Locke Science Publishing Company, Inc.

FORTING UP: GATED COMMUNITIES IN THE UNITED STATES

Author(s): Edward J. Blakely and Mary Gail Snyder
Source: Journal of Architectural and Planning Research, Vol. 15, No. 1, Theme Issue: Elite
American Landscapes (Spring, 1998), pp. 61-72
Published by: Locke Science Publishing Company, Inc.
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 Journal
ofArchitectural
andPlanning
Research
15:1(Spring,
1998) 61

FORTING UP: GATED COMMUNITIES IN THE UNITED

STATES

Edward J. Blakely
Mary Gail Snyder

Gatedcommunities are a rapidlygrowingphenomenon in all areas ofthecountry.Thispaperfocuses

: themotivations
on one aspect of the rise of gated communities of statusand exclusion. In gated
developmentsfromthewealthiest clubsto thesimplemiddle-class
country , gatesare used
subdivision
to excludeoutsidersand signalstatusand prestige.Theyalso offera senseofsecurity fromcrime ;a
controlledenvironment thatis aimedat protectingproperty values; and to varyingdegrees, a set of
amenitiesand servicesthatprovidea managedcommunity. At the same time , theymanifestthe
growingrelianceon privatization publicservicesand thedesireforsocial distance.
offormerly

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 Journal
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15:1(Spring,
1998) 62

It says 'Stayout' and it also says, 'We are wealthyand you guysare not, and thisgate shall
establishthedifference A
.

There are manydifferent kindsof gated communities and manyreasonspeople build gates and
choose to live behindthem. Some are protecting themselvesfromcrimeon theirverydoorstep,
othersare fearfulthatcrimemayone day reachtheirstreets.But in manyways,gatedcommunities
speak less to the need forprotection fromcrimethanto the desireto defineand protecta stable,
homogenouspreserve. At all incomelevels,people are drawnto gates forprestige,image,status.
Some are lookingforprivacy. Some wantto privatize, buyingand controlling theirown common
space and services. Some wanta country club,an exclusiveplace to enjoytheirfavoriteformsof
recreation.All wantcontrol- over theirhomes,theirstreets,theirneighborhoods.An essential
aspectof thiscontrolis theabilityto excludeoutsiders,
thegeneralpublic,fromtheircommunities.

Gatedcommunities can be dividedintothreemajortypes:lifestylecommunities suchas countryclub

and retirement developments,whereextensiverecreationalamenitiesare key; prestigecommunities,
whichare otherwisestandardsubdivisionsexceptfortheirgates; and securityzone communities,
wheretheresidents themselves,rather
thandevelopers, haveaddedgatesand fencesto theirneighbor-
hoodsto tryto controlcrimeand traffic.In each of thesegeneralcategories,elitismand exclusionary
motivations are oftenactive,althoughtheyare mostprominent in thefirsttwo. Not all gatesmark
elitistspace; some,forexample,are straightforwardattemptsto controlor wardoffseriousproblems
withcrime. In othersthemotivations aremixed.

This paper focuseson one aspectof therise of gatedcommunities: the motivations of statusand
exclusion. It looksat thecharacteristics
of gatedcommunitiesand theirresidentsand examineshow
gateddevelopments meetthesedesires. This represents
someof thefindings of a moregeneraltwo-
yearstudyof gatedcommunities conductedduring1994 and 1995 (Blakelyand Snyder,1997). The
studyinvolvedsitevisitsacrossthecountry, focusgroupand individualinformant and a
interviews,
surveyof gatedcommunity associationboardrepresentatives.

Gatedcommunities are residential areas withrestricted

access suchthatnormally publicspaces have
been privatized.Access is controlled by physicalbarriers:walledor fencedperimeters and gatedor
guarded entrances. They include both new housingdevelopmentsand older residentialareas
retrofitted
withbarricadesand fences. The best estimateis thattwo and a halfmillionAmerican
familieshave alreadysoughtout thisnew refugefromtheproblemsof urbanization, and theirnum-
bersare growing.2Theyrepresent a different
phenomenon thanapartment or condominium buildings
withsecuritysystemsor doormen. There,a doormanprecludespublic access only to a lobbyor
hallways- privatespace withina building. Gated communities precludepublic access to roads,
sidewalks,parks,open space,playgrounds - all resourcesthatin earliereras wouldhave been open
and accessibleto all citizensof a locality.

Theirgatesrangefromelaboratetwo-story guardhousesmanned24 hoursa day to roll-backwrought

iron gates to simplemechanicalarms. Entrancesare usuallybuiltwithone lane forguestsand
visitorsand a secondlaneforresidents,
whomayopenthegateswithan electroniccard,a punched-in
code, or a remotecontrol. Some gates withround-the-clock securityrequireall cars to pass the
guard,issuing identification
stickers
forresidents'
vehicles. Unmanned entranceshave intercom sys-
tems,somewithvideocameras,forvisitors askingforentranceclearance.

