ST-ATA

BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Architecture and Fine Arts
MODULE
FOR
MECH 323– THEORY OF STRUCTURES
UNIT
1 INTRODUCTION
Compiled by:
ENGR. MA. VICTORIA V. UMALI
2nd SEMESTER, 2023 - 2024

Good things come

to people who
wait, but better
things come to
those who go out
and get them.
Overview of the Module:
Welcome to Module for MECH 323 – Theory of Structures.

This module covers concepts, ideas, sample exercises, and activities that will provide
students the challenge to be prepared for the next level of complex and more difficult theory or
concepts in higher subjects of Strength of Materials.
This module's primary objective is to help develop a student's ability first to analyze problems
logically and straightforwardly and then apply basic principles to the solutions. A strong conceptual
comprehension of these basic mechanics principles is essential for successfully solving the Theory
of Structures problems. This module will help instructors and students achieve these goals.
In this module, students were tasked to do activities indicated in Pretest and Posttest that will
help them to put and integrate the things that they have learned so far in this module. They will
develop and explore their problem-solving skills that apply real-life situations and prove statements
by mathematical induction and other types of proof.
As what other says, that our mind is just like an empty cup that we need to fill in to have its
full content. So, to fill this empty cup, we should do our part and do what we are supposed to do to
make it whole. They also say that the Theory of Structures is a tricky subject, but learning it with an
open mind, patience, hard work, and a little love makes you amazed to see that this subject is FUN.
Unit Content:
The following are the lessons contained in this module:
Lesson 1 – Definition of Theory of Structures
Lesson 2 – Layout and Classification of Structures
Lesson 3 – Loads on Structure
Lesson 4 – Methods of Analysis
Lesson 5 – Equilibrium of Coplanar - Force System
Objectives:
The objective of this module is to develop an understanding of the basic principles of
theory of structure. Emphasizing the intuitive classical approach, this covers the
analysis of statically determinate and indeterminate beams.
At the ending of this unit, you will be able to delineate the following topics:
 To define the Theory of Structures

 To know the Layout and Classification of Structures
 To enumerate and apply the Loads on Structure
 To learn and how to use the Methods of Analysis
 To present Equilibrium of Coplanar - Force System
How to Learn from this Module:
To attain the goals mentioned above, the students should do the following task:
• Make time to read the module to learned the concepts and ideas embedded in
the module.
• Carefully follow the instructions stipulated in each of the activities included in
the lessons.
• Answer all the given tests and activities in the module.
• Inquire teacher for any questions and queries to clarification.
• Then, you may check answers to each activity. An Answer Key is provided.
• And lastly, read the Summary carefully so you will not miss out important
concepts in this module.
LESSON PROPER/ COURSE METHODOLOGY

- Theory of Structures deals with the fundamental laws and procedures by

which the direct stress, the shear, and the bending moment and the deflection at any
section of each constituent member in the structures may be calculated.
- The next phase of the design is to proportion the members following the
allowable working stresses of the material and other requirements for the structure's
proper functioning.
- This work is general within the scope of text on structural design and will
not be discussed in this lesson.
- It may be well to emphasize that the design process may have repeated
several times before a satisfactory final design can be found.

- For example, the design of typical roof truss as shown. The process of design
involves four stages: (1) a layout of the truss is assumed; (2) the loading, which may
consist of dead load (weight of beam material itself), snow load, wind load, live load and
other loading is estimated; (3) the direct stresses in the member are found; and (4) the
sizes of the members are determined in accordance with the design specifications. The
Theory of Structure will concern itself primarily with the third stage.
- Knowledge of the Theory of Structures is very important because it is the
basis of the design or determination of sizes of the structural members.
Structure
 Is defined as a system of interconnected members assembled in a stable
configuration and used to support a load or combination of loads under equilibrium
of various external forces and internal reactions.
 A combination of members connected together in such a way to serve a useful

