Refresher Notes

RA
Code: CIGER Refresher Notes
This copy is given to the following student as part of School of PE course. Not allowed to distribute to others.
Backtash Saleh (bockee.saleh@gmail.com)
FE Civil Review Soil Mechanics and Foundations
Table of Contents
1.0 Index Properties and Soil Classification .......................................................... 1
1.1 Index Properties ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 AASHTO Classification System ............................................................................ 4
EXAMPLE 1-2 .................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) ........................................................... 6
EXAMPLE 1-3 .................................................................................................. 9
2.0 Phase Relationships ........................................................................................ 10
EXAMPLE 2-1 ................................................................................................ 13
EXAMPLE 2-2 ................................................................................................ 14
3.0 Laboratory and Field Tests .............................................................................. 16
3.1 Proctor Laboratory Tests .................................................................................... 17
.... EXAMPLE 3-1 ………………………………………………………………....
18
4.0 Vertical Total and Effective Stresses .............................................................. 19
4.1 Total Vertical Stress ........................................................................................... 19
4.2 Pore Water Pressure .......................................................................................... 20
4.3 Effective Vertical Stress ...................................................................................... 21
EXAMPLE 4-1 ................................................................................................ 22
5.0 Retaining Walls ................................................................................................. 23
5.1 Earth Pressure Introduction ................................................................................ 23
5.2 Rankine Earth Pressure Theory ......................................................................... 23
EXAMPLE 5-1 ................................................................................................ 25
EXAMPLE 5-2 ................................................................................................ 26
6.0 Shear Strength .................................................................................................. 27
6.1 Intro to Shear Strength Parameters .................................................................... 27
EXAMPLE 6-1 …………………………………………………………………. 28
7.0 Shallow Spread Foundations .......................................................................... 29
7.1 Types of Foundations ......................................................................................... 29
7.2 General Bearing Capacity Theory ...................................................................... 29
EXAMPLE 7-1 ................................................................................................ 30
EXAMPLE 7-2 ............................................................................................... 31
8.0 Consolidation.................................................................................................... 32
8.1 Consolidation in Clay Soils ................................................................................. 32
8.2 Rate of Consolidation ......................................................................................... 34
EXAMPLE 8-1 ................................................................................................ 36
9.0 Permeability & Seepage ................................................................................... 37
9.1 Coefficient of Permeability Laboratory Tests ...................................................... 37
EXAMPLE 9-1 ................................................................................................ 38
EXAMPLE 9-2 ................................................................................................ 39
9.2 Flow Nets ........................................................................................................... 40
EXAMPLE 9-3 ................................................................................................ 41
10.0 Slope Stability ................................................................................................... 42
10.1 Slope Failure along Planar Surface ................................................................ 42
EXAMPLE 10-1 .............................................................................................. 43
i
11.0 Soil Stabilization ............................................................................................... 44
12.0 Erosion Control ............................................................................................... 44
13.0 Drainange Sysytem ......................................................................................... 45
14.0 Karst Topography ............................................................................................. 19
ii
1.0 Index Properties and Soil Classification
1.1 Index Properties
Figure 1-1: Grain-Size Indices

(Reference FESRH, Pg 146)
 Sieve Analysis used to obtain the grain size distribution of coarse-grained soils
(sands and gravels) larger than 0.075 mm (retained above No. 200 Sieve).
 Hydrometer Analysis used to obtain the grain size distribution of fine-grained

soils (finer sands, silts and clays) smaller than 0.150 mm (passing No 100 Sieve).
Figure 1-2: Sample Grain Size Distribution Curves

 Grain Size Distribution Curve (Figure 1-2) is a plot of “percent finer” vs. “particle
diameter” in mm on a log scale.
School of Professional Engineering 1

 Distribution shape indices, coefficient of uniformity, Cu and coefficient of

curvature, Cc indicate the general shape of the curve.
D ( D30 ) 2
Cu  60 and Cc 
D10 D60 D10
 Dn is the particle size (diameter in mm) at which “n” percent of the particles are
finer.
 The “effective particle size” (D10) is the particle size at which 10% of the particles
are finer.
Example 1-1:
Determine the coefficient of uniformity and the coefficient of gradation of the “gap-
graded” and “well-graded” soils shown in Figure 1-2 on the previous page.
Solution:
“Gap-Graded” Soil:
6 mm, D30  _____

D60  _____ 0.08 mm
0.3 mm, D10  _____
D60   75
Cu   6  __________
D10 0.08
Cc 
D30 2

 0.3  _________
0.1875
D60 D10  6 0.08
“Well-Graded” Soil:
D60  1.0 mm, D30  0.15 mm, D10  0.02 mm
D60 1.0 mm
Cu    50
D10 0.02 mm
D30 2 (0.15 mm) 2

Cc    1.13
D60 D10 (1.0 mm)(0.02 mm)
(Answers given in Appendix)
2
Liquid State
(Liquid Behaviour)
Liquid Limit (LL)
Plastic State PI = LL-PL
(Add Water - Remold)
Plastic Limit (PL)
Semi-solid State
(Add water - Remold)
Solid State
(Add water - Remold)
Figure 1-3: Atterberg Limits