These securitymechanisms are intendedto do morethanjustdetercrime. Securityis viewedby both

developers and as
residents not just freedomfromcrime,butalso fromsuchannoyancesas solicitors
and canvassers,mischievousteenagers, and strangersof any kind,maliciousor not. The gatespro-
vide a sheltered
commonspace thatexcludesoutsiders.Especiallyto theresidents of upperend gated
communities, who can alreadyaffordto live in verylow-crimeenvironments, theprivacyand con-
veniencethatcontrolledaccess providesis of greater
importance thanprotectionfromcrime.

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 Journal
ofArchitectural Research
andPlanning
15:1(Spring,
1998) 63

of gatedcommunities
The abilityto excludeis a hallmarkof elitespace. Whilethemajority are for
theupperand upper-middle classes, the in
explosion gated communitiesrepresentstheextension of
thisonce eliteprerogativeto themiddleclass. Andat anyincomelevel,gatesexcludenotjust those
belowone in status,butone's economicpeersin adjacentneighborhoodsand thecommunity at large.
By selling to the middle class the image of privacyand exclusivityassociated with the rich,
developersof gatedcommunities providesome of thecachetof exclusivelivingto thosewithless
exclusiveincomes.

HISTORY OF GATED COMMUNITIES

Gated and walled citiesare as old as citybuildingitself. In England,theearliestgatedcitieswere

builtby the occupyingRomansaround300 BC. The firstwalled citiesin the New Worldwere
Spanishforttownsin theCaribbean.Butin theUnitedStates,therootsofgatedcommunities are less
in theseold worldwalls of feudalismand military defensethanin theprivatestreetsand earlysub-
urbsof thelate 19thcentury.

Gatedcommunities backto theeraof therobberbarons,whentheveryrichest

in theU.S. go directly
sealed themselvesofffromthehoi polloL One of theearliestwas thecommunity of Tuxedo Park,
builtin 1885 behindgates and barbedwire an hourby trainfromNew York. Tuxedo Park was
designedwithwooded lake views,an "admirableentrance," a community association,and a village
outsidethe gatesto house theservantsand merchants to serveit (Stern,1981). In thesame period,
privategated streetswere builtin St. Louis and othercitiesforthemansionsof therich. Later,
duringthetwentieth century,moregated,fencedcompoundswerebuiltbymembersof theEast Coast
and Hollywoodaristocracies.

These earlygatedpreserveswereverydifferent fromthegatedsubdivisions of today. They were

uncommonplaces foruncommon people. Now, however,themerelyaffluent and evenmanyof the
and therestof us as a signof arrivalintoa
betweenthemselves
middle-classcan also have barriers
new separate- butneverequal - Americanelite.

Gatedcommunities remainedraritiesuntiltheadventof themaster-planned retirementdevelopments

of thelate 1960s and 1970s. Communities like LeisureWorldwerethefirstplaces whereaverage
Americanscould findgatedseclusionand privacy. Gates soon spreadto resortsand countryclub
communities, and thento middle-classsuburbansubdivisions. In the 1980s, upscale real estate
speculationand the trendto conspicuousconsumption saw theproliferationof gatedcommunities
builtaroundgolfcourses,designedforexclusivity, prestige and leisure. Gates becameavailable in
developments fromsuburbansinglefamilytractsto high-density townhousedevelopments.Gated
communities have increasedin numberand extentdramatically sincetheearly1980s,becomingin-
creasinglyubiquitous in most urban areas in the nation. Now new townsare routinely with
ļ^uilt
gatedvillages,and thereare even entire
incorporated citieswhich featureguarded entrances.

These developmentsare descendants of eliteenclaves,butof decadesof subur-

notjust of a tradition
ban designand publicland use policy. Gates are firmlywithin thesuburbantradition of streetpat-
ternsand zoningdesignedto reducethe access of nonresidents and increasehomogeneity.Gates
enhanceand hardenthesuburban-ness of thesuburbs, and theyattempt to suburbanizethecity.

Fromtheirearliestexamples,thesuburbsaimedto createa new versionof thecountry estateof the

landedgentry:a healthy,beautiful, protected preserve,far fromthe noise and bustleof thecrowded
cities. But suburbanno longerautomatically meanssafe,beautiful or ideal. As thesuburbsage and
becomemoredense and morediverse,theyare encountering problemsonce thought of as urban-
and
crime,vandalism,disinvestment, blight. Gated communities seek to counterthese trendsby
maintaining theambiance of and
exclusivity safety thesuburbs once promised. They exist not just to
wall out crimeor traffic or strangers,but to lock in economicposition. It is hoped thatgreater
controlovertheneighborhood willmeangreater in property
stability valuesforhomeowners.

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 Journal
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1998) 64

For developerstoo,gatesare seen as an economicbenefit,

althoughnotin thedirectsense of higher
sales price. Few developersclaim thatgatescommanda pricepremium, and indeed,pairedsales
of
pricecomparisons OrangeCounty, communities
California, indicate thatno pricedifferential
be-
tween gated and ungatedcommunities exists. But withtheiroftenelaborateguardhousesand
entrancearchitecture,
gatesprovidethecrucialproductdifferentiation
and clearidentitythatis needed
in crowdedand competitive suburbannew homemarkets.Manybuildersalso reportfastersales in
gatedcommunities, andquickerturnover meansthousandsin additionalprofits
(Carlton,1989).