purpose.
Lesson 2 - Layout and Classification of Structures

1)Tension Structures
The members of tension structures are subjected to absolute tension under the
action of external loads. Because the tensile stress is distributed unvarying over the
cross-sectional areas of members, the material of such a structure is utilized most
efficiently.
Tension structures comprised of flexible steel cables are commonly employed to
support bridges and long-span roofs. Because of their flexibility, cables have insignificant
bending stiffness and can establish only tension. Thus, under external loads, a cable
affirms a shape that enables it to support the load by tensile forces alone. In other
words, the shape of a cable alters as the loads act on it.
The figure below demonstrates a familiar type of cable structure - the suspension
bridge. In a suspension bridge, the roadway is hanging from two main cables by means
of vertical hangers. The main cables pass over a pair of towers and are tied up into solid
rock or a concrete foundation at their ends.
Because suspension bridges and other cable structures lack stiffness in lateral
directions, they are susceptible to wind-induced oscillations (see Figure). Bracing or
stiffening systems are therefore provided to reduce such oscillations.
Suspension Bridge
2) Compression Structures
Compression structures develop mainly compressive stresses under the action of
external loads. Two common examples of such structures are columns and arches.
Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads, as shown in
the figure below. When a linear member is subjected to lateral loads and moments
in addition to axial loads, it is called a beam-column.
Column
An arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable, as

shown below. Such structures are frequently used to support bridges and long-span
roofs. Arches develop mainly compressive stresses when subjected to loads and are
usually designed so that they will develop only compression under a major design
loading.
However, because arches are rigid and cannot change their shapes as can
cables, other loading conditions usually produce secondary bending and shear
stresses in these structures, which, if significant, should be considered in their
designs. Because compression structures are susceptible to buckling or instability,
the possibility of such a failure should be considered in their designs; if necessary,
adequate bracing must be provided to avoid such failures.
Arch
3) Trusses
Trusses are composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged
connections to form a stable configuration below. When the loads are applied to a
truss only at the joints, its members either elongate or shorten. Thus, the members of
an ideal truss are always either in uniform tension or in uniform compression.
Real trusses are usually constructed by connecting members to gusset plates by
bolted or welded connections. Although the rigid joints thus formed cause some
bending in the members of a truss when it is loaded, in most cases such secondary
bending stresses are small, and the assumption of hinged joints yields satisfactory
designs.
Trusses, because of their light weight and high strength, are among the most
commonly used types of structures. Such structures are used in a variety of
applications, ranging from supporting roofs of buildings to serving as support
structures in space stations.
4) Shear Structures
Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete shear walls, are used in multistory
buildings to reduce lateral movements due to wind loads and earthquake excitations.
Shear structures develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses
under the action of external loads.
Shear Wall
5) Bending Structures
Bending structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external
loads. In some structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in bending
moments may also be significant and should be considered in their designs. Some of the
most commonly used structures, such as beams, rigid frames, slabs, and plates, can be
classified as bending structures.
A beam is a straight member that is loaded perpendicular to its longitudinal axis
(Fig. below). Recall from previous courses on statics and mechanics of materials that
the bending (normal) stress varies linearly over the depth of a beam from the maximum
compressive stress at the fiber farthest from the neutral axis on the concave side of the
bent beam to the maximum tensile stress at the outermost fiber on the convex side.
For example, in the case of a horizontal beam subjected to a vertically downward
load, as shown in the figure, the bending stress varies from the maximum compressive
stress at the top edge to the maximum tensile stress at the bottom edge of the beam. To
utilize the material of a beam cross section most efficiently under this varying stress
distribution, the cross sections of beams are often I-shaped (see Fig. below), with most
of the material in the top and bottom flanges. The I-shaped cross sections are most
effective in resisting bending moments.
Beam
Rigid frames are composed of straight members connected together either by
rigid (moment-resisting) connections or by hinged connections to form stable
configurations. Unlike trusses, which are subjected only to joint loads, the external
loads on frames may be applied on the members as well as on the joints (see Fig.
below).
Rigid Frames
The members of a rigid frame are, in general, subjected to bending moment,

shear, and axial compression or tension under the action of external loads. However,
the design of horizontal members or beams of rectangular frames is often governed
by bending and shear stresses only, since the axial forces in such members are
usually small.
Frames, like trusses, are among the most commonly used types of
structures. Structural steel and reinforced concrete frames are commonly used in
multistory buildings (Fig. below), bridges, and industrial plants. Frames are also used
as supporting structures in airplanes, ships, aerospace vehicles, and other aerospace
and mechanical applications. It may be of interest to note that the generic term
framed structure is frequently used to refer to any structure composed of straight
members, including a truss. In that context, this textbook is devoted primarily to the
analysis of plane framed structures.
Skeletons of Frame Buildings