 The Atterberg Limits tests (Figure 1-3) are designed to determine the plasticity
of finer grained soils. These tests are performed on the fraction less than 0.425
mm (passing the No. 40 Sieve).
 The liquid limit (LL) is the moisture content at which the soil sample passes from
the plastic state to the liquid state.
 The plastic limit (PL) is the moisture content at which the soil sample passes from
the semisolid to the plastic state.
 The plasticity index (PI) is the difference in moisture content from the threshold
of the plastic to liquid state to the threshold of the semisolid to plastic state.
3
1.2 AASHTO Classification System
 Classification Procedures
1. Identify the percent passing the No.10, No. 40, and No. 200 sieves.
Identify the LL and PI of the fraction passing the No. 40 sieve.
2. Use AASHTO Classification Table (Figure 1-4). Move from left to right
using process of elimination until the first group consistent with the
laboratory data is identified.
3. Special Notes:
 For groups A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7: Calculate the group index (GI) using
the equation shown below the classification table. If GI is negative, it
is reported as zero.
 For group A-7, the Plastic Limit (PL = LL - PI) is the differentiating
factor between A-7-5 and A-7-6. This is expressed in terms of
Plasticity Index (PI = LL – PL), which you already use for classification.
Figure 1-4: AASHTO Classification Table

4
EXAMPLE 1-2
Determine the AASHTO Classification of soils A, B & C
Soil A Soil B Soil C
Sieve No % Passing % Passing % Passing
No. 10 82 74 100
No. 40 46 52 90
No. 200 23 30 87
LL NP 25 71
PL NP 14 40
Solution:
Sample A: IMPORTANT TEST TIP:
LL = NP PI = _____ Pay attention to the difference

between the “PL” and “PI”. If the
A) A-1-a plastic limit is given:
B) A-1-b PI = LL - PL
C) A-3
D) A-2-4
GI = ______
AASHTO Classification: ________
Sample B: Sample C:
LL = 25 PI = _____ LL = 71 PI = _____
A) A-2-4 A) A-5
B) A-2-5 B) A-6
C) A-2-6 C) A-7-5
D) A-2-7 D) A-7-6
GI = ______ GI = ______
Classification: ________ Classification: ________
5
1.3 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
 Group Symbols
First Letter: G Gravel

S Sand
M Silt
C Clay
Second Letter: For Course-Grained Soils - “G” or “S”

P Poorly Graded
W Well Graded
M Silty
C Clayey
For Fine-Grained Soils – “M” or “C”

L Low Plasticity
H High Plasticity or Elastic
Figure 1-5: USCS Classification Table

6
Figure 1-6: Casagrande Plascticity Chart

7
Classification Procedures:
1. Identify the percent gravel, percent sand and percent fines (using No. 4 and
No. 200 sieves). Note that “fines” refer to soils passing the No. 200 sieve.
2. If the percent passing the No. 200 sieve is less than 50%, then the soil is
“coarse-grained”.
 For soils with less than 5% fines, determine Cu & Cc to determine

group symbol (GW, GP, SW, or SP).
 For soils with greater than 12% fines, determine the LL and PI of
fraction passing the No. 40 sieve and plot results on the Casegrande
Plasticity Chart to determine group symbol (GM, GC, SM, or SC). If
the fines plot in the “CL-ML” area, the group symbol will either be
GC-GM or SC-SM.
3. If the soil has 5 to 12 % fines, the soil will have a dual symbol.
 First symbol will be GW, GP, SW, or SP, depending on values of Cu

& Cc. Second symbol will be GM, GC, SM, or SC according to where
fines plot on the Casegrande Plasticity Chart.
 Only the following combinations are possible:
GW-GM SW-SM
GW-GC SW-SC
GP-GM SP-SM
GP-GC SP-SC
4. If the percent passing the No. 200 sieve is greater than or equal to 50%,
then the sample is “fine-grained”.
 Determine the LL and PI and plot results on Casagrande Plasticity

Chart. Note that “non-plastic” soil (PI  0) classifies as non-plastic silt
(ML).
8
EXAMPLE 1-3
Determine the USCS Classification of soils A & B & C
Sieve No % Passing % Passing % Passing

Soil A Soil B Soil C
No. 4 100 98 77
No. 40 90 46 42
No. 200 87 23 10
LL 75 20 22
PI 20 6 5
Cu 26
Cc 0.2
Solution:
Sample A:
LL = 75 PI = 20
Gravel = _____ % Sand = _____ % Fines = _____ %
Coarse-grained or fine-grained?
USCS Group Symbol = _____
Sample B:
LL = 20 PI = 6
Sample C:
LL = 22 PI = 5
9
2.0 Phase Relationships
Total Volume V = Va + Vw + Vs Total Weight W = Ww + Ws

V = Vv + Vs
Figure 2-1: Phase Diagram
Figure 2-2: Common Soil Properties

10
 Water content (ratio of weights) and saturation (ratio of volumes):
Weight of Water Ww
Moisture Content, w   100%
Weight of Solids Ws
Volume of Water Vw
Degree of Saturation, S   100%
Volume of Voids Vv
[True or False] The moisture content can be greater than 100%.
[True or False] The degree of saturation can be greater than 100%.
If the moisture content is 0%, what is the degree of saturation? _____
If the degree of saturation is 100%, what is the moisture content? _____
 Unit weight is a generic term to describe a weight per unit volume. The
descriptive terms “total”, “saturated”, “dry”, and “effective” all indicate a specific
weight-volume relationship.
 Total unit weight:
Total Weight W
  