The gateis partof thepackageof designand amenitiesthatsells housesby sellinga lifestyle

image
thatbuyersbelieve conferstatuson them. As one developerof gated communitiesin Florida
describedit:
Sellinghousesis showbiz. Yougo aftertheemotions . Wedon'tgo out and showa gate in the
ad. But we tryto implyand do it subtly
. In our ad, we don'tevenshowhouses. We showa
yacht. Weshowan emotion.5

THE ELITE GATED COMMUNITIES

The gateddevelopments of theveryrichand thoseof themiddleclass relyon similarmarkersof

statusand prestige.At itsmostbasic level,elitestandingis manifested by thegate. No matterthe
actualsocioeconomicpositionof theresidents inside,thegatecreatestheimpressionof a preserveor
an enclave,and so separatesand elevates. As a developer'sspokesperson
fora luxurygateddevelop-
mentin Rorida describedit, "The gatedentry,the fulltimesecurityand the privatestreetsall go
along withthepattern,and theycomplement thepricetheypay fortheirhomes"(Stallings,1987). A
residentin a guard-gateddevelopment in Southern Californiaputit morebluntly,
explainingthathe
likedthegate"for,let's faceit,thestatussymbol."6

The appearanceof a subdivisionis a largepartof theappeal. Developerafterdeveloperinterviewed

acrossthenationconfirmed thatattractiveness in housingforthe
are keyattributes
and distinctiveness
affluent.Gatesare an effective
andrelativelylow-costwayto createthisvisualeffect.

Fromone perspective, theextensionof gatingto themiddleclass could be consideredevidencethat

gatesare no longeran indication
of elitespace. Yet elitismdoesn'tjust referto therealityof power
and status,butalso to prestige,
theappearanceof statusand power. Status,signsthatone is doing
well,is as importantto themiddleclass as itis to theaffluent.

Whenbeingin therightcrowdis an important partof signalingstatus,gates,withtheirillusionof

are veryappealing.But thepackagethatmakesup a gatedcommunity
exclusivity, oftengoes beyond
thegate or even theperimeterfence. Housingdevelopersare facedwiththeneed to sell morethan
the shelter. Theymustoffertheincreasingly selectivehomebuyera totallivingexperience.The
characteristics
used by developersto convey the elite qualityinclude identityfeatures,special
amenities,andassociatedservices.

The gateis theprimary feature,

identity a crucialpartof defining
thedevelopment's image. A guard
is another.The presenceof a guardhouse,no matterhow oftenit is actuallystaffed, indicatesthe
privilegeof privatesecurity.Guardsalso perform a sortof conciergeservice,acceptingdeliveries,
and announcingguestsblocksbeforetheyarrivein theirhost's driveway. Otheridentity features,
such as thename of thedevelopment, are sharedwithnon-gateddevelopments.But gateddevelop-
mentsoftenhave namesthattelegraph exclusivity- one, outsideof Dallas, is called simply"The
Enclave." Entrancearchitecture becomes more monumental and ostentatiouswith gates: guard
housesare elaboratelydesigned,sometimes withtwostories.Even withouta guardhouse,thelarger
area neededfora gatelendsitselfto strikingsignage,showyfacades,waterfountains, and plantings.
Advertisements forthesedevelopments followa similarpattern.Rarelyemphasizingsecurity, they
insteaduse wordslike "exclusive"or "private."

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Special amenitiesare also commonwithelitedevelopments.These includegolfcoursesand country

clubs,tennisclubs,pools, walkingtrails,and naturalfeatureslike riverfronts,lakes,open space or
beaches. The gateensuresthattheuse of theseamenitiesis restricted
toresidents and theirguests. In
manycommunities social servicesare oftenincluded,withpermanentstaffto arrangeor facilitate
golf
tournaments,themeparties,classes,clubs- a fullrangeof socialeventsandactivities.

Largermaster-planned gatedcommunities conveytheirstatuswithassociatedservices

also sometimes
and amenities. Commercialareas witheliteshopsand businessesare developedin tandem,usually
just outsidethegatesto allow customer a sprawling
access. Blackhawk, gatedcommunity outsideof
San Francisco,has the Blackhawkshoppingcenterat its side, completewithcommercialoffices,
a cineplexand a classiccarmuseum.In Las Vegas,a developersetaside land
boutiques,restaurants,
fora privateschoolrightoutsidethegatesof itscommunity.

Gatedcommunities are elitenotjust becauseof whattheyinclude,butbecauseof whattheyexclude:

thepublic,strangers and undesirables.The resultis privacyand control.Gatedcommunities center
on thisabilityto controltheenvironment, in partbecausehomebuyers believeitwillhelpprotecttheir
property values. Stabilityin theneighborhood comesfromsimilarityin themakeupof theresidents
and in thehousesin thedevelopment, in property
and thatis expectedtomeanstability values.