Plane Versus Space Structure

If all the members of a structure as well as the applied loads lie in a single plane, the
structure is called a plane structure. The analysis of plane, or two-dimensional,
structures is considerably simpler than the analysis of space, or three-dimensional,
structures. Fortunately, many actual three-dimensional structures can be subdivided into
plane structures for analysis.
As an example, consider the framing system of a bridge shown in figure. The main
members of the system, designed to support vertical loads, are shown by solid lines,
whereas the secondary bracing members, necessary to resist lateral wind loads and to
provide stability, are represented by dashed lines.
Although a great majority of actual three-dimensional structural systems can be

subdivided into plane structures for the purpose of analysis, some structures, such as
latticed domes, aerospace structures, and transmission towers, cannot, due to their
shape, arrangement of members, or applied loading, be subdivided into planar
components. Such structures, called space structures, are analyzed as three-
dimensional bodies subjected to three-dimensional force systems.
SPACE STRUCTURES
The deck of the bridge rests on beams called stringers; these beams are supported
by floor beams, which, in turn, are connected at their ends to the joints on the bottom
panels of the two longitudinal trusses. Thus, the weight of the traffic, deck, stringers, and
floor beams is transmitted by the floor beams to the supporting trusses at their joints; the
trusses, in turn, transmit the load to the foundation. Because this applied loading acts on
each truss in its own plane, the trusses can be treated as plane structures.
As another example, the

framing system of a multistory
building is shown in Fig. 1.14(a).
At each story, the floor slab
rests on floor beams, which
transfer any load applied to the
floor, the weight of the slab, and
their own weight to the girders
of the supporting rigid frames.
This applied loading acts on
each frame in its own plane, so
each frame can, therefore, be
analyzed as a plane structure.
The loads thus transferred to
each frame are further
transmitted from the girders to
the columns and then finally to
the foundation.
Line Diagram
The analytical model of the two- or three-dimensional body selected for analysis is
represented by a line diagram. On this diagram, each member of the structure is
represented by a line coinciding with its centroidal axis. The dimensions of the
members and the size of the connections are not shown on the diagram.
FIG. 1.13 Framing of a Bridge

Connections
Two types of connections are commonly used to join members of structures: (1) rigid
connections and (2) flexible, or hinged, connections. (A third type of connection,
termed a semirigid connection, although recognized by structural steel design codes, is
not commonly used in practice and, therefore, is not considered in this text.)
Lesson 3 - Loads on Structure
The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to

withstand all the loads to which it is subjected while serving its intended purpose
throughout its intended life span. In designing a structure, an engineer must, therefore,
consider all the loads that can realistically be expected to act on the structure during its
planned life span.
The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be grouped according
to their nature and source into three classes:
1) dead loads due to the weight of the structural system itself and any other
material permanently attached to it;
2) live loads, which are movable or moving loads due to the use of the structure;
and
(3) environmental loads, which are caused by environmental effects, such as wind,
snow, and earthquakes. In addition to estimating the magnitudes of the design loads, an
engineer must also consider the possibility that some of these loads might act
simultaneously on the structure.
The structure is finally designed so that it will be able to withstand the most
unfavorable combination of loads that is likely to occur in its lifetime. The minimum design
loads and the load combinations for which the structures must be designed are usually
specified in building codes. Building codes vary from country to country and also, owing
to geographical variations, from region to region within a country.
 Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act
permanently on the structure. Such loads consist of the weights of the structural system
itself and of all other material and equipment permanently attached to the structural
system. For example, the dead loads for a building structure include the weights of
frames, framing and bracing systems, floors, roofs, ceilings, walls, stairways, heating and
air conditioning systems, plumbing, electrical systems, and so forth.
The weight of the structure is not known in advance of design and is usually assumed
based on past experience. After the structure has been analyzed and the member
sizes determined, the actual weight is computed by using the member sizes and the
unit weights of materials.
The actual weight is then compared to the assumed weight, and the design is revised if
necessary. The unit weights of some common construction materials are given in Table
2.1. The weights of permanent service equipment, such as heating and air-conditioning
systems, are usually obtained from the manufacturer.
 Live loads are loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use of
the structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer to all loads on the
structure that are not dead loads, including environmental loads, such as snow
loads or wind loads. However, since the probabilities of occurrence for
environmental loads are different from those due to the use of structures, the
current codes use the term live loads to refer only to those variable loads caused by
the use of the structure. It is in the latter context that this text uses this term.
 When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause larger stresses than
those that would be produced if the same loads would have been applied gradually.
The dynamic effect of the load that causes this increase in stress in the structure is
referred to as impact. To account for the increase in stress due to impact, the live
loads expected to cause such a dynamic effect on structures are increased by
certain impact percentages, or impact factors.
 Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the structure. The magnitudes
of wind loads that may act on a structure depend on the geographical location of
the structure, obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and
the geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.
 In many parts of the United States and the world, snow loads must be considered in
designing structures. The design snow load for a structure is based on the ground
snow load for its geographical location, which can be obtained from building codes
or meteorological data for that region.
 An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface. Although