Total Volume V
 Saturated unit weight is a special case of total unit weight, when 100% of soil
voids are filled with water (S = 1.0)
Total Weight of Saturated Soil Wsat (Gs  e) w (Gs  e)

 sat    
Total Volume Vt 1 e 1 w
 Dry unit weight:
Weight of Solids Ws Gs w 

d    
Total Volume V 1 e 1 w
11
[True or False] If the dry unit weight of a soil is 100 pcf, the moisture content must
be 0%.
 Unit weight of water represents the weight of water per unit volume of water:
Weight of Water Ww
w    62.4 lb
Volume of Water Vw ft 3
 Unit weight of solids represents the weight of solids per unit volume of solids:
Weight of Solids Ws
 solids    Gs w
Volume of Solids Vs
 Void ratio and porosity are both volume ratios. These parameters are directly
related.
Volume of Voids Vv n
e  
Volume of Solids Vs 1  n
Volume of Voids Vv e
n  
Total Volume V 1 e
 Specific gravity:
Unit Weight of Solids  solids W

Gs    s
Unit Weight of Water w Vs w
12
EXAMPLE 2-1
A soil has a volume of 0.3 ft3 and weighs 36 lbs. The specific gravity (Gs) of the soil
sample is 2.67 and the moisture content (w) is 18%. Determine the moist unit
weight (), dry unit weight (d), void ratio (e), porosity (n), and degree of saturation
(S):
V (ft3) W (lb)
A 0
W
S
Vt = 0.3 Wt = 36
Solution:
Compute the weight of solids:

Ws  Wt  Ww  36 lb  Ww
Compute the weight of water:

Don't use since Ww  Wt  Ws this does not provide new information;
Look for other relationships using weight of water:
Ww
w  Ww  wWs  0.18Ws
Ws
Two equations with two unknowns; solve system of equations:

Ws  Wt  Ww  36 lb  (0.18Ws )
Ws  36  0.18Ws
therefore:
Ws  30.5 lb and Ww  5.5 lb
Compute the volume of water (rewrite w equation to isolate Vw):

Ww 5.5 lb
Vw    0.088 ft 3
w 62.4 pcf
Compute the volume of solids (rewrite solids equation to isolate Vs):

Ws Ws 30.5 lb
Vs     0.183 ft 3
 solids Gs w (2.67)(62.4 pcf )
Compute the volume of voids:

Vv  Vt  Vs  0.3 ft 3  0.183 ft 3  0.117 ft 3
13
Solve for required parameters:
Wt 36 lb
Moist unit weight:   3
 120 lb3
Vt 0.3 ft ft
W 30.5 lb
Dry unit weight: d  s  3
 101.7 lb3
Vt 0.3 ft ft
Vv 0.117 ft 3
Void ratio: e   0.64
Vs 0.183 ft 3
Vv 0.117 ft 3
Porosity: n   0.39
Vt 0.3 ft 3
Vw 0.088 ft 3
Degree of Saturation: S   0.75 (75%)
Vv 0.117 ft 3
 Relative density, Dr, is a special weight-volume relationship used in sands and

gravels (not applicable to fine-grained soils).
 Expressed in terms of void ratio or dry unit weight as determined by lab test:
emax  e   d  ( d )min  ( d ) max 

Dr (%)   100%      100%
emax  emin ( )
 d max  (  )
d min   d 
EXAMPLE 2-2
For a given sand sample labortory tests show emax = 0.41, emin = 0.25, and Gs = 2.72.
An in-situ Standard Penetration Test (SPT) indicates that the relative denisity of the
sand is approximately 65%. Estimate the in-situ dry unit weight of the sand.
What do you need to do first?

 Known: emax, emin, Dr  Solve for ein-situ
 Known: Gs
Can you write an equation for e in terms of d and Gs?

Gs w Gs w Gs w
Use d   1 e   e 1
1 e d d
14
Solution:
Use the relative density equation to solve for the in-situ void ratio:
emax  e
Dr 
emax  emin
 Dr (emax  emin )  emax  e
 e  emax  Dr (emax  emin )
e  0.41  0.65(0.41  0.25)  0.31
Solve for the in-situ dry unit weight:
Gs w 2.72(62.4 pcf )

d    130 pcf
1 e 1  0.31
15
3.0 Laboratory and Field Tests
Table 3.0: Summary of Common Laboratory Tests for Soils

See
Test Appropriate for Properties Measured
Chapter
Mechanical Sieve, Fraction of particle size

gravel, sand 1
D422 distribution > 0.075 mm
fine grained
Fraction of particle size
Hydrometer, D422 soils 1
distribution < 0.075 mm
(silt, clay)
Relative Density, coarse sand,

Relative density, Dr 2
D4253 gravel
Proctor, Std, D698,

sand, silt, clay Moisture-Density Relationship 3
Mod, D1557
CU Triaxial With pore pressure

Compression, sand, silt, clay measurements, total, c, , and 6
D4767 effective, c’, ’, shear strengths
Consolidation, Preconsolidation stress,

clay 8
D2435 settlement properties
Falling Head Hydraulic conductivity, k,

fine sand, fine
Permeability, soils with 9
grained soils
D5084 k < 10-3 cm/sec
Constant Head Hydraulic conductivity, k,

coarse grained
Permeability, soils with 9
soils
D5084 k > 10-3 cm/sec
16
3.1 Proctor Laboratory Tests
 Compaction is densification of soil by the reduction of air in the soil voids. The
degree of compaction is measured in dry unit weight (dry density).
 Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698) and Modified Proctor Test (ASTM D1557)
 Proctor curve cannot plot above the “zero voids” line, which is a plot of dry unit
weight (d) vs. moisture content (w), at 100 percent saturation (S=100%).
Figure 3-1: A typical compaction test proctor curve
17
EXAMPLE 3-1
Standard proctor test results are given in the following:
Volume of Mold Wt. of Moist Soil Moisture Content