Throughtheirhomeownerassociationsand thecodes,covenants, and restrictions(CC&Rs) builtinto

thedeeds,theyare also able to controland excludea vastrangeof down-market markers.Fromthe
highestend developments down to those thatare most modestlymiddle class, gatedcommunities
regulateoutanypossibilityof activitiesand objectsconsidered
de-classé.

Rules on exteriormaintenance and designare standard,requiringthatall landscapingconformto a

commonplan and thathousesor frontdoorsbe paintedonlya limitednumberof colors. Sometimes
thereare even rulesgoverning homefurnishings thatcan be seenfromthewindows.Thereare height
limitsforshrubsand trees,approvedflowerlists,prescribed designsforfencesor decks. Laundry
may not be hungoutside,garage doors never leftopen. Window air conditioners,
backyardswing
setsand satellitedishesare almostalwaysbanned. Trucks,campers,or anycommercial vehiclemay
not be parkedin driveways.Homeownerassociationsmaintainarchitecture and designcommittees
thatmonitorand enforcecomplianceand adjudicateambiguouscases. The gateensuresthatno out-
siderswill disturbtheimageof thedevelopment; theinternalorganizationmakessurethatno resident
is able to damageiteither.

, Retirees,and theNewLeisureClass
: The Affluent
The Residents

Upper-endgatedcommunities are growingin number,

as are othereliteformsof residential
develop-
mentlike theresortdevelopments, luxuryretirement
communities, and high-endsubdivisionswith
whichtheyoverlap. Theirrapidspreadover thelast severalyearsresultsfroma numberof socio-
demographic trends,especiallytheexpansionof thesize of theuppermiddleclass and increasesin
disposableincome.

The rise of the uppermiddleclass has been one of the definingsocial changesof the past two
theranksof theaffluent
decades. Even as themiddleclass shrinks, havebeenswelling.The scale of
thistransformation to fathom. It has alreadyestablishedits presenceon the American
is difficult
landscapein theformof thehousingand community typesitcreates.Entirecitiesand subregions are
devotedto cateringto the new affluent class. Theirresidentialdevelopments designed be
are to
economicallyhomogenous and symbolicof theirstatus.The gateis an adjunctto thisnew class-con-
sciousdevelopment.

Statusis importantto mostpeople,be theyworking class oraffluent; lie in whatstatus

thedifferences
symbols are mosthighlyvalued and especiallywhich are accessible. Among thosehouseholdsthat
earnover $100,000 a year,livingin an exclusiveneighborhood is considereda symbolof statusor

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1998) 66

achievement by nearlyhalf;amongtheverywealthy,who earnover $400,000 a year,livingin an

exclusiveneighborhoodis important
to nearly60 percent(Town & Country,
1994).

The middleclass, thosejustbehindthislargeaffluent

class,are now moreable to affordthesymbols
of statuspreviouslyreservedfortheveryrich. The Americanmiddleclass has expandedgreatlyin
thepost-warera. Householdsize has droppedacrosstheboard. Householdnetworthhas morethan
doubled. This transformationis spectacular
by anymeasure,and it has allowed a distinctively
new
set of economicbehaviorsto emerge. This new middleclass has substantial buyingpower. The
averagedisposableincomehas doubledin the last 30 yearsin spiteof risinghousingand related
prices.

Owninga secondhomeis also partof theaffluent lifestyle.In 1992,almost35 percentof all middle-
class Americansconsideredhavinga vacationhomean essentiallifestylefeature,up 10 percentover
the previousdecade (Alderman,1995). While developersare findingit hard to build affordable
homesfortheaverageAmerican,thereis no dearthof marketforresortproperties.As a resultof
highlevelsof disposableincome,moderately wealthypeoplein theirearly40s are able to affordvery
high status that
properties they live in foronlypartof the year. And moreand moreoften,both
luxurydevelopments and secondhome communitiesare gated.

Gatedcommunities also caterto twolargenewsubmarkets thathaveemergedin thelastdecade. The

firstof theseare thenew active,affluent retirees.Retireesare livinglongerand betterthanever
before. Therewere 33 millionpeople 65 and olderin 1994, or 1 in every8 Americans. Most of
theseseniorslive independently. The averageretirementage has droppedand life expectancyhas
risen. Americanswho reach65 yearsof age can now expectto live 17 moreyears. And incomes
have also risen: from1957 to 1992,incomein constant1992 dollarsmorethandoubled.8

The secondof thesenew submarkets are thehomesfor"flexecutives," thenew well-paid,status-con-

scious and mobilecorporate executives.Theirnumbersare increasing as telecommunicationsspread
and new formsof corporatestructure makesmallerorganizations theruleratherthantheexception.
The newestof thesedevelopments are occurring
outsideof majormetropolitan areas. Theyare now
in whatwereonce relatively smalltownsand theouteredgesof exurbia,and in places likeSantaFe,
New Mexico, farfromthecrimeand congestion of big cityregions. These communities mustoffer
thisnew class of executivesconsiderablecharmand visualappeal with"uniquearchitecture; culture;
outdoorrecreation highquality,unusualretailfacilities;and in particular
opportunities; -
restaurants
all in a small townsetting"(RobertCharlesLesser & Co., 1994). A significant subsetof gated
communities is designedespeciallyforthiselite group,providingthe distinctive environmentand
exclusiveimagetheydesire.

Strokes:Different
Different Typesof GatedCommunities
and Rationalesfor Gating

Gated communities varyin size, density,

and price,likeanyotherresidentialdevelopment.Beyond
thesecommondifferences, theyvaryalongtwodimensions thatalso distinguish
themfromtraditional
subdivisions:thelevelof securityand thedegreeofmanagedcommunity.

Security. The levelof security in gatedcommunities.Highersecurity

variesdramatically usually,but
not always,denotesgreaterprestigeand a higherpricelevel. The costs of hiringprivatesecurity
guards,and even of maintaining gates and surveillancesystems,can be quite high. As a result,
security tendsto in
grow sophistication as incomelevel rises. At moderateincomelevels,increasing
levels of securitygenerallydependon thesize of thedevelopment, as costs are moreeasily borne
whendividedamonga largernumber of units.

At thebottomend,thesmallestor leastexpensivedevelopments have simplerailroadcrossing-style

armswithan intercom systemand a perimeterfence. Manymiddleclass developments add a small
althoughtheseare rarelymannedbecause of thehighon-
guardhouse to thisbasic configuration,
goingcost to residents.Onlythelargestor mostaffluent
developments boast24-hourguardsat their

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1998) 67

FIGURE1. Perceptionofthelevelofcrime
ingated
communities.
Source:
Authors survey.
conducted
(Thesurvey, bytheCommunity Associations wasmailed
Institute, to7000oftheir
memberhomeowner
associations
boardin1995andhada response
rateof25%.A sectionofquestions communities
forgated
specifically was
included
bytheauthors
forthisstudy;19%,or336,respondents
werefrom communities.)
gated

gates. Computersystemssometimessubstitute fortheguardand can be highlysophisticated.The

mostcommontypeof gateuses magnetically encodedcardsforaccess. Cardsmaybe grantedto the
employeesand vendorshiredby residentsor the homeownerassociation,and thisaccess can be
limitedto certainhoursor revokedat a moment'snotice. The morecomplexsystemsprovidea
recordof exactlywho passed in or out of thegateand at whattimetheydid so. Camerasmay be
installedat thegatesand eventhroughoutthedevelopment, linkedto each houseso thatresidentscan
monitorcomingsand goingsat the gate. Some gate camerasphotograph the licenseplatesof all
incomingcars. One SouthernCaliforniacommunity even installedan antiterrorist
bollardthatshoots
up fromtheroadway,impalinganyvehiclethatattempts to drivethrough thegatewithout clearance.

Internalsecuritycan be as elaborateas thatat theperimeter.In thelargestor richestdevelopments,

rovingsecurity patrolsare common. Sometimestheseare large24-hourprivatesecurity forces,pass-
ingeach house everyhalf-hour thegolfcoursein electriccarts. Althoughtheyusually
and patrolling
have littletraining
and no formalpolicepower,theseprivatesecurity guardsarecloserthanthepolice
and can respondquicklyto alarmsor homeowner reportsof prowlers,suspiciouspersons,or even
loudmusic.

measuresprovideat leasttheappearanceof protection

These security fromcrime. Theyalso provide
respitefromtheoutsideworld,solicitors, As one gatedcommunity
strangers. resident
explained:
It's almosta release and reliefto come back here. You're dealing withelementsthatare
sometimesveryundesirable[outsidethegates]. It's liketheold moatand castle - you get
backtoyourspotand youfeel secure.9

The perceptionthatgates increasesecurityis strong. Ninety-seven percentof respondents to the

surveysaid thatthe issue of securitywas veryor somewhatimportant in thedecisionto live in a
gatedcommunity.A largemajority, 70 percent, believethatcrimeis less in theirdevelopment than
in thesurrounding area,and of these,a full80 percentbelievethattheirrelativesafetyis due to their
gates. In contrast
to thisstriking
levelof assuranceamongresidents, fewof law enforcement officials
interviewed forthestudybelievedthatgatesweremorethanmarginally effectivein crimeprevention,

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and manythought thatgatesactuallyinterfered in theirabilityto do theirjob. Local reportsof the

effectsof gatesand streetclosureson crimevarydramatically in termsof resultsand reliability,
but
the more thoroughstudiesof crimeratesin cases of streetclosuresindicateweak or nonexistent
impactson crime(CrimePrevention/Planning and ResearchUnit,1990; Szymanski,1994). Gatesdo
notpreventthecrimescommitted by insiderssuchas resident teenagers,and theydo littleto stopany
but casual criminals.Whattheyclearlydo is reduceanxietywithintheresidential enclave,even as
they act as constant
reminders thattheworld outside the is
gates dangerous and to be feared.

Managed Community . Gated communities are also distinguished by the degreeto whichtheyare
designedto managecommunity.Residentsbuy more thana house which suits theirneeds and
preferenceswhentheybuy intoa gateddevelopment.Theyalso buyintoa set of privateamenities
and servicesthatare exclusivelytheirs.Community is a commodity in thesedevelopments.Resi-
dentsare buyinga lifestyle,
an environment,a setof services,and a structure
forinteraction
withtheir
neighbors.

At the mostbasic level, all gatedcommunities have a homeownersassociation,whichowns and

managescommonareasand facilities and actsas a minigovernmentforthecommunity.Associations
sometimesalso sponsorsocial activities,fromblockpartiesto welcomewagons. Beyondthisbase
are a wide arrayof associatedservicesand amenitiesthathelp to structure
institution social lifeand
give thedevelopment itsimageand identity as a community.

At the highestlevel of managedcommunity are the golfand countryclubs,resortsand retirement

developments.The recreational activitiesthatthesedevelopments are focusedon providea basis for
socializingand interacting
withneighbors.The homeowners associationor theclub itselfaugment
thisbase by sponsoring tournaments, newsletters,themedinners,and otherevents. The clubhouse
functions as a communitycenter,providing meetingfacilitiesforeverything fromtheGirl Scoutsto
thebridgeclub. Community is builtin behindthegates.

Golfcourse-centered developmentswereamongthefirstmoderngatedcommunities, and theywerea

prototype forexclusionary livingforthemiddleclass. In gatedcountry clubdevelopments, "members
only"movesto anotherdimensionwhennotonlythegreensand theclub,butthestreetsas well,are
all access-controlled.The prestigeand sense of belongingthatcome fromlivingin countryclub
developments are important factos in theirappeal,and partiallyexplainwhysucha highproportion
are gated. Even in large developments whereonlya minority of residentsactuallygolf,the club
atmosphere startsat thegateandextendsthrough thedevelopment.

The bulk of gatedcommunities providesomewhatlesserlevels of recreational

amenitiesand social
activities. They may providea commonmeetingbuilding,a pool, tot lot, or tenniscourts.
Homeownerassociationsor property managersmay be more or less active in constructingsocial
activitiesaroundtheseamenities.At thelowerlevelsof managedcommunity are developmentsthat
featuresof thegolfand retirement
featurelocationalamenitiesratherthantheelaboraterecreational
communities.These are the communities developedto takeadvantageof naturalfeaturessuch as
rivers,beaches, or open space. Oftentheyincludewalkingor ridingtrails. Like recreational
amenities,locationalamenitiesprovidea community imageand identityand help to structure
social
lifewithinthedevelopment.The gatemakeswhatwouldbe simplyan enviablesettingintoa nature
preservebyprivatizingandcontrollingaccess.

It is thisaccess controlthatdefinesthegatedcommunity,and access controlthatis at theheartof the

managedcommunity.Whateveramenitiesare provided,the centralgoal is lifestylehomogeneity.
Because of the securitymeasures,people assume thatanyonetheysee inside theirdevelopment
belongsthere.It is notso muchthatneighbors knowone another.It is morethattheyexpectanyone
thattheycome in contactwithto be "one of them." The perception is thatpeople behindthegates
are partof thesamesocioeconomicgroup,have similarinterests, and even similarvalues. One of the
majordevelopersof exclusivegatedcommunities in theDallas area mayhave been thinking of this
dynamicwhenhe said:

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FIGURE 2. Levelofcommunity ingated

feeling communities.
¡Source:
Authors survey.
conducted
(Thesurvey, bytheCommunity Associations wasmailed
Institute, to7000oftheir
member homeowner
associations
boards
in1995andhada response
rateof25%.A sectionofquestions forgated
specifically communities
was
included
bytheauthors
forthisstudy;19%,or336,respondents
werefromgatedcommunities.)

The numberone issue as I see it is thatpeople wanta senseofcommunity. I thinkthatis more

whatthegate is about, moreso thansecurity.The security aspectis part of it, butthemain
thingis 7 wanta small townatmospherein mybig city. I wantto be part of a community
whereI can befriendswithall thesepeople whoare similarto mybackground '}

Dreams of small towncommunity are unrealistic

formostmodemAmericans.Modernpatterns of
mobility, workand familylimittheabilityof people to activelyengagein community.Gatedcom-
munitiesare artificial fauxcommunities
creations, designedto meetpeople's dreams.Theyrepresent
contrived ratherthanorganiccommunity in everyrespect,yettheydo seemto meettheirinhabitants'
needs. Most of the surveyrespondents fromgatedcommunities, 68 percent,chose to describethe
level of community feelingin theirdevelopments as "friendly."Nearlya quartersaid theircom-
munitieswere "distantor private,"while 8 percentthoughttheywere "neighborly and tightknit."
Askedto comparetheirdevelopments to mostcommunities in theirarea,42 percentsaid theircom-
munitieshad aboutthesame level of neighborliness,buta fullthirdthought thattheirdevelopments
weremoreneighborly.Only 7 percentfelttheirlevel of community feelingwas lowerthanin sur-
rounding developments.

GATED COMMUNITIES AND SOCIAL DISTANCE

A gatedcommunity, withits controlledentranceand securedperimeter, is the veryimage of elite

space. A gate means exclusivity,thefoundation of whatit meansto be in an elite group. Some
gatedcommunities are certainlypopulatedby economicand social elites,butmostare not. Yet their
developmentsare delimitedtoproducea signalof elitism.

The exclusionaryideal of gatedcommunities arisesfromthestatusassociatedwithsocial distance.

This patternof social distancehas longbeen a goal of Americansettlement - thesuburbs
patterns
were builton separationand segregation.The suburbanpattern thesplintering
reinforces of com-
munity withsocial separationandphysicalwalls.

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 Journal
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Today,witha new setof problemspressingon ourmetropolitan areas,separationis stillthesolution

thatAmericansturnto. In thesuburbs, gatesare thelogicalextensionof theoriginalsuburbandrive.
In the city,gates and barricadesare sometimescalled Mcul-de-sac-ization"- a termthatclearly
reflectsthedesigngoal to createoutof theexistingurbangrida streetpatternas close to thesuburbs
as possible. Neighborhoods have alwaysbeen able to excludesome potentialresidentsthrough dis-
criminationand housingcosts. Now,withgatesandwalls,theycan excludenotonlyundesirable new
residents,butevencasualpassers-by and thepeoplefromtheneighborhood nextdoor.

The retreatby thesecommunities fromthepublicrealmgoes beyondquestionsof publicaccess to

theirstreets.Theyare yetanothermanifestation of thetrendtowardprivatization of publicservices
- theprivateprovisionof recreational facilities,
openspace and common infrastruc-
space, security,
ture,even social servicesand schools. Gatedcommunities are substituting
foror augmenting public
serviceswithservicesprovidedby the homeownersassociation. The same is trueof all of the
subdivisions
private-street whichare now thedominant formof new residentialdevelopment.But in
gatedcommunities, thisprivatization
is enhancedby thephysicalcontrolof access to thedevelop-
ment. Again,thisprivateprovisionof servicesin thepasthas been thepreserveof onlythewealthy
and upper-middle classes,butmoreand moreit is onlytheworkingclass thatremainssolelydepend-
enton publicservices.The abilityto buyserviceson themarketratherthanrelyon thepublicsector
is yet anotherindicatorof status,partiallybecause of the higherincomelevel it reflectsbut also
becauseprivateservicesare inherentlymoreexclusive.

The trendtowardprivatizedgovernment and communities is partof themoregeneraltrendof frag-

mentation,and theresulting loss of connection and social contact. To many,theirhomeowners as-
sociationdues are like taxes;theirresponsibilityto theircommunity, suchas it is, ends at thatgate.
One cityofficialin Piano,Texas, summedup his view of theattitude of thegatedcommunity resi-
dentsin his town:
I took care of my responsibility , I'm safe in here, I've got myguard gate; I've paid my
[homeownersassociation]dues, and I'm responsible for mystreets . Therefore , I have no
11
forthecommonweal
responsibility , becauseyoutakecare ofyourown.

Residentsof gatedcommunities, likeotherpeoplein citiesand suburbsacrossthecountry,varyin the

degree theypersonallyfeel the connectionsand dutiesof community withinand outsideof their
developments.The difference is thatin gatedcommunities, withtheirprivatizedstreets,
recreation,
local governance,and security,
residentshave less need of thepublicrealmoutsidetheirgatesthan
thoselivingin traditional
open neighborhoods.If theychoose to withdraw, thereare fewerties to
break,less dailydependenceon thegreatercommunity.
This attemptto reduceinterdependence comes to theheartof whatthegatedcommunity represents
and thegeneralsocial trendsand patternsof whichit is a manifestation. It is why,perhaps,thatso
manyfindtheirfirstencounter withgatesand walls so disturbing.We balanceour ambivalentfeel-
ings aboutstatus,
class,and the elitewithdemocraticnotionsof opportunity - to most
and mobility
Americans,social distanceis acceptablewhenthepossibility of bridgingthe gap exists. But with
gatedcommunities, themessageis different: thedrawbridge is up, access is denied. The gatesare
closed.

NOTES
1. A memberofCitizens Gated
Against Enclaves
(CAGE),a group tofight
formed thegating
ofa neighborhood
inLos
inInaJaffe,
Angeles, "Gated
Communities inLosAngeles."
Controversy
2. Definitive
numbersareunavailable.
Thedifficulty
inquantifying
gatedcommunities
is complicated
bytheir in-
rapidly
thelackofanynational
numbers,
creasing orstate-level
data,andthelackevenoffirm dataonthenumberofcommunity
associations.
Thisroughestimate
is basedontheCommunity Association
Institute's
(CAI)estimated
numberofcommunity
associations
(150,000). totheCAI,52%ofallcommunity
According associations
arecomposedofsingle
ormulti-unit
dwell-
onstreets.
ingsarranged toa recent
According surveyofcommunity associations
onwhich wecollaborated
with
theCAI,19%
ofcommunityassociations
aregated.Thisgivesa total
of14,820 whichfitourdefinition
ofgated
communities.
Usingthe

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 ofArchitectural
Journal andPlanning
Research
15:1(Spring,
1998) 71

mediannumberofunits
ingated wearrive
communities, attheestimate households
of2.5million behind
gates.Theestimate
doesnotinclude
thesignificant
andgrowing
numbers
ofstreet
closure
situations.
3. Hidden
Hills, Lake,andRolling
Canyon HillsinCalifornia;
Golf,Golden Gulf
Beach, andAtlantis
Stream inFlorida.
4. Salesdatafrom
Mission
Viejo,DanaPoint,
andSanCíemete 1989to1995,
from byTheMyers
supplied ofCorona,
Group
California.
5. Interview
with
AmiTanel,
AvatAr
Development December
Corporation, 12,1994.
6. Focusgroup Yacht
interview, Haven, October
California,
County,
Orange 12,1994.
with
7. Interview Curt
Well Curt
wood, Wellwood
Homes,
Dallas, November
Texas, 29,1994.
8. Economic
andStatistics
Administration plusintheUnited
(1995)Sixty-five CD: Census
States.Washington, US
Bureau,
ofCommerce.
Department
9. Focusgroup
with
residents
ofBlackhawk,
Dublin,
California, 28,1994.
September
10-Interview
with
Curt Curt
Wellwood, Well
woodHomes, November
Texas,
Dallas, 29,1994.
11.Focusgroup
with inPiano,
officials
public November
Texas, 28,1994.

REFERENCES

AldermanL (1995) Herecomesthefour-income Money24(2v)(Feb):154.

family.

Blakely EJ, Snyder MG (1997) FortressAmerica

: Gated communitiesin the United States.
MA: Brookings
DC, and Cambridge,
Washington, Press.
Institution

is a growingtrend.Los Angeles
CarltonJ (1989) Behind the gate: Wallingoffthe neighborhood
TimesOctober:I3.

and ResearchUnit(1990) Streetclosurestudy.FortLauderdale,Rorida:

CrimePrevention/Planning
FortLauderdalePoliceDepartment.

Hull J (1995) The stateof thenation.TimeMagazine30 January.

JaffeI (1992) Gatedcommunities in Los Angeles.All thingsconsidered.NationalPublic

controversy
Radio,August11.

theAmericandream.Advisory
RobertCharlesLesser& Co. (1994) Rexexecutives:Redefining (Fall).

StallingsD (1987) HernandoCounty,withits reputation forhousingbargains,is becominga prime

Times4 October:Hl.
locationfora grandstyleof house.St. Petersburg

Design Profile.New York: St.

suburb.Architectural
SternRAM (Ed.) (1981) The Anglo-American
Martin'sPress.

SzymanskiR (1994) Can changingneighborhood traffic

circulation reducecrimeand im-
patterns
analysisof one neighborhood'sefforts.Un-
prove personal safety?:A quantitative
publishedmaster'sthesis,RoridaAtlantic Boca Raton.
University,

Reportof a poll conductedby

Town & Country(1994) Wealthin America.The HearstCorporation.
RoperStarchWorldwidein 1993 forTown& Country.

Additionalinformation directlyto Dr. Blakely,Dean, School of Urban

may be obtainedby writing
of Southern
and RegionalPlanning,University VKC 351,Los Angeles,CA 90089,USA.
California,

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 Journal
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15:1(Spring,
1998) 72

AUTOBIOGRAPHICAL
SKETCH
Edward J.Blakely
received
a B.A.inHistory,
Political
ScienceandEconomics, attheUniversity
ofCalifornia,
Riverside,
1960;a M.A.inLatin
AmericanHistory, ofCalifornia,
University Berkeley,1963;anda Ed.D.inEducation
andManagement,
ofCalifornia
University LosAngeles,
1970.DrBlakely
hasheldacademic inteaching,
positions academic
research, administra-
tionandpolicy formore
development thantwenty-five
yearsandis a leading
scholarinthefields
ofplanning, and
agriculture,
ruralandcommunity
economic Heistheauthor
development. ofsixbooks andover100scholarlyarticles.
Hecurrently
serves
as DeanandLuskProfessor
ofPlanning
andDevelopmentfortheSchool ofUrban andRegional attheUniversity
Planning of
SouthernCalifornia.
MaryGailSnyderis a doctoral
candidate
intheDepartment
ofCityandRegional attheUniversity
Planning ofCalifornia
at
Shereceived
Berkeley. herB.A.inPolitical
Science
atMillsCollege
in1987andherMCPfromtheUniversity
ofCalifornia
in1992.Herfields
ofinterest
include
housingandcommunity Herdissertation
development. research
is oninformal
housing
intheSanFrancisco
BayArea.
andSnyder
Blakely areauthors
ofFortress : GatedCommunities
America ititheUnited
States Institution
(Brookings Press,
October,
1997)

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