the ground surface moves in both horizontal and vertical directions during an
earthquake, the magnitude of the vertical component of ground motion is usually
small and does not have a significant effect on most structures. It is the horizontal
component of ground motion that causes structural damage and that must be
considered in designs of structures located in earthquake-prone areas.
Lesson 4 - Methods of Analysis
It was stated that the Theory of Structures deals with the principles and methods by
which the direct stress, shear and bending moment at any section of the member may
be found under given conditions of loading. Because the forces acting on a structural
member may usually be assumed to lie in the same plane and are in equilibrium,
fundamental structural analysis involves the use of the three equations of equilibrium
for a general coplanar- force system; viz.,
∑Fx = 0
∑Fy = 0
∑M = 0
-
Lesson 4 - Methods of Analysis

Shear
- is a deformation in a member or flexural member in which parallel planes slide
relative to each other so as to remain parallel.
Bending Moment
- is the property by which a force tends to cause a body to which it is applied to

rotate about a point or line, it is equal in magnitude to the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance of the point from the line of action of the force.

The Free Body. No matter how complicated a structure may be, it may assume to be
cut into various members, parts, or sections, each of which is under the action of a
system of coplanar forces. Any one member, part or section, thus set free from the
whole structure is called a Free Body.
Free-Body Diagram – a free body, clearly drawn, and complete with the magnitudes
and directions (both known and unknown) of all the forces acting on it.
Equilibrium of Coplanar –Concurrent- Force Systems
If the free body happens to be a point, the forces acting on it are concurrent. The
resultant of a coplanar-concurrent-force system must be a single force, the x
component of which is ∑Fx = 0 and they component is ∑Fy = 0. Thus, the two
equations ∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy = 0 are necessary and sufficient to ensure that the
resultant is zero or that the coplanar –concurrent –force system is in equilibrium. Thus,
in cases where they may be more conveniently applied, the moment equations ∑MA =
0 and ∑MB = 0 may be substituted.
Problem Solvings:
Problem No. 1
If the four coplanar, concurrent forces F1, F2, F3 & F4 shown in the figure are in
equilibrium, find the magnitude and direction of F4 which is arbitrarily assume to act in
the direction shown. y
F2 = 100 F4
F4 y
F4 x F1 = 50
45°
15° x
Ɵ
30°
F3 = 80
Problem No. 2
By both algebraic and graphic methods, find the magnitude and direction of F4 if the
four coplanar concurrent forces F1, F2, F3 & F4 are in equilibrium.
SUMMARY
1)Theory of Structures deals with the principles and methods by which the direct
stress, the shear and the bending moment and the deflection at any section of each
constituent member in the structures may be calculated.
2)The three equations of equilibrium for a general coplanar- force system.
Concentrated forces are assumed to act at a point on a body.
∑Fx = 0 ∑Fy = 0 ∑M = 0
3)Free-Body Diagram – a free body, clearly drawn, and complete with the magnitudes
and directions (both known and unknown) of all the forces acting on it.
4)The loads that act on common civil engineering structures can be grouped into three
classes: (1) dead loads, (2) live loads, and (3) environmental loads. Dead loads have
constant magnitudes and fixed positions, and they act permanently on the structure.
5)Live loads have varying magnitudes and/or positions and are caused by the use or
occupancy of the structure. For structures subjected to rapidly applied live loads, the
dynamic effect, or the impact, of the loads should be considered in design.
Thank You!
MODULE
FOR
MECH 323 – THEORY OF STRUCTURES
UNIT
SHEAR AND MOMENT IN BEAMS
2
Compiled by:

Words to Live By
Do good for others.