(ft3) (lb) (%)
1/30 3.53 11
1/30 3.85 13
1/30 4.01 15
1/30 3.97 17
1/30 3.77 19
Determine the maximum dry unit weight of compaction and the optimum moisture
content.
Solution:
Prepare the following table:
Volume of Wt. of Moist Moist Unit Moisture Dry Unit

Mold (ft3) Soil (lb) Weight Content Weight
(V) (W) (lb/ft3) (%) (lb/ft3)
1/30 3.53 11
1/30 3.85 13
1/30 4.01 15
1/30 3.97 17
1/30 3.77 19
Use the data in this table to estimate the maximum dry unit weight (d) and the
optimum moisture content (w).
Maximum dry unit weight = _____ pcf
Optimum Moisture Content = _____%
 Relative compaction is the ratio of the field dry unit weight to the maximum dry
unit weight.
Field Dry Unit Weight ( d ) field

RC    100%
Max Dry Unit Weight ( d ) max
18
4.0 Vertical Total and Effective Stresses
Figure 4-1: Vertical Stress Parameters

(Reference FESRH, pg 149)
Figure 4-2: Vertical Stress Profiles

4.1 Total Vertical Stress
 Total vertical stress, v, is generated by gravitation force acting on the soil mass.
 Total vertical stress is expressed as the sum of the total unit weight multiplied
by the thickness of each soil layer.
 v    i hi
where: v = Total vertical stress
i = Total unit weight of the soil layer(s)
hi = Thickness of soil layer(s)
19
The total vertical stress at Point A is expresses as

( v ) A   H1   sat H 2
Figure 4-3: Example for Total Stress
 For computation of the total vertical stress, the “moist” unit weight is used for the
any layers above the water table, and the “saturated” unit weight is used for any
layers below the water table.
 See Chapter 2 for more discussion on unit weight.
4.2 Pore Water Pressure
 Pore water pressure is the result of buoyant force, u, exerted by water in the soil
mass.
u   wh p
where: u = Pore water pressure

w = Unit weight of water
hu = hp = Pressure head at the point of interest
 NOTE: In hydrostatic conditions (groundwater is static with no flow) the pressure

head will be equal to the vertical deistance between the point of interest to the
surface of the static groundwater surface, zw (Fig 4-4, Case 1).
 Pressure head at the point of interest is equal to the vertical distance between
the point of interest, and the level water rises is a piezometer (Fig 4-4, Case 2).
20
Figure 4-4: Case 1 (hydrostatic conditions with no flow) and

Case 2 (seepage conditions)
4.3 Effective Vertical Stress
 Effective Stress is the portion of the total stress that will be supported through
grain contact.
 The vertical effective stress, ’v, in a soil element at a depth, z, is the difference
of the total vertical stress imposed by the weight above, minus the pore water
pressure, u.
 Effective vertical stress, ’v:
 'v   v  u
where: v = Total vertical stress (lb/ft2 or kN/m2)

’v = Effective vertical stress (lb/ft2 or kN/m2)
u = Pore water pressure (lb/ft2 or kN/m2)
21
EXAMPLE 4-1
Assuming hydrostatic conditions, determine the total and effective vertical stresses
at Points A and B for the soil profile shown:
Solution:
Total vertical stress:
Point A:  v  (62.4 lb
)(10 ft)  624 lb
ft 3 ft 2
Point B:  v  (624 lb
2
)  (130 lb3 )(20 ft)  3224 lb
ft ft ft 2
Effective vertical stress:
Point A:  'v  624 lb

 (62.4 lb
)(10 ft)  0 lb
ft 2 ft 3 ft 2
Point B:  'v  3224 lb

 (62.4 lb
)(30 ft)  1352 lb
ft 2 ft 3 ft 2
22
5.0 Retaining Walls
5.1 Earth Pressure Introduction
 Earth pressure is the force per unit area exerted by soil. The ratio of horizontal
to vertical stress is called coefficient of lateral earth pressure (K).
h  'h
K and K
v  'v
 Earth pressure forces can be at-rest (a), active (b) or passive (c).
Outward movement
No Wall Movement
 Inward movement

;  ; ;



 45 + φ/2 45 - φ/2

(a) At-rest (k0) (b) Active Case (kA) (c) Passive Case (kP)
Figure 5-1: Nature of Lateral Earth Pressure on a Retaining Wall
5.2 Rankine Earth Pressure Theory
 For level backfill ( = 0) and cohesionless soil (c = 0):
 
K A  tan 2 (45  ) and K P  tan 2 (45  )
2 2
 The total active resultant force (where  = 0 and c = 0) is solved for by:
1 1
PA  p A H  K A H 2
2 2
 The total passive resultant force (where  = 0 and c = 0) is solved for by:
1 1
Pp  p p H  K p H 2
2 2
23
Figure 5-2: Development of Horizontal Pressure

24
EXAMPLE 5-1
A 10 ft high gravity retaining wall with flat backfill ( = 0) retains a clean sand for
which  = 120 lb/ft3 and  = 32. Using Rankine’s earth pressure theory, calculate
the total active earth pressure, and the active resultant force.
Solution:
Calculate the active earth pressure coefficient:
 
K A  tan 2 (45  2 )  tan 2 (45  322 )  0.307
Calculate the active earth pressure and resultant force:
p A   HK A  (120 pcf )(10 ft)(0.307)  368 psf
1 1
PA  p A H  (368 psf )(10 ft)  1842 plf
2 2
25
EXAMPLE 5-2
The sandy soil with an internal angle of friction of 30 degrees is retained behind a
9-foot retaining wall has moist unit weight of 128 pcf. Due to poor drainage, the
water table has risen to 6 feet above the base of the wall. The saturated unit weight
of the soil is 135 pcf. What is the total active resultant force acting on the wall?
Solution:
Determine the resultant active earth force, Pa:
30
K A  tan 2 (45  )  0.333
2
PA  PA1  PA2  PA3  PW
PA1  12  K A H1  H1  0.5  (0.333)(3 ft)(128 pcf )  (3 ft)  191.8 plf
PA2  K A H1  H 2  (0.333)(3 ft)(128 pcf )  (6 ft)  767.2 plf
PA3  12  K A H 2 ' H 2  0.5  (0.333)(6 ft)(135 pcf - 62.4 pcf )  (6 ft)  435.2 plf
PW  12  H 2 w  H 2  0.5  (6 ft)(62.4 pcf )  (6 ft)  1123.2 plf
PA  191.8  767.3  435.2  1123.2  2517.5 plf
26
6.0 Shear Strength
6.1 Intro to Shear Strength Parameters
Figure 6-1: Shear Strength References

27
EXAMPLE 6-1
A triaxial test is performed on a soil sample consisting of dry sand. Failure occurred
at a normal stress of 6,260 psf and a shear stress was 4,175 psf. Determine the
internal angle of friction and the major and minor principal stresses.
Solution:
Compute the internal angle of friction:
   4175 psf 
When c = 0,   tan 1  F   tan 1    34

N   6260 psf 
Solve for I and III by writing two equations using the geometry of the Mohr’s circle
and shear strength plot:
 F 2( F ) 2(4175 psf)

cos   F     I   III   10,072 psf
t   I   III   I   III cos(34 )
 
 2 
2 2
∅ 3.54 28,454 psf
2
By solving simultaneously: 14,157 psf 4,085 psf
28
7.0 Shallow Spread Foundations
7.1 Types of Foundations
 Foundations can be classified as shallow or deep:
(a) Shallow: spread footings and mats

(b) Deep: Driven piles, drilled shafts, and piers
 For shallow foundation, depth is shallower than its width.
 For deep foundation, depth (Df) is larger than its width (B). Generally, deep
foundations have the ratio (10  Df /B).
7.2 General Bearing Capacity Theory
 The ultimate bearing capacity is theoretically the bearing pressure at which shear
failure will occur.
 Terzaghi’s general bearing capacity equation is given as:
1
2
where: qult = Ultimate bearing capacity
c = cohesion
Df = Depth of footing
= Effective unit weight of the soil
B = Width of footing
Nc, Nq, N = Bearing capacity factors based on 
 The allowable bearing capacity is the maximum bearing pressure the soil can
safely support with a reasonable factor of safety (typically 2 to 3 for foundations):
q
q  ult
all FSq
29
 Note that bearing capacity and bearing pressure can be thought of in terms of
“supply” and “demand”. The allowable bearing capacity is the available supply,
which must be greater than or equal to the applied bearing pressure, which is the
demand placed on the soil.
qall  Qapplied
EXAMPLE 7-1
Determine the ultimate and allowable bearing capacities for a continuous footing with
a width of 3 feet. The foundation is bearing 2 feet below the ground surface in sand
with unit weight of 130 pcf, and an internal angle of friction of 36 degrees (c = 0).
Assume a factor of safety of 3.0.
Solution:
Determine bearing capacity factors:
Nc = 50, N = 56, Nq = 38
1) Solve for the ultimate bearing capacity.
qult  cN c   D f N q  0.5 BN 
qult  (0 lb
)(50)  (130 lb3 )(2 ft)(38)  0.5(130 lb
)(3 ft)(56)  20,800 psf
ft 2 ft ft 3
2) Solve for the allowable bearing capacity.
qult 20,800 psf

qall    6,933 psf
FS 3
30
EXAMPLE 7-2
Determine the factor of safety for a continuous footing with a width of 3 feet carrying
a load of 25 kips per lineal foot (plf). The foundation is bearing 2 feet below the ground
surface in sand with unit weight of 130 pcf, and an internal angle of friction of 36
degrees (c = 0).
Solution:
1) Solve for the ultimate bearing capacity (from previous solution)

qult  (0 lb
2
)(50)  (130 lb3 )(2 ft)(38)  0.5(130 lb
)(3 ft)(56)  20,800 psf
ft ft ft 3
2) Solve for the bearing pressure.

