A to B. 𝐋𝐞𝐭 𝐚, 𝐛, 𝐜, 𝐝 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐧 𝐛𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐞𝐫𝐬 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐧 > 𝟏. 122 = 144 ≡ 44 mod 100.
37999 = 2999 mod 5. iv) gcd a + b, a − b ≤ gcd(2a, 2b)
124 ≡ 442 ≡ 1936 ≡ 36 mod 100.
37999 = 2 4×249 + 3 mod 5. v) If c = dq + r, then gcd c, d = gcd(d, r)
If a ∈ A is related to b ∈ B, we write a R b for short. i) a ≡ a mod n 128 ≡ 362 ≡ 1296 ≡ 96 mod 100.
37999 = 24 249 × 23 mod 5. vi) If k a and k b, then k | gcd a, b
If a is not related to b, we write a R b for short. ii) a ≡ b mod n → b ≡ a mod n 1216 ≡ 962 ≡ 9216 ≡ 16 mod 100.
37999 = 1 249 × 23 mod 5. vii) If a | bc and gcd a, b = 1, then a | c
Order Pair Representation iii) (a ≡ b mod n) ∧ (b ≡ c mod n) → (a ≡ c mod n)
37999 = 8 mod 5.
1227 ≡ 121+2+8+16 ≡
The ordered pair representation of the relation is a subset of A × B. 37999 = 3 mod 5. Finding GCD:
Also if 𝐚 ≡ 𝐛 𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝐧 and 𝐜 ≡ 𝐝 𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝐧 (12)(122)(128)(1216) mod 100.
i) List and Compare
1227 ≡ 121+2+8+16 ≡
R = { (x, y) ∈ A × B | x is related to y } (12)(44)(96)(16) mod 100. ii) Prime Factorisation
iv) a + c ≡ b + d mod n The remainder is 3
R can be denote the relation, or the 1227 ≡ 121+2+8+16 ≡ 811008 mod 100. iii) Euclidian Algorithm
v) ac ≡ bd mod n
x R y ≡ x, y ∈ R ≡ x is related to y. 1227 ≡ 121+2+8+16 ≡ 8 mod 100. Euclidian and Reverse Euclidian Algorithms
vi) a + k ≡ b + k mod n, for every k ∈ ℤ
Inverse Relation vii) ka ≡ kb mod n, for every k ∈ ℤ (Refer to cancellation theorem for more information) gcd a, b = 𝐫𝐧.
To do reverse Euclidian Algorithm, first do Euclidian Algorithm
R−𝟏 = { (y, x) ∈ B × A | (x, y) ∈ R } . viii) ka ≡ kb mod kn, for every k ∈ ℤ+ The remainder is 8 b = a × q1 + r1 .
a=r ×q +r . Then, express each line with rn on the LHS
ix) am ≡ bm mod n, for every m ∈ ℤ+ Congruence Classes and Relations 1 2 2
If R is given by R = { (1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b) } a b n r1 = r2 × q3 + r3.
x) m ≡ mod , for every m is a common divsior of a, b, and n, 1 < m < n 𝐫𝐧 = rn−2 + rn−1 × −qn.
Then the inverse relation of R is R−𝟏 = { (a, 1), (b, 1), (a, 2), (b, 2) } m m a R b iff a ≡ b mod n iff a n = b n ….
a n = x ∈ ℤ x ≡ a mod n } for all a ∈ ℤ rn−3 = rn−2 × qn−1 + rn−1. rn−1 = rn−3 + rn−2 × −qn−1.
Equivalence Relation Reducing Congruence Modulo ...
rn−2 = rn−1 × qn + 𝐫𝐧.
Let R be a relation on A. R is an equivalence relation iff 1) Try to reduce to 𝟏𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝐧 or −𝟏𝐥𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝐧. Remove this term
The numbers that leave the same remainder when divided by 𝐧 belong to the same rn−1 = rn × qn+1 + r0 .
- How to read negative congruent modulo: −𝑦 mod x ≡ 𝑥 − 𝑦 mod x
congruent class as that remainder Linear Combinations
1) R is a reflexive relation on A 1) Use calculator and divide by n. Express in mixed fraction. Top number is remainder
There are exactly 𝐧 different congruence classes represented by the 𝐧 residues/remainders Every possible linear combination of integers 𝐚, 𝐛 will be a multiple of gcd 𝐚, 𝐛 , where
- ∀ x ∈ A, x, x ∈ R 2) Reduce terms independently as long as they are multiplied
0 mod n 0 n , 1 mod n 1 n , 2 mod n 2 n , … , n − 1 mod n n − 1 n . gcd 𝐚, 𝐛 is the smallest possible positive linear combination
Modular Arithmetic
2) R is a symmetric relation on A Integers Modulo n If 𝐚, 𝐛 are co-prime, then every integer is a linear combination of them
Given the remainder of a is 3 when divided by 4, what is the remainder when a2 + a − 2 is
- ∀ x, y ∈ A, x, y ∈ R → y, x ∈ R divided by 4? The set of congruence classes modulo n, ℤn = { 0 n, 1 n, 2 n, … , n − 1 n }, is called the
integers modulo n, ℤn = n. Using Reverse Euclidian Algorithm, we can determine x0 and y0 such that,
3) R is a transitive relation on A gcd a, b = ax0 + by0, and hence,
a ≡ 3 mod 4 . gcd a, b ∙ k = a(x0 ∙ k) + b(y0 ∙ k), for all integers k
- ∀ x, y, z ∈ A, x, y ∈ R ∧ y, z ∈ R → x, z ∈ R a2 ≡ 32 mod 4. Arithmetic on ℤn:
Equivalence Classes Relatively Prime/Co-Prime
a2 + a − 2 ≡ 32 + 3 − 2 mod 4.
a2 + a − 2 ≡ 10 mod 4. For a n, c n ∈ ℤn If a n = b n and c n = d n For any non − zero a, b,
Let R be an equivalence relation on A.
a2 + a − 2 ≡ 2 mod 4. a and b are co − prime iff 1 is a linear combination of a and b, gcd a, b = 1.
A = a, b, c, d, e .
The remainder is 2 i) a n + c n = a + c n i) a + c n = b + d n i.e. The only common divisor of a, b is 1
R = a, a , b, b , c, c , d, d , e, e , a, b , b, a , d, c , c, e , e, c , d, e , e, d .
ii) a n × c n = ac n ii) ac n = ab n
Operation Tables for ℤ𝐧 iii) am n = bm n, for every m ∈ ℤ+ a, b need not be prime for them to be co-prime. Some examples of co-prime numbers are:
For each n ∈ A, let the equivalence class of 𝐧 be denoted n R = x ∈ A x, n ∈ R}
If ab ≡ 0 mod n, then a ≡ 0 or b ≡ 0 mod n i) 10 and 21
Equations in ℤ𝐧 - Exhaustion ii) Two distinct primes
There are 5 equivalence classes, but only 2 distinct ones. Addition - ℤ𝟑 Addition - ℤ𝟒 Addition - ℤ𝟓 Addition - ℤ𝟔
To find all integers x which satisfy a congruence relation, sub all residues into x iii) Two consecutive integers
Number of distinct equivalence classes = Number of parts in the relation + [0] [1] [2] + [0] [1] [2] [3] + [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] + [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
4x ≡ 3 mod 5 → 4 5 × x 5 = 3 5. iv) Two consecutive odd integers
a = a, b , b = a, b , c = c, d, e , d = c, d, e , e = c, d, e . [0] [0] [1] [2] [0] [0] [1] [2] [3] [0] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5]
a = b , c = d = [e]. 4 5 × 0 5 = 0 5. Equations in ℤ𝐧 - Inverse Modulo n
[1] [1] [2] [0] [1] [1] [2] [3] [0] [1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [0] [1] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [0] 4 5 × 1 5 ≡ 4 5.
[2] [2] [0] [1] [2] [2] [3] [0] [1] [2] [2] [3] [4] [0] [1] [2] [2] [3] [4] [5] [0] [1] 4 5 × 2 5 = 8 5 = 3 5. For all integers a and n such that 𝐠𝐜𝐝 𝐚, 𝐧 = 𝟏, there exists an 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐞𝐫 𝐛 𝐬𝐮𝐜𝐡 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 ,
Properties of equivalence relations 𝐚𝐛 ≡ 𝟏 𝐦𝐨𝐝 𝐧.
1) For each a ∈ A, a ∈ [a] [3] [3] [0] [1] [2] [3] [3] [4] [0] [1] [2] [3] [3] [4] [5] [0] [1] [2] 4 5 × 3 5 = 12 5 = 2 5.
This integer 𝐛 is called the inverse of a modulo 𝐧, not all integers have an inverse mod n
2) For each a, b ∈ A, a R b iff a = [b] [4] [4] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [4] [5] [0] [1] [2] [3] 4 5 × 4 5 = 16 5 = 1 5.
3) For each a, b ∈ A, a R b iff a ∩ b = ∅ [5] [5] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] x 5 = 2 5. Finding Inverse of a modulo n Using Inverse Modulo n
Equivalence Relations and Partitions Cancellation Theorem Use Reverse Euclidian Algorithm to express 𝐚, 𝐧
Multiplication - ℤ𝟑 Multiplication - ℤ𝟒 Multiplication - ℤ𝟓 Multiplication - ℤ𝟔 as a linear combination of 1, ax0 + ny0 = 1 Solve 2x ≡ 3 mod 5
The number of equivalence relations on a set A, is equal to the number of partitions of A Let a, b, c, n be any integers, n > 1
* [0] [1] [2] * [0] [1] [2] [3] * [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] * [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] Take modulo 𝐧 on both sides and reduce to 1 3 ∙ 2x ≡ 3 ∙ 3 mod 5.
If a ≡ b mod n, then ak ≡ bk mod n modulo 𝐧 6x ≡ 9 mod 5.
Relation induced by a partition: [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] [0] However, if ak ≡ bk mod n, a ≡ b mod n only if gcd k, n = 1 𝐚x0 + 𝐛y0 ≡ 1 mod 𝐧. Since 6 ≡ 1 mod 5,.
Given a set, A = a, b, c, d, e , and a partition P = a, b, c , {d, e} , [1] [0] [1] [2] [1] [0] [1] [2] [3] [1] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [1] [0] [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] x ≡ 9 mod 5.
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐧y0 ≡ 0 mod 𝐧.
Then there exists an equivalence relation R such that [2] [0] [2] [1] [2] [0] [2] [0] [2] [2] [0] [2] [4] [1] [3] [2] [0] [2] [4] [0] [2] [4] Fermat’s Little Theorem x ≡ 4 mod 5.
𝐚x0 ≡ 1 mod 𝐧.
[a] = [b] = [c] = a, b, c [3] [0] [3] [2] [1] [3] [0] [3] [1] [4] [2] [3] [0] [3] [0] [3] [0] [3] Therefore, x0 is the inverse of 𝐚 modulo 𝐧. Type equation here.
[d] = [e] = d, e [4] [0] [4] [3] [2] [1] [4] [0] [4] [2] [0] [4] [2] Let p be a prime and a any integer such that p ∤ a (a is not divisible by p) x 5 = 4 5.
[5] [0] [5] [4] [3] [2] [1] Then, ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p Generally, x0 is the inverse of 𝐚 modulo 𝐧, and Here, 3 is the inverse for 2 mod 5
R= a, a , a, b , a, c , b, a , b, b , b, c , c, a , c, b , c, c , d, d , d, e , e, d , e, e . y0 is the inverse of 𝐧 modulo 𝐚
Logical Connectives Conditional Statements Negation of Biconditional Common Definitions Mathematical Induction
Type Standard Form Symbolic Form Truth Table Forms of Conditionals P ↔ Q ≡ (P → Q) ∧ (Q → P ) Name Definition Step Write
Negation not P ~P P Q P→Q P → Q Q when(ever) P ~ (P ↔ Q) ≡ ~((P → Q) ∧ (Q → P )) Even integer An integer 𝑎 is an even integer iff there exists an integer 𝑛 such that 𝑎 = 2n Intro Let P(n) be the statement: (statement) for (condition on n)
Conjunction P and/but/nor Q P∧Q T T T If P then Q P only if Q ≡ ~(P → Q) ∨ ~(Q → P ) Odd Integer An integer 𝑎 is an odd integer iff there exists an integer 𝑛 such that 𝑎 = 2n + 1 Basis Prove P(initial n), usually P(1), is true.
T F F Q if P Q is necessary for P ≡ (P ∧ ~Q) ∨ (Q ∧ ~P) 𝑝
Disjunction P or Q P∨Q Rational Number A rational number can be expressed as a quotient , 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℤ, q ≠ 0 Inductive Prove P(k) → P(k+1) is true, (condition on k)
F T T P implies Q P is sufficient for Q 𝑞
Truth Tables Negation of Conditional Hypothesis P(k): (statement in terms of k) for (condition on k)
F F T Divisibility - 𝒅|𝒏 𝑛 is divisible by 𝑑 > 0 iff there exists an integer 𝑘 such that 𝑛 = 𝑑𝑘
Negation Conjunction Disjunction P→Q ≡ ~P ∨ Q
Biconditional Statements Want to show P(k+1): (statement in terms of k+1), assuming P(k) is true
~ (P → Q) ≡ ~(~P ∨ Q) Quotient Remainder Thm For all integers 𝑛 and 𝑑 with 𝑑 > 0, there exist unique integers 𝑞 = 𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑑 and 𝑟 = 𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑑 such that 𝑛 = 𝑑𝑞 + 𝑟, 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑑
P ~𝐏 P Q 𝐏∧𝐐 P Q 𝐏∨𝐐 P Q P↔Q P↔Q Working LHS of P(k+1) = ... (use P(k) here) ... = RHS of P(k+1) METHOD NOT FIXED
≡ ~(~P) ∧ ~Q Prime An integer 𝑛 is prime iff 𝑛 > 1 and for all positive integers 𝑟 and 𝑠, if 𝑛 = 𝑟𝑠, then either 𝑟 = 𝑛 or 𝑠 = 𝑛.
T F T T T T T T T T T P iff Q Since P(initial n) and P(k) → P(k+1) is true, (condition on k)
≡ P ∧ ~Q Composite An integer 𝑛 is composite iff 𝑛 > 1 and 𝑛 = 𝑟𝑠 for some positive integers 𝑟 and 𝑠, such that 1 < 𝑟 < 𝑛 and 1 < 𝑠 < 𝑛 . Conclusion
F T T F F T F T T F F P if and only if Q P(n) is true (condition on n)
F T F F T T F T F P and Q are equivalent 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≥ 0 Strong Mathematical Induction
Absolute Value 𝑥 = ቊ
F F F F F F F F T P is necessary and suffici for Q −𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 < 0
Step Write
Logical Equivalences The floor of a real number 𝑥 is an integer 𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝑛 ↔ 𝑛 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ ℤ
Floor 𝑥 = ቊ Intro Let P(n) be the statement: (statement) for (condition on n)
Commutative Law P∧Q≡Q∧P P∨Q≡Q∨P 𝑛+1 𝑥 − 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∉ ℤ
Associative Law (P ∧ Q) ∧ R ≡ P ∧ (Q ∧ R) (P ∨ Q) ∨ R ≡ P ∨ (Q ∨ R) True/False - Double Quantified Statements
Basis Prove P(initial n’s) are true, where m* is the last initial n
P ∧ (Q ∨ R) ≡ (P ∧ Q) ∨ (P ∧ R) P ∨ (Q ∧ R) ≡ (P ∨ Q) ∧ (P ∨ R) The ceiling of a real number 𝑥 is an integer 𝑛, 𝑥 = 𝑛 ↔ 𝑛 − 𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∈ ℤ Inductive Prove P(1) ∧ P(2) ∧ ... ∧ P(k) → P(k+1) is true, (condition on k, k≥m*)
Type How Ceiling 𝑥 = ቊ
Distributive Law P ∧ Q ∨ R ∧ S = (P ∨ R) ∧ (P ∨ S) ∧ (Q ∨ R) ∧ (Q ∨ S) 1<𝑥≤𝑛 𝑥 + 1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ∉ ℤ
∀x ∀y, T Give a proof for general x, y Hypothesis P(k): (statement in terms of k) for (condition on k)
P ∨ Q ∧ R ∨ S = (P ∧ R) ∨ (P ∧ S) ∨ (Q ∧ R) ∨ (Q ∧ S) P(x, y) F Find values of x, y Fractional Part For any real number 𝑥, 𝑥 = 𝑥 + frac(x) P(k+1): (statement in terms of k+1),
Identity Law P∧t≡P P∨c≡P Standard Factored Form Suppose 𝑝1 < 𝑝2 < ⋯ < 𝑝𝑟 are all the distinct prime divisors of n, the SFF is 𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑘1 𝑝2𝑘2 … 𝑝𝑟 𝑘𝑟 for ki ≥ 1. Want to show
∃x ∃y, T Find values of x, y assuming P(1), P(2), ..., P(m) and P(i), *m < i ≤ k
Negation Law P ∨ ∼P ≡ t P ∧ ∼P ≡ c Perfect square A positive integer 𝑛 is a perfect square iff there exists an integer 𝑚 such that 𝑛 = 𝑚2.
P(x, y) F Give a proof for general x, y LHS of P(k+1) = ... (use P(k) here) ... = RHS of P(k+1) METHOD NOT FIXED
Double Negative Law ∼(∼P) ≡ P Working
∀y ∃x, T For a general y, find a value of x Square Free A positive integer 𝑛 is square-free iff in the standard factored form of 𝑛, all ki=1. Use induction hypothesis, question and state where assumption is used
Idempotent Law P∧P≡P P∨P≡P
P(x, y) F Find a value of y for all x 1) Every integer greater than 1 has a standard factored form Since P(initial n’s) are true
Universal Bound Law P∨t≡t P∧c≡c Unique Factorisation Thm
De Morgan’s Law ∼(P ∧ Q) ≡ ∼P ∨ ∼Q ∼(P ∨ Q) ≡ ∼P ∧ ∼Q ∃x ∀y, T Find a value of x for all y 2) For any integer greater than 1, the standard factored form is unique Conclusion and P(1) ∧ P(2) ∧ ... ∧ P(k) → P(k+1) is true (condition on k)
Absorption Law P ∨ (P ∧ Q) ≡ P P ∧ (P ∨ Q) ≡ P P(x, y) F For a general x, find a value of y Binary Sum Express a number as a sum of the biggest powers of 2 in descending order P(n) is true (condition on n)