It will come back
in unexpected
ways.
UNIT CONTENTS
Types of Beams Types of Supports

01 02
Types of Loading Shear and Bending

03 04 Moment
Sign Conventions for Relations Among Load

05 Load,Slope, Shear 06 Shear and Moment
and Moment
Objectives:
The objective of this module is to develop an understanding of the basic

principles of theory of structure. Emphasizing the intuitive classical approach, this
covers the analysis of statically determinate and indeterminate beams.
At the ending of this unit, you will be able to delineate the following topics:
 you will be able to define beam and loading;

 calculate shear force and bending moment in the beam at different cross
sections;
 you will also learn how to construct shear and moment diagrams for various
beam loadings;
 your knowledge, application, and problem solving skills will be determined by
your performance on the chapter test.
Lesson Proper:
Introduction
In this topic, we will analyze the effects of transverse loads on beams. These effects are
called shear and bending moment. The term beam refers to a slender bar that carries
transverse loading; that is, the applied forces are perpendicular to the bar. In a beam, the
internal force system consists of a shear force and a bending moment acting on the cross
section of the bar.
The internal forces give rise to two kinds of stresses on a transverse section of a beam:
(1) normal stress that is caused by the bending moment and
(2) shear stress due to the shear force.
As a preliminary to the analysis of these effects, consider the different types of beams and
loading shown below.
Lesson 1 – TYPES OF BEAMS
Beams are classified according to their supports.
1) A simply supported beam, shown in Fig. 4.1(a), has a pin support at one end and a
roller support at the other end. The pin support prevents displacement of the end of the
beam, but not its rotation. The term roller support refers to a pin connection that is free
to move parallel to the axis of the beam; hence, this type of support suppresses only the
transverse displacement.
2) A cantilever beam is built into a rigid support at one end, with the other end being free,
as shown in Fig. 4.1(b). The built-in support prevents displacements as well as rotations
of the end of the beam.
3) An overhanging beam, illustrated in Fig. 4.1(c), is supported by a pin and a roller

support, with one or both ends of the beam extending beyond the supports. The three
types of beams are statically determinate because the support reactions can be found
from the equilibrium equations.
Lesson 2 – TYPES OF SUPPORTS
Structures may be supported by rollers, hinges, links, or fixed ends. These are denoted by
symbols illustrated below:
Lesson 2 – TYPES OF SUPPORTS
Structures may be supported by rollers, hinges, links, or fixed ends. These are denoted by
symbols illustrated below:
Lesson 3 – TYPES OF LOADING
There are different types of loadings:
1) A concentrated load, such as P in Fig. 4.1(a), is an approximation of a force that

acts over a very small area.
2) In contrast, a distributed load is applied over a finite area. If the distributed load acts on
a very narrow area, the load may be approximated by a line load. The intensity w of this
loadings expressed as force per unit length (lb/ft, N/m, etc.).
3) The load distribution may be uniform or varying, as shown in Fig. 4.1(b), or it may vary
with distance along the beam, as in Fig. 4.1(c). The weight of the beam is an example
of distributed loading, but its magnitude is usually small compared to the loads applied
to the beam.
Lesson 4 – SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT
The determination of the internal force system acting at a given section of a beam is straight
forward: We draw a free-body diagram that exposes these forces and then compute the
forces using equilibrium equations. However, the goal of beam analysis is more involved -
we want to determine the shear force V and the bending moment M at every cross section
of the beam. To accomplish this task, we must derive the expressions for V and M in terms
of the distance x measured along the beam. By plotting these expressions to scale, we
obtain the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the beam.
The shear force and bending moment diagrams are convenient visual references to the
internal forces in a beam; in particular, they identify the maximum values of V and M.
Lesson 4 – SHEAR AND BENDING MOMENT
Consider a beam AB loaded as shown in figure above. To define shear and bending moment,
pass section a-a and consider as free-bodies the left and right segments (b) and (c). We
define shear and bending moment as follows:
Lesson 5 – SIGN CONVENTIONS FOR LOADS, SLOPE, SHEAR
AND MOMENT
Loads acting upward are considered positive; Loads acting downward are negative.
When the tangent to a curve is inclined upward to the right, the curve is said to have positiv
e slope. On the other hand, when the tangent is inclined downward, the curve has negative
slope. In general, slope is defined to be the value of the tangent of the angle made with the
positive x-axis.
AND MOMENT
When the forces acting on a beam tend to make the left segment move upward relative to
the right segment, the shear on the section is considered positive as shown below. For the
opposite case, the shear is negative. Downward loads cause negative shear, upward
forces, like reactions cause positive shear.
Moments acting at the ends of a beam segment are positive if the beam bends concave
upward as shown in the figure. Otherwise they are considered negative.
AND MOMENT
Shear and Moment in Beams
Load Diagram Shear Diagram Moment Diagram
Increasing ________
Decreasing _______
Increasing __________
Decreasing _________
Lesson 6 – RELATIONS AMONG LOAD, SHEAR AND MOMENT
(1) The slope of the shear diagram at any point of a beam is equal to the value of the load
at that point.
(2) The slope of the moment diagram at any point of a beam is equal to the value of the
shear at that point.
(3) VB - VA= under the load diagram between points A and B of a beam.
The change in shear between any two points A and B of a beam is equal to the total load
between A and B; B being a point to the right of A.
Lesson 6 – RELATIONS AMONG LOAD, SHEAR AND MOMENT
(4) MA - MB = area of the shear diagram between points A and B of a beam.
(5) A maximum moment occurs at a point where the shear is zero (V=0), or where the shear
diagram crosses the x-axis.
The following is a general procedure for obtaining shear force and bending moment
diagrams of a statically determinate beam:
1) Compute the reactions.