P 25,000 lb
Q   8333 psf
A 3 ft  1 ft
3) Solve for FSq.
qult 20,800 psf
FSq    2.5
Q 8,333 psf
31
8.0 Consolidation
8.1 Consolidation in Clay Soils
 Settlement of saturated fine-grained soil by squeezing water from soil voids is

called “Consolidation” and it is time depent phenomenon. Consolidation of fine-
grained soils occurs in three stages:
Immediate settlement occurs rapidly and is based on the theory of elasticity.
Primary consolidation occurs due the extrusion of water from soil pores.
Secondary compression (aka “creep”) occurs as soil particles readjust and

compress.
Immediate Settlement
Time
Primary Settlement Secondary/Creep Settlement Time
Immediate Settlement
Settlement
Primary Settlement
Secondary Settlement
Figure 8-1: Three phases of settlement in fine-grained soils
32
Figure 8-2: Soil Consolidation Curve

 The stress history of soils is summarized by:
For normally consolidated soils: p0  pc
For overconsolidated soils: p0  pc
where: po = Initial (present) effective overburden pressure

pc = Preconsolidation pressure
Normally Consolidated: p0  pc
 For a normally consolidated (NC) soil, primary consolidation settlement can be

calculated using the Compression Index, Cc:
Overconsolidated Case I: p0  pc and (p0  p)  pc
 For an overconsolidated (OC) soil where the final effective overburden pressure
does not exceed the preconsolidation pressure, primary consolidation settlement
can be calculated using the recompression index, Cr:
33
Overconsolidated Case II: p0  pc and (p0  p)  pc
 For an overconsolidated (OC) soil where the final effective overburden pressure
does exceed the preconsolidation pressure, primary consolidation settlement
can be calculated using the recompression index, Cr and the compression index,
Cc:

8.2 Rate of Consolidation
 Degree of consolidation UAV = St/SULT

St = settlement of the layer at time, t
SULT = total settlement
 The average degree of consolidation, U, of a saturated clay layer is a function of

the nondimensional time factor, Tv
ct
Tv  v
2
H dr
where: Tv = Time factor

cv = coefficient of consolidation
t = time
Hdr = length of the drainage path
= Hs/2 for two-way drainage
= Hs for one-way drainage
(where Hs is thickness of the layer)
34
Figure 8-3: Two-Way and One-Way Drainage Paths
35
EXAMPLE 8-1
A 15-ft thick clay is bounded by sand at the top and bottom. The clay has a coefficient
of consolidation of 0.3 ft2/day. Determine the time when 50% and 90% of the total
settlement will occur. Assume Tv = 0.196 for 50% consolidation and 0.848 for 90%
consolidation
Solution:
Double drainage  Hdr = _______
Calculate the time for 50% and 90 % of consolidation to occur:
Tv H d2 (____)(7.5 ft)2
t50    37 days
ft 2
cv 0.3 day
Tv H d2 (____)(7.5 ft)2
t90   2
 159 days
cv 0.3 ft day
36
9.0 Permeability & Seepage
9.1 Coefficient of Permeability Laboratory Tests
 Constant head permeability test:
Soil Sample
L
Volume of Water
colleted in Jar = (Q)
Figure 9-1: Constant Head Apparatus
 Appropriate for coarse-grained soils with permeability greater than 10-3 cm/sec.
The coefficient of permeability via constant head is solved for by:
where: Q = Total quantity of water

i = h/L
L = Length of specimen between piezometers
h = Head difference
A = Cross-sectional area of test specimen
perpendicular to flow
tc = Elasped time
37
EXAMPLE 9-1
A constant-head permeability test was performed on a 110 mm diameter, 270 mm tall
fine sand sample in a permeameter similar to the one shown in Figure 9-3. The
piezometers are spaced 200 mm apart and had readings of 1809 and 1578 mm. The
graduated cylinder collected 910 ml of water over 25 min 15 sec. Calculate the
hydraulic conductivity of the soil in cm/sec.
Solution:
Define the following parameters:
Q  910 ml  910 cm3

A  4 (11 cm) 2  95 cm 2
L  20 cm
h  180.9 cm  157.8 cm  23.1 cm
t  1515 sec
Solve for k:
QL (910 cm3 )(20 cm)

k  2
 5.5  103 cm
sec
hAt (23.1 cm)(95 cm )(1515 s)
 Falling head permeability test:
 Appropriate for fine-grained soils with permeability less than

10-3 cm/sec. The coefficient of permeability via falling head
is solved for by:
 aL h 
k   2.303 log10 0 
 At h1 
where: h0 = Head at the start of the test (t0)

h1 = Head at the end of the test (t1)
L = Length of specimen
A = Cross-sectional area of specimen
a = Cross-sectional area of standpipe
t = (t1-t0) = water level drops from ho to h1
38
a= X-sectional area of Standpipe
Time = to
Time = t1
Soil Sample
L
Volume of water - NOT required
Figure 9-2: Falling Head Apparatus
EXAMPLE 9-2
A falling-head permeability test was performed on a silty clay in a permeameter similar
to the one shown in Figure 9-4. The diameter and length of the sample were 10.20
and 16.20 cm, respectively. The cross-sectional area of the standpipe was 1.95 cm2.
The water in the standpipe dropped from a height of 100 cm at the start of the test to
92 cm at the end of the test. The test duration was 35 minutes. Calculate the coefficient
of permeability in cm/sec.
Solution:
Define the following parameters:
A  81.7 cm 2
a  1.95 cm 2 h0  100 cm
L  16.2 cm h1  92 cm
t  2100 sec
Solve for coefficient of permeability:

aL h0 (1.95 cm 2 )(16.2 cm) 100 cm
k  2.303 log10  2.303 2
log10  1.5  105 cm sec
At h1 (81.7 cm )(2100 s) 92 cm
39
9.2 Flow Nets
 Laplace’s Equation represents energy loss through a resistive medium (i.e. flow
through soil). A flow net is a 2D graphical solution of Laplace’s Equation.
 A flow net is a combination of flow lines and equipotential lines.
 A flow line is a line along which a water particle travels.
 There is no flow along equipotential lines, which are 90 degrees to flow lines.
The total head along an equipotential line is equal at all points.
 The total flow rate (per unit width) though a flow net, is solved for by:
where: Q = Flow per unit time

Nf = Number of flow channels in a flow net
Nd = Number of potential drops
H = Total hydraulic head differential
k = Coefficient of permeability
40
EXAMPLE 9-3
For a flow net shown in the following figure, determine head loss at points A, B, and
C. The structure is approximately 100 feet long. Determine the flow rate in ft3/min
through the permeable layer. Assume hydraulic conductivity, k = 1.6410-4 ft/min.
Solution:
Nf = ____ Nd = ____
Total head loss (H) = ____
Head loss per drop = ____
Head loss at Pnt A = ____ Pnt B = ____ Pnt C = ____
Calculate seepage:
Nf ft 3
Q  kH  L  __________
Nd min
41
10.0 Slope Failure
10.1 Slope Failure along Planar Surface
This method assumes the slope will fail along a planar surface passing through the
toe of the slope. The factor of safety is given by:
Wm
TFF
Tmob
Ls Assumed
Planar Slip
Surface
Figure 10-1: Slope failure along Planar surface.
TFF = Available shearing resistance along slip surface

= cos tan
TMOB = Mobilized shear force along slip surface

= sin
LS = Length of assumed planar slip surface

Wm = Weight f soil mass above slip surface
Angle of assumed slip surface with respect to horizontal
42
EXAMPLE 10-1
A highway slope is shown in the figure below with the soil properties c = 200 psf, ϕ =
29° and unit weight of 120 pcf. The slope is 25 ft high and slip surface angle is 23°
with horizontal. The weight of the soil above slip surface = 52,200 lb/ft.
Wm
H = 25 ft
TFF
Tmob
Ls Assumed
Planar Slip Surface
; ø;
C = 200 psf; , ; °; ø = 29° ; H = 25 ft.
ft.
, ° °
, , /
, ° /
43
11.0 Soil Stabilization
Soil stabilization is used to prevent the failure of slopes, embankments, pond liners
(waste disposal site), and structures where foundations may be exposed to erosion.
Soil stabilization is achieved through chemical additions to the soil or reinforcing the
soil with geotextiles.
 Chemical Stabilization - such as grout, hydrated lime, alum, gypsum,

agricultural lime, magnesium chloride tec. can help to stabilized the soil.
 Geotextile – There are woven and non-woven type of geotextiles.

Woven type geotextiles is manufactured by weaving Individual threads into
one large, uniform piece and gives a high loading capacity. For the projects
where reinforcement or stabilization of slope, embankment and road
subgrade are needed woven geotextiles are used.
Non-woven geotextiles are manufactured by bonding materials together,
either through chemical or heat, needle punching or other methods. They’re
used in filter or separation applications. For the projects where water
drainage is needed non-woven geotextiles are used.
12.0 Erosion Control
Erosion is the susceptibility of a particular soil type to erosion by water or wind.

 Silt fence is used for erosion control. Silt fence consists of woven geotextile
fastened to vertical posts or stakes used to prevent sheet runoff from
transporting sediment into streams or sewer systems.
 Also, geotextiles are used to prevent the loss of soil particles from the erosion
susceptible soil. Erosion control materials may consist of rip rap, dump rock,
precast concrete blocks, gabion mats, and other products. A sand cushion may
be used to protect the geotextile when large rock is placed.
Figure 12-1 Rip Rap rockfill embankment.
44
13.0 Drainage System – Retaining Wall
Weep holes and perforated drains are typically used where the backfill and retained
soils are relatively pervious.
Perforated PVC pipe
Figure 13-1 Drainage provided by (a) weep holes, or (b) perforated pipe drains
where backfill soils are pervious [Liu and Evett (2004), Fig. 13-10, pp. 427].
When the drainage pipe is omitted, the drainange system is called a French drain.
When the backfill and retained soil is relatively impervious, a drainage blanket can
be used. A longitudinal drain is installed along the heal of the wall and is embedded in
granular drainage material. The drainage material is continued up against the side of the
excavation to within a few feet of the surface.
Figure 13-2 Drainage blanket in impervious soils [Liu and Evett (2004), Fig. 13-12, pp. 428].
45
14.0 Karst Topography
Karst topography is formed from the dissolution of soluble rocks. The soluble rocks
inclues - limestone, dolomite and gypsum.
 Surface features such as caves, sinkholes, springs, and sinking streams are typical
features of a karst topography which are formed by internal drainage, subsidence,
and collapse.
 Karst is problematic because the roof of underground cavities may collapse

creating sinkholes that undermine structures at the surface. Care must be taken
when bearing deep foundations on the surface of the rock to avoid a condition
where the roof of the cavity is too thin to support the foundation loads.
Figure 14-1 Features of a karst topography.
46
FE Civil Review Appendix
Example 1-1
6 mm 0.3 mm 0.08 mm
D60  6 mm, D30  0.3 mm, D10  0.08 mm
D60 6mm D30 2 (0.3mm) 2

Cu    75 ; C z    0.1875
D10 0.08mm D60 D10 (6mm)(0.08mm)
Example 1-2
Sample A
PI = NP
Classification: A-1-b
Sample B
PI = 11
Classification: A-2-6
Sample C
PI = 31
GI  (87  35)[0.2  0.005(71  40)]  0.01(87  15)(31  10)  33.58
Classification: A-7-5 (34)
47
Example 1-3
Sample A
Gravel: 100 – 100 = 0; Sand: 100 – 87 = 13; Fines: 87
Fine-Grained
Classification: MH
Sample B
Coarse-Grained
Classification: SC-SM
Sample C
Coarse-Grained
Classification: SP-SC
[True or False] The moisture content can be greater than 100%. - TRUE
[True or False] The degree of saturation can be greater than 100%. - FALSE
If the moisture content is 0%, what is the degree of saturation? 0 %
If the degree of saturation is 100%, what is the moisture content? > 0%
[True or False] If the dry unit weight of a soil is 100 pcf, the moisture content must
be 0%. - FALSE
Example 3-1
Volume of Wt. of Moist Moist Unit Moisture Dry Unit

Mold Soil Weight Content Weight
(ft3) (lb) (lb/ft3) (%) (lb/ft3)
1/30 3.53 105.9 11 95.4
1/30 3.85 115.5 13 102.2
1/30 4.01 120.3 15 104.6
1/30 3.97 119.1 17 101.8
1/30 3.77 113.1 19 95.0
Maximum dry unit weight = 105 pcf; Optimum Moisture Content = 15 %
48
Example 8-1
Double drainage  Hdr = (15ft/2) = 7.5 ft
Tv H d2 (0.196)(7.5 ft) 2
t50    37 days
ft 2
cv 0.3 day
Tv H d2 (0.848)(7.5 ft)2
t90   2
 159 days
cv 0.3 ft day
Example 9-3
Nf = 4; Nd = 8; Total head loss (H) = (20 ft – 8 ft) = 12 ft;
Head loss per drop = (12 ft/8 drops) = 1.5 ft/drop
Head loss at Pnt A = (1.5ft/drop) x 2 drops = 3 ft

Head loss at Pnt B = Pnt C = (1.5ft/drop) x 5 drops = 7.5 ft
Nf 4 ft 3
Q  kH L  (1.64  104 min
ft
)(12ft)  (100ft)  0.0984
Nd 8 min
49

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Code: CIGER Refresher Notes

11.0 Soil Stabilization ............................................................................................... 44

12.0 Erosion Control ............................................................................................... 44

13.0 Drainange Sysytem ......................................................................................... 45

14.0 Karst Topography ............................................................................................. 19

1.0 Index Properties and Soil Classification

1.1 Index Properties

Figure 1-1: Grain-Size Indices

 Hydrometer Analysis used to obtain the grain size distribution of fine-grained

Figure 1-2: Sample Grain Size Distribution Curves

School of Professional Engineering 1

 Distribution shape indices, coefficient of uniformity, Cu and coefficient of

6 mm, D30  _____

D60  1.0 mm, D30  0.15 mm, D10  0.02 mm

D30 2 (0.15 mm) 2

Figure 1-3: Atterberg Limits

1.2 AASHTO Classification System

Figure 1-4: AASHTO Classification Table

Sample A: IMPORTANT TEST TIP:

LL = NP PI = _____ Pay attention to the difference

AASHTO Classification: ________

Classification: ________ Classification: ________

(Answers given in Appendix)

1.3 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)

First Letter: G Gravel

Second Letter: For Course-Grained Soils - “G” or “S”

For Fine-Grained Soils – “M” or “C”

Figure 1-5: USCS Classification Table

Figure 1-6: Casagrande Plascticity Chart

 For soils with less than 5% fines, determine Cu & Cc to determine

 First symbol will be GW, GP, SW, or SP, depending on values of Cu

 Only the following combinations are possible:

 Determine the LL and PI and plot results on Casagrande Plasticity

Sieve No % Passing % Passing % Passing

Gravel = _____ % Sand = _____ % Fines = _____ %

USCS Group Symbol = _____

Gravel = _____ % Sand = _____ % Fines = _____ %

USCS Group Symbol = _____

Gravel = _____ % Sand = _____ % Fines = _____ %

USCS Group Symbol = _____

(Answers given in Appendix)

2.0 Phase Relationships

Total Volume V = Va + Vw + Vs Total Weight W = Ww + Ws

Figure 2-1: Phase Diagram

Figure 2-2: Common Soil Properties

 Water content (ratio of weights) and saturation (ratio of volumes):

[True or False] The moisture content can be greater than 100%.

[True or False] The degree of saturation can be greater than 100%.

If the moisture content is 0%, what is the degree of saturation? _____

If the degree of saturation is 100%, what is the moisture content? _____

(Answers given in Appendix)

 Total unit weight:

Total Weight of Saturated Soil Wsat (Gs  e) w (Gs  e)

 Dry unit weight:

Weight of Solids Ws Gs w 

(Answers given in Appendix)

Unit Weight of Solids  solids W

Compute the weight of solids:

Compute the weight of water:

Two equations with two unknowns; solve system of equations:

Compute the volume of water (rewrite w equation to isolate Vw):

Compute the volume of solids (rewrite solids equation to isolate Vs):

Compute the volume of voids:

Classification: Classification:

Gravel = ___ % Sand = _ % Fines = ___ %

Gravel = ___ % Sand = _ % Fines = ___ %

Gravel = ___ % Sand = _ % Fines = ___ %