2) Compute the values of shear at the change of load points.
3) Sketch the shear diagram, determine the shape.
4) Locate the points of the zero shear.
5) Compute the values of bending moment at the change of load points and at the points
of zero shear.
6) Sketch the moment diagram through the ordinates of the bending moment computed in
step 5.
MECH 323 – THEORY OF STRUCTURES
UNIT 4- BEAM DEFLECTIONS - DOUBLE INTEGRATION,

SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
Compiled by:

Words to Live By
Module Content:
The following are the lesson contained in this module:

Lesson 1 – Flexure Formula
Lesson 2 – Some Boundary Conditions
Lesson 3 – Singularity Functions
Objectives:
The objective of this module is to develop an understanding of the

basic principles of theory of structure. Emphasizing the intuitive
classical approach, this covers the analysis of statically determinate
and indeterminate beams.
At the ending of this unit, you will be able to delineate the following
topics:
 to derive the flexure formula
 to know some boundary conditions when dealing with statically
determinate and statically indeterminate
 to know how to come up with the singularity functions

LESSON PROPER:
Wing of a commercial airplane. Aircraft wings can be analyzed for stresses and
deformations by modeling them as cantilever beams. Since excessive deformation
can destroy aerodynamic integrity, the deflection of a wing is as important as its
strength. In this unit discusses method for computing the deflections of beams.
Introduction
In this unit, we consider the deflection of statically determinate beams.

Because the design of beams is frequently governed by rigidity rather
than strength, the computation of deflections is an integral component
of beam analysis. For example, building codes specify limits on
deflections as well as stresses.
Excessive deflection of a beam not only is visually disturbing but also
may cause damage to other parts of the building. For this reason,
building codes limit the maximum deflection of a beam to about
1/360th of its span. Deflections can also govern the design of
machinery, cars, and aircraft. In the design of a lathe, for example, the
deflections must be kept below the dimensional tolerances of the parts
being machined. Cars and aircraft must have sufficient rigidity to
control structural vibrations.
Method of Double Integration
This method is fairly straightforward in its application, but it often

involves considerable algebraic manipulation. We also present a
variation of the method that simplifies the algebra by the use of
discontinuity functions. The primary advantage of the double-
integration method is that it produces the equation for the deflection
everywhere along the beam.
Moment-Area Method
The moment-area method is a semi graphical procedure that utilizes

the properties of the area under the bending moment diagram. It is the
quickest way to compute the deflection at a specific location if the
bending moment diagram has a simple shape. The method is not
suited for deriving the deflection as a function of distance along the
beam without using a computer program.
Moment Diagrams by Parts
Application of the moment-area theorems is practical only if the area

under the bending moment diagram and its first moment can be
calculated without difficulty. The key to simplifying the computation is to
divide the bending moment diagram into simple geometric shapes
(rectangles, triangles, and parabolas) that have known areas and
centroidal coordinates. Sometimes the conventional bending moment
diagram lends itself to such division, but often it is preferable to draw
the bending moment diagram by parts, with each part of the diagram
representing the effect of one load.
Lesson 1 – FLEXURE FORMULA
By flexure formula, it was seen that a prismatic beam subjected to pure

bending bends into a circular arc for which the curvature is expressed
by:
For beams subjected to transverse loading, equation above still
applies, but the bending moment M and the curvature, , will vary
from section to section.
From the Calculus, it was shown that the curvature for a plane curve is
given by
Where dy/dx and d2y/dx2 are the first and second derivatives of the
function y(x) representing the plane curve.
For the elastic curve of a beam the slope is usually very small. Hence
the term (dy/dx)2 in the denominator may be considered negligible.
Thus, equation may be written
Combining equations, we obtain the governing differential equation for

the elastic curve:
If the flexural rigidity, EI, is constant we may write

whose solution for y is found by integrating twice,
where the constants of integration, C1 and C2, are obtained by

applying boundary conditions applicable to the beam in question.
Lesson 2 – SOME BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Lesson 3 – SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
This function was introduced in 1852 by the German mathematician, A.

Clebsch, but its use for beam problems was first suggested by the
British engineer, W.H. Macaulay.
To illustrate its use, consider the following example:
Lesson 3 – SINGULARITY FUNCTIONS
In the ordinary way the moment equation for each of the segments AB,
BC, and CD would have to be written:
By the use of singularity functions, the only moment equation needed

is through the last segment and using pointed brackets, we obtain
Deflection Formulas for Cantilever Beams
Deflection Formulas for Simply Supported Beams
THANK YOU
Assignment No. 2
Provide 2 sample problems each of the following:
1) Area-Moment Method (2 problems)
2) Moment-Diagram by Parts (2 problems)
Date of Submission – March 04, 2024; 2:30pm

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BULACAN STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Architecture and Fine Arts

ENGR. MA. VICTORIA V. UMALI

2nd SEMESTER, 2023 - 2024

Good things come

Overview of the Module:

Welcome to Module for MECH 323 – Theory of Structures.

 To define the Theory of Structures

How to Learn from this Module:

• Inquire teacher for any questions and queries to clarification.

LESSON PROPER/ COURSE METHODOLOGY

Lesson 1 – Definition of Theory of Structures

- Theory of Structures deals with the fundamental laws and procedures by

Lesson 1 – Definition of Theory of Structures

 A combination of members connected together in such a way to serve a useful

Lesson 2 - Layout and Classification of Structures

An arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar to that of an inverted cable, as

The members of a rigid frame are, in general, subjected to bending moment,

Skeletons of Frame Buildings

Plane Versus Space Structure

Although a great majority of actual three-dimensional structural systems can be

As another example, the

FIG. 1.13 Framing of a Bridge

Lesson 3 - Loads on Structure

The objective of a structural engineer is to design a structure that will be able to

 An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s surface. Although

Lesson 4 - Methods of Analysis

Lesson 4 - Methods of Analysis

- is the property by which a force tends to cause a body to which it is applied to

Lesson 5 – Equilibrium of Coplanar - Force System

Lesson 5 – Equilibrium of Coplanar - Force System

Equilibrium of Coplanar –Concurrent- Force Systems

ENGR. MA. VICTORIA V. UMALI

2nd SEMESTER, 2023 - 2024

Do good for others.

Types of Beams Types of Supports

Types of Loading Shear and Bending

Sign Conventions for Relations Among Load

The objective of this module is to develop an understanding of the basic

 you will be able to define beam and loading;

Beams are classified according to their supports.

3) An overhanging beam, illustrated in Fig. 4.1(c), is supported by a pin and a roller

There are different types of loadings:

1) A concentrated load, such as P in Fig. 4.1(a), is an approximation of a force that

Shear and Moment in Beams

Load Diagram Shear Diagram Moment Diagram

(4) MA - MB = area of the shear diagram between points A and B of a beam.

1) Compute the reactions.

UNIT 4- BEAM DEFLECTIONS - DOUBLE INTEGRATION,

ENGR. MA. VICTORIA V. UMALI

The following are the lesson contained in this module:

The objective of this module is to develop an understanding of the

 to know how to come up with the singularity functions

In this unit, we consider the deflection of statically determinate beams.

This method is fairly straightforward in its application, but it often

The moment-area method is a semi graphical procedure that utilizes

Application of the moment-area theorems is practical only if the area

By flexure formula, it was seen that a prismatic beam subjected to pure

Combining equations, we obtain the governing differential equation for

If the flexural rigidity, EI, is constant we may write

where the constants of integration, C1 and C2, are obtained by

This function was introduced in 1852 by the German mathematician, A.

By the use of singularity functions, the only moment equation needed

Provide 2 sample problems each of the following: