EnglishGrammar 10000814

EN G L I S H G R AMMAR
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H OW TO TE AC H IT;
D E S I GN ED AS A TEX T B OO K F O R C O MM ON S C H O O L S AN D
-
,
F OR T H E P R I MAR Y I N T E R M E D IAT E AN D G R AMMAR

, ,
D E P ARTME N T S O F G RAD E D S C HO O L S .
H E N RY B O LT W OO D , AM . .
,
M AS TE R O F P RI N C E T O N H I G H S C H O O L .
C H I C AG O
GE O . C . W . S H E RW O O D .
1 869.
E n t er e d ac co r di n g to Act of C on gr ess , in th e y e a r 1869,
BY GEO . C . W . S H E RWO OD .
I n th e Cl ’
er k s Oni c e of th e D i st r ict C o u rt fo r th e No rt h ern Dist rict of Ill i
n ois .
CH URCH , G OODMAN Jr DONNE L LE Y , P RI N TE RS AND S TE RE OTY P E RS , C H I CAGO.

P RE F A C E .
TH E p rincip al r e a s on for a d d in g an oth e r Gr a m m ar to

th e m a ny alre ad y in p r in t ,
is th e fa c t th a t a n o th e r is
n ee d e d . b r a n c h o f C om m o n S c h ool st u d y d o e s
In no
t h e l ab or exp en d e d a pp e a r t o p r o d u c e s o littl e in th e
w ay o f r e s ult I t h a s e v e n b e e n d is c u s s e d in S t a t e
s.
Te a c h e r s ’
A s s o c ia tion s , wh e th er th e s tu d
y of G r am
m a r is p ro d u c tive o f an y g oo d . An d , s in c e t h e fa c t s
pe i i g t o l an gu a ge
r ta n n a r e c e r ta in l
y w o r th k n o win g , t h e
fa ir c o n c lu s io n is , t h a t th e fa c t s c an be p r e s e nte d in
s om e for m b e tte r s u ite d to t h e n e c e s s itie s o f t e a ch e r s
an d p up ils th a n any wh ic h h a s y e t b een t r ie d .
T his v ol u m e p r e s e n ts a m e tho d of t e a c hing Gra m m ar

whic h h a s b e en c ar e fully t e s te d in th e s c h o o l-r o o m . Th e
b ook c o n t a in s a s el ec t io n o f t h e fa c t s pe i i g to l a n
r ta n n
g ua
g e . I n t e a c hin g fo r m a n y y e a r s , one l e a r n s th a t
c e r t a in fa c t s are to b e r e t a in e d fi rm l
y ,
c e r t a in o th e r s to
be r e a d , o r u se d a s ill us tr a tio n s , a n d o th e r s u s e d a s han
d le s b v wh ic h t o g r as p an d h old o th e r fa c t s . G ra m m a
r ia n s a t te m p ting to m ak e th e i s c h o ol g a m m ar s c o m p le te
r r
tr e a tis e s u p o n th e s tu d y o f l a g ua ge h a v e p ut s o m u c h
n ,
in th e m th a t the y h av e b e w ild e re d a n d d is g u s t d the e
up il A r a m m a r sh o uld b e j u d ge d b y wh a t it le ave s
p .
g
out as m uc h as by wh at it c o n ta in s .
4 P REFACE .
I n s te a d of c o m m e n c in g w ith l e tte r s , s
yl la ble s , an d
w or d s , th e p u p il ,
in th is b o ok ,
is m a d e t o c o m m en c e
w ith t h e s e n te n c e as th e b a s is of g ra m m a t ic a l in s tru c
t io n . In o th e r w o r d s , th e id e a is th a t th e c hild s h a ll
b e gin to Stu dy la n gu age j us t a s he r e c eiv e s a n d le ar n s it ,
e m b o d ie d in s e t e n c e s I t is m or e im p o rta n t t h a t th e
n .
c hil d s h o ul d ut w or d s t og eth e r c o rr e c tly , and u n d er

p
s t an d th e m w h e n com b in e d , th a n th a t h e s h o uld be a b le
to name p r o p e tie s an d attrib ute s b y for m al n a m e s o r
r ,
g iv e fo r m al d e fi n itio n s An
y o n e w h o h a s e v e r a tte m p t e d
.
t o m ak e p e rfe c t a n d c o n c is e d e fi itio n s o f gr a m m a tic a l n
t e r m s , m u s t fe e l th a t c h il d r e n ou
gh t n ot t o b e d rille d
u p on te r m s w hic h a r e b e yon d th eir c o m p reh e n s ion while ,
th e p o p e r u s e Of l a n gu a ge is n e gle c te d
r .
S O fa r a s p o s s ib le t h o u gh o u t th e I n tro d uc to r y G r a m
,
r
m a r the fa c t h a s b e e n p e s e n t e d a n d r e cog iz e d b e for e

,
r n
th e n a m e is giv e n W h e n e ve r a n e w fa c t is p r e s e n te d th e
.
,
p up il is e xp e c t e d to fix it in m e m o ry b y r e p e a te d w ritin g ,
a n d b y r e c o g iz i g it in s e n t e n c e s t a k e n fr o m r e a d e r s
n n
o r o t h e r b o ok s fa m ilia r t o h im I f th e s e e x e r c is e s a r e .
fa ith fully p e r fo r m e d t h e gr o u n d p a s s e d o v e r w ill b e p e r

,
m a n e tl y h el d ; o th e wis e it w ill b e lo s t
n r B y r e p e a te d
, .
w itin g a ft e r c o r e c t m o d els h a b it s Of a c c ur a t e c o m p o s i
r r
,
t io n a r e fix e d .
I t is a b s ur d t o s a y th a t gr a m m ar a s ge n e r ally t a ught , ,
t h e a r t o f s p e a k in g a d w r itin g th e l a n gu a ge c or
“
is n
r e c tl
y L. on
’3
g a ft e r t h e h a b it s O f s p e e c h a r e in d e l ib l
y
fix e d a few m o n th s ar e ge n e r ally giv e n t o th e s tud y o f
,
d r y d e t a ils , im p e rfe c tly u n d e r s to o d , s e ld o m or n e ve r

PREFACE .
applie d a n d s oon forg otte n S uc h s tud y m ak e s n o m or e

,
.
im p r e s s io n o n b a d h ab its o f s p e e c h th a t d e w d o e s o n a
r ock.
In p re p a ring this b o ok ,
th e n ec e s s it ie s of te ac her s
h av e b e en kep t in m in d . M an y wh o t e a c h h a v e h a d
lim ite d a d v a n t a ge s , an d c a n n o t te a c h w ell b ec a u se th e y
h av e n eve r b e e n w ell ta ugh t the m s e lv e s . S om e have no
o th e r w a y of t e a c h in g t h a n to fo ll o w th e t e x t -
b ook ,
qu e stion by qu e stion
b ook is in te n d e d
. Th e t o h e lp
tho s e wh o a r e willin g t o b e h e lp e d a n d t o p r e s e n t a ,
l a n whic h e v e n wh e n fo llo w e d b lin dl w ill d l ss

p , y o e ,
m is c hie f an d s e c ur e m o r e g oo d th a n th e c om m o m
m e t ho d s . W er e it lik e ly th a t n on e b ut w e ll qu alifi e d -
t e a c h e r s w o ul d b e re
q uIre d t o u s e th is b o ok ,
it w ou ld
h av e b een s h o r ten e d . B ut k n o win g h o w m a n y w ill o n ly
fo llo w th e b o ok ,
”
th e d e s ign h a s b e en t o m ak e a b o ok
whic h C o u n ty S up e i
r nte n d ents, S c h o ol D ir e c t o r s , or
P r in c ip al s of G r ad e d S c h o ol s c an s a fe l
y p u t in t o th e
han d s of y oun
g, in e xp er ie n c e d , or im p e r fe c tly ed u c a te d
te a ch e r s , a n d s a y, F ollo w t h is b oo k e x a c tly .
A P r im a r y, I n te r m e d ia t e , and Co m m on S c h o ol G ra m
m a r is pr e s e n te d in t h is v o lum e . I t is in t e n d e d t o
in cl u d e a ll wh ic h is p r elim in ar y t o t he H igh S ch o ol
C o urs e Of G rad e d S c h o o ls , a n d a ll whic h c o uld p r o p e rly

be c alle d Com m on S ch oo l G r a m m a r
-
in n on-
g ra d ed
s c h o o ls . The P r im a r y G ra m m ar is d e s ign e d as a t e ac h
in d e v e l o p in g l a n g u a ge b y Obj e c t le s s o n s
’
er s uid e an d
g
-
,
is n ot in t e n d e d as a te xt b ook-
fo r c h ild re n . Th e I n te r
m e d ia te d e v el o p s a p la n fo r t e a c hin g l a n gu age to p up ils

6 PR E F ACE .
w ho a r e ab le t o u se a s im p l e t e t-x b o ok . The C o m m o n
S ch o ol Gr a m m a r r e v ie w s th e I n te r m e dia te , a n d d e v e lop s
th e p l an a lr e a d y b e
g un , w ith a d d itio n a l fa c ts an d p r in
c ip l e s . L e ss s p ac e is giv e n t o th e s ou n d s of l e tt e r s ,
b e c au se a ll
g ood Re a d e r s an d Sp e lle r s n o w in u s e c on
t ain a ll th a t t h e p u p il g e n e r a lly n e e d s. T he r ule s Of
sp ellin g are a l s o r e fe rr e d t o th e App en di x ,

n ot a s un im
p or ta t n ,
b ut a s c o m in g a fte r th e s t ud
y Of P re fix e s an d
S uffix e s .
Th e c o m m on ter m s of s c h o ol
g ram m a r s h av e b e en
r e t a in e d a s fa r as p o s s ib le ,
so th a t p up ils tr a in e d in t his
b o ok m ay u n d e rs t a nd th e c om m o n no m e n c l a tu r e of
g ram m a r ia n s . Y e t it h a s been deem ed n e c e s s ar

y to
g iv e som e n a m es on l y to c on d e m n an d j
re ect th e m .
“
New n am es h av e n e ve r b e en us ed Simp ly to gi v e an
im p r e s s io n O f o r ig in a lit y.
Sp e c ia l a tt e n t io n is in v ite d to th e fo llo w in g p o ints in

th e p r e s e t a tion Of t o p ic s
n
Th e p u p il c o m m e c e s with t h e s e n t e n c e
n .
C o m p o itio p e c e d e s a a lys is
s n r n .
Th e s tu d y O f l a g u a g b e gin s w ith t h e p rim a r y s c h o o l

n e
,
o r j u s t a s s o o n a s th e c hild c a n u t id d w rds
p e a s a n o
t o ge th e r .
Atte tio n n is als o in v it e d t o th e fo ll o w in g t o p ic s
G d en e r, Case, T r a n s itive V e r b s , C o nj u g a t io n , use O f
th V b t
e er o be, us e of w h a t, t he d is tin c t io n of th e ver b al
t e rm e n d in
g i n in
g in to G e r un d , V e r b al A dj e c t iv e , a nd
P a r tic ip l e , t he r e j e c tio n of Au x ili ar

y V e rb s , of th e P a s
PR E F AC E . 7
s iv e Voic e ,
of Mode as a P r o p e rty of the Ve rb , an d the
ab se nc e of fo r m a l Rul e s of Sy n ta x .
The s t ud y of Sy n on
y m s ,
and th e D er iva t io n of S ur
n am e s in th e App
x a re a ls o c o m m e n d e d t o a t te n tio n
e ndi .
M a y b o ok s a n d a uth o r s h a ve b e en c o n sul te d i th e
n n
r e p a r a tio n o f this b o o k G o o ld B r o wn F o wl e r B i g
p n
-
.
, ,
ha m , M a r sh Ho wlan d G re e n Mullig a n a n d Ric h ar d

, , , ,
Gr an t W hite h a v e b e e n u s e d ; b e s id e s a la rge n um b er Of
o the r a u th o r s D r S a m u e l Will a r d h a s r e n d e r e d s p ec ia l
. .
a n d v a lu a b le a s s is t a n c e .
Tho ugh o nl y a s in gle n a m e a pp e a r s on th e titl e - p age ,
the id e a of th e b o ok wa s J sur o m e All e n

e s te d by
gg e ,
A M of M o n tic ell o I o wa wh o al s o sh a r e d in its p r e p a r a

. .
, , ,
tio n thr o u gh the I n te r m e d ia t e p ar t H is o th e r e n ga ge .
m e nt s p r e v e n tin g fur th e r c o o p er a tio n h e is in n o way

-
,
r e s p o n s ib le fo r t he thir d o r C o m m o n S c ho ol p a r t .
P RI NCE T ON , ILL , J u n e, 1 8 6 9 .
PRIMA RY G RAMMAR .
SU G GES T I ONS TO T EA CHE RS .
IT is u s e le s s t o giv e y o u n g c hil d r e n a x b
t e t- ook o n
g r a m m ar , e xp e c ti n
g th e m t o p rofit b y it s s t u d y. The y
m ust l e a rn to use l a n gu a ge b y im it a t io n , an d by o r al
t e a c hin g Th e o un p up il S h o uld fi r s t r e c e ive fr o m

.
y g
th e t e ac h e r c o r re c t and S im pl e fo r m s of s p e e ch ,
and
th e n b e tr a in e d t o s uc h fo r m s alo n e . I t is n ot n e c e s
sa r
y th a t a S in gl e t e c h n ic al t e r m b e u s e d , n or t h a t th e
in s t ru c t io n s giv e n b e c all e d less o n s i n gr a m m a r .
Th e u s e o f l a n gu a g e Sh o u ld b e t a ugh t in e v e r y le s s o n .
I t sh o uld b e th e d a ily s t u d y o f t h e p r im a ry te ac h e r to tr a in
e v e r y c h ild in c o rr e c t s p e ak in g . I t is a c om m on m is t a k e
to su pp o s e th a t a gr a m m ar c la s s is the only pl a c e whe r e
the p r o p e r u s e o f w o r d s c a n b e t a u gh t A t e a c h e r sh o ul d .
n o m o r e p e r m it a p u p il t o sp ea k in c o r r e c tly th a n t o ,
c o u n t o r t o Sp e ll in c o r r e c tly Of c o u r s e t h e t e a c h e r s ’
.
, ,
o w n s p e ec h s h o ul d b e a m o d e l fo r his p u p ils The .
p r e s e n ta tion o f c o rr e c t m o d e l s ho we ve r w ill n ot b e
, ,
e n o ugh .
M o s t p up il s b rin g to the s c h o ol r oo m b a d h ab its -
a c q u ir e d a t ho m e T he s e the te ac h e r m u s t b r e ak u p
. .
N o thin
g b u t p a t ie n t e ffo rt w ill s e c u r e th is r e s ul t . The
e v il h a b its o f e a r s , s tr e n th e n e d b d a il h o m e e xam
y g y y
p l e , w ill n ot
y ie ld t o o n e s u gge s t io n , n o r t o te n .
I t is r el a t e d W e sle y s in a n s wer
th a t th e m o th e r of th e ,
to h e r h u s b a n d s im p a t ie n t r e m o n s tr a n c e
’
W hy will you ,
i
1
10 SU GG E S TI O N S T O TE AC H E RS .
t e a c h th a t d ull b o y th e s am e th in g t we n ty t im e s o v e r ?
q u ie tly re p lie d ,
“
B e c a u s e Mr W e sl e y
,
.
,
n in e t e e n t im e s
w ill not do .
”
The t we n tie th t im e fix e d th e fa c t fo re v e r .
H a d s he s to pp e d a t n in e t e e n , s he m ight h a v e lo s t a ll her
p a in s . The l ittl e c hil d , w h o s e h a b it s ar e fo r m in g, c l a im s
m o r e t im e , m or e p a tie nc e ,
an d m o r e th o r ou gh te a c hin g
t h a n t h e old e r p up il wh o
,
is b e tte r q u alifi e d to th ink fo r
h im s e lf .
I n t e a c hin g l a n gu a g e , th e in s tr u c to r s h o ul d follo w
c lo s e ly th e o r d e r in w hic h th e c hild ac q uir e s wo r d s , an d
t h e ir u s e s . Objec ts ar e fir s t l e ar n e d , t h e n th e ir n am e s,
t h e n t h e ir p r op e rt ie s and u s e s. T he re for e th e n a m es ,
p r op er ties , a n d u s es of c o m m o n thing s a re th e b es t l e s
s on s fo r p rim a ry s c h ol a r s . E x a m pl e s of s im p le o bj e c t
le s so n s ar e he r e giv e n , to S h o w ho w th e u s e o f l a n gu age
s h ould be ta ugh t in c on n e c tio n with o the r t ea c hin g .
PRIMARY L E S S O NS I N LAN GUAGE .
L ESS ON I .
NAME S OF THING S .
LE T the t ea c he r , s t a n d ing at th e b o ar d ,
a sk th e p up il s
to n am e a ll th e o bj e c ts w hic h t h e y see in t h e s c h o ol
r oom . T he s e n am e s , w rit te n or pri nte d on th e boa rd ,
or on th e s l a t e , fur n is h th e ver y b e st Of. s p elli n

g l
-
e s s on s .
The p r op e r fo r m an d s i z e Of l e t t e r s , an d th e n e a t ar r an
g e
m ent of w or d s , m u s t b e a tt e n d e d t o b y th e t e a c h e r . In
c oll e c tin g a n d w r it in g t h e s e n am e s , th e c h ild r e n ar e pro
fi tably em pl o ye d ,
p o wer s
b s e r v a tion a e
t h e ir of o r s t im a
l a te d a n d g e a t e m ula tion c a b e e x c it e d b y c o mm e n d
,
r n
i g th o s e wh o m a k e the lo n ge s t l is t s a d Sh o w t h e b e s t
n ,
n
w o rk . F e w in ou r s c h o ol s will b e l ik e ly t o n am e a ll
t he o bj e c ts in th e roo m ; at le a s t , t o n a m e a ll t h e ir p a rts .
To n am e c o rr ec tl
y a ll th e p a rt s o f a p o ck et k -
n i e , of a
f
d o o r, or of a w in d o w, is b e yon d th e a t t a in m e n t of
m o st p up ils . N am es sh o u ld n eve r b e giv e n b y th e

t e a c h e r , u n til th e p up il s h a ve r e a ll
y l a bo r ed t o o b t a in
th e m fo r th e m s e l v e s
To illu s t r a te th is e x e r c is e , a l is t is g iv e n o f th e n a m e s
whic h m a y b e d e r iv e d fr o m a c o m m o np o c k e t k n ife -
h a n dle , bl a d e , e d ge , p oi nt
,
b a ck ,
n o tc h , Sh a n k ,
r iv e t,
Sp r in g , c ap , p l a te ,
ir o n .
s t e el , woo d , b ra s s ,
The n a m es, wh e n ob tain e d ,

S ho uld he o fte n r e p e a te d ,
an d m a d e fa m ili a r b y p o in tin g o ut the o bj e c t , wh il e

12 E NG LI S H G RAMMAR .
g iv in
g it s n am e . T hu s t ak in g
,
th e k n ife in h a n d , th e
p u p il S hould s ay T his is a k n ife .
” “
T his is t h e
p o in t o f th e k n ife and so t h r o u gh th e lis t . Do not
be s a tis fi ed t ill th e p u p ils c an g o t h r o u gh a ll the n am e s
fo r th e m s el v e s , fl ue n tly a n d c o rr e c tl y.
Al w ay s r e q uir e th e n am es t o b e w r itt e n . L o ok c l o s e l y
t o t he n e a tn e s s o f e v e r
y e xe i
rc se , and t o th e Sp e llin g o f
e v e ry w o rd . Re q u ir e d a ily e x e r c is e s at th e bla c kb o a r d ,
*
an d t r a in th e c la s s to i
n ot c e , an d to c or r e c t m is t a k e s .
S im il ar l e s s o n s , d e s ign e d p i
r nc ip a lly t o d e v e lo p th e
p e r c e p tive fa c ul tie s , s h o ul d b e giv e n on th e follo w in g
s u bj e c ts
N a m e s Of t hin g s w h ic h g r o w.
N a m e s of th in g s w h ic h w e e a t.
N am es of th in gs m a d e o f ir o n .
N am e s of t h in g s m a d e of w ee d .
N am es of th in g s m a d e of l e a th e r .
N a m e s Of th in g s m a d e of iv o r y .
N a m e s of t h in g s u s e d in a h o u s e .
N a m e s Of m a t e r ial s u sed in m ak in g a h ou s e .
N am e s of thin g s fo u n d in a s t or e .
N a m e s of bi r ds .
N a m e s of fo u r fo o te d
-
a n im a l s .
F ir s t n a m e s o f a ll th e b oys in th e s c h o ol .
F ir s t n a m e s o f a ll t h e g irl s in th e s c h o o l.
La t s n a m e s Of a ll t h e s c ho la r s in t h e s c h o ol.
N m a e s Of c a r p e n te rs
’
t o ol s .
N m a e s of fa r m in g t o o l s and m a c hin e s .
Nam e s of flo wer s .
N m a e s of tr e e s .
I f th e tea c h er h a ve no b la ck b oar d , an d th e sc h ool a u th or itie s
will n ot fu r n ish on e, c om m on
gr een c ur ta in p a p er , p as ted on th e
wa ll, will m a k e an ex c e ll en t s ub s titu te, wh ich will b ea r th e
c ra y on for se veral week s .

PR I MARY C O U RS E . 13
N am e th e p a r ts o f th e fo ll o w in g t hin g s
tre e , b ody ,
d o o r, p er
re a ,
room , ho u s e , w in d o w, Ship ,
c h a ir , w atc h, b o ok , c lo c k ,
han d , bird , he ad , s to v e ,
ho u s e , w a go n , y e ar , b
t a le .
T he t e a c h e r s h o ul d add t o th is l is t n am es of th in gs
n ot m e n tio n e d a b o ve , with whic h the p up ils a re fa m ilia r.
LESS ON II .
A CTIONS OF THINGS .
The c hild s
’
a tte n tio n is fi r st a t tr a c t e d to livin g oh
je c t s. Ne xt t o th e p e rc e p tio n of t h e thin g com es th e

pe rc e p tio n of th a t w hic h th e t h in g d o es . T a k in g th e
n a m es of fa m iliar a n im a ls and t h in g s , th e t e a c h e r a sks
wh a t e ac h d oes . To th e qu e s t io n , Wh a t d o e s th e d o g
do ? t he c h ild r e n m ay a n s we r , Th e d o g r u ns , ba r ks ,
bites , g r o w ls , ju mp s , p la y s , h u n ts , etc All . a n s we r s
s h o ul d b e w r itt e n in fu ll T hu s : The d o g r u n s
. . I n s sti
tha t e v e ry s e n te n c e S h o uld b e gi n w ith a ca p ital l e tte r
and e n d with a pe r oi d .
I n lik e m a n n e r l et th e t e a c h e r in q u ir e a b o u t th e
b ir d ,
m ouse , s qu irr e l ,
h or s e ,
c a t, b oy, he n , s he e p .
Or, of thin g s with o u t life ; le t t h e t e a c h er a sk , W hat

d o e s t he sun do ? e tc .
s un , r a in , fir e , w in d ,
s a w, g un , p in, k n ife .
Le t th e p u p ils be ur g e d an d e n c o u r a ge d t o g ive as
m any a c t io n s a s p o ss ible . T he nl e t t h e m g ro u a c tio n s p

w hic h are r el a t e d to e a c h o th e r T hu s : The h or s e
.
14 E N G LI S H G RAMMAR .
w a lks , tr o ts , p a ces , ca n ters , g a llop s . Le t th e p u p il s te ll

th e d iffe r e n c e b e t we e n th e s e a c tio n s .
N a m in
g t h e c o m m o n a n im al s , l e t th e p up ils t e ll wha t
s ou n d m a k e s ; th u s : Th e h o rs e n e igh s ;
eac h th e d o g
h o wls ; th e c a t m e ws ; e t c .
N
a m e t h e d iffe r e n t t r a d e s a n d o c c u p a t io ns of m en,
a n d t e ll wh a t e a ch doe s .
T hus : fa r m e r p lows; t he m er c ha n t tr a d es ;
t he th e
b la c k s m ith h a m m er s; t h e c a r e n t e r s a ws p .
T e ll w h a t t h in gs
run, e a t; sle e p j um p ,
g ro w , w o rk , p la y ,
s wim .
S uch e x e r c is e s as th e s e m a y b e a l m o st in d e fi n it e ly
e x te n ded and v a r ie d . T he r e is littl e d a n ge r of Sp e n d
The s s k il l
’
in g t oo m u c h tim e on th is d r ill . t e a c he r is
e x hib ite d In m a k in g t h e p u p ils thin k fo r t h e m se l v e s .
N e ith e r in te r e s t n or p o fi t is s e c ur e d whe n th e p up ils

r
are t a ugh t t o re p e at ,
l ik e p a r o ts w or d s wh ic h th e y d o
r ,
n ot c o m p r e hen d .
LE SS ON III .
P RO PERTIES OF T HINGS .
Le t th e t e a ch e r s h o w t h e p u p ils s o m e fa m ilia r o bj e c t ,
as an a ppl e ,
a r o se , a c r a yo a p e c il
n, n ,
a s k in
g t h e m to
lo ok at it c a r e full
y T he n ,
r e m o v in
g it fro m s igh t, a s k
the cla s s to t e ll s o m e t hin g a b out it , t h u s

T he a pp le is l a rg e, r o u n d , r ed , n ice. The p en c il is
l on g , r ou n d , b la c k , h a r d s m o o th .
T ake in th e same w a y th e fo llo win g
k n ife , s l a te ,
ru bb er gl a ss,
PR I MARY C O U RS E . 15
F irs t write th e name o f th e Obj e c t at th e h e a d Of a

c olu m n , a nd un d e r th e na me it s p r o p e r tie s T he n l e t .
s en t e n c e s b e wr itt e n a fte r th e fo llo win g m od el s
The a pple is l a rge .
Th e pe nc il is b la c k .
The ro se is p r e tt y .
Th e t e a c he r h a d a red a pple .
Th e t e a c h e r h a d a l a r g e b oo k .
Th e t e ac h e r h a d a white c r a yon .
Th e lo n g r ul e r bl a c k
is .
The Cle a r gla s s is b r it tle .
The s o ft r u bb e r is s q u a r e .
The pp le is r ou n d a n d rip e
red a .
The b la c k p e n c il is l o g a n d s m o o th n .
Th e whit e r o s e is s o ft a n d p r e tt y .
Le t m a n y s e n te n c e s b e c o m p o s e d a n d wr itte n a ft e r
th e s e m o d e l s u n til th e Ob v io u s p r o p e r tie s Of c o m m o n
,
thin gs ar e v e r y f a m ilia r
,
a n d a r e th o r o u hl
g y u n d e r s t o o d .
Re q uire th e n a m e s th a t d e n o t e c ol o r ; a s , r ed , blu e .
Re q uir e th e n am es th a t d en ot e sha pe ; a s , s qu a r e,
r ou n d .
Re q uir e th e n am e s th a t d e n o t e si e z ; a s, li ttle, la rg e .
Le t e ve ry wo r d b e use d b y th e p up il in a s e n te n c e .
I f yo u a sk , Of w h a t c o lo r is t h e ros e do n ot a c c e pt
r ed a s an a n s we r , qu ir e the s e te n c e Th e o s e is
b ut re n ,
r
red . I f yo u a sk th e s h a p e o f a n a pp le d o n o t a c c e p t ,
r ou n d a s a n a s we r b u t r e q u ir e th e s e n t e n c e Th e a pp le
n , ,
is r o un d . I n s is t on th is i n every schoo l ex er c is e.
16 ENGLISH G RAMMAR .
LESS ON IV .
USES OF THINGS .
T ak in g som e fa m iliar t hin g , as a p e n c il ,

th e t e ac h er
a sk s its u s es . The v a r io u s a u s we s i g iv e n , to m a r k , to
w r ite w i th , to m a k e letter s , e tc . , m a y b e m a d e in t o sen
te n c e s a fte r th e fo llo win g m o d e l s

1 . p e c il is u s e d for wr iti g
The n n .
2 Th e p e c il is u s e d t o m a rk w ith
. n .
3 Th e p e c il is u s e ful fo r m a kin g
. n r .
I n quire the u s e s Of the fo llo win g t hin gs

ink ,
p ap er wo o d,
w a te r, k n ife , c l o th ,
fir e , ligh t, b o ok ,
Le t e a ch a n sw er be a com p l e te s e n te n c e .
Re qu ir e th e n a m e s of thin g s g o o d t o e a t .
Re q uir e th e n a m e s Of thin g s u s e ful t o w e ar .

Re qu ir e th e n a m e s Of th in g s u s e d in b uild in g .
Re q uir e th e n a m e s Of thin g s u s e ful in t h e h o u s e .

Re q uir e th e n a m e s Of t hin g s u s e ful in th e s c h ool.
Re q uir e th e n a m e s Of t hin g s u s e ful t o the fa r m e r .
M ak e a s e n te n c e with e a ch of th e s e n a m e s, th u s
W h e at is go o d to e at .
C lo th is u s e ful to we a r.
M or tar is u sed in b u ild in g .
This e x erc is e c a n , a n d s h o u ld b e , m uc h e x te n d e d.
18 E NG I H LS G RAMMAR .
An e x erc ise s im il a r t o th e follo win g S h ould Often b e

re qu ire d Of a ll th e p up ils
IL LUS TRATI VE E X ERCIS E .
What I s the n am e Of t his I t is a g u n .
W h at is it m a d e I t is m a d e of w oo d a n d iron ,
of?
s o m e tim e s , in p a rt , Of b r a s s a n d S ilv er .
Na m e it s p a rts ? I t s p a rts are th e s t oc k , loc k, b arr e l ,

r a m rod , h a m m er , tub e ,
S igh t m u zzle b r e ec h b ut t e tc , , , ,
.
W h at is its c olor ? I t is b r ow n .
Wha t is its s ur fa c e a n d Sha p e ? I t is s m o oth lon g , ,
l
a n d s e n d er, an d th e b arr el is h ollo w .
What is it use d fo r ? I t is used to s h oo t

g a m e , to
fir e at a m a rk , an d t o k ill m e n w ith in w a r .
After s uch an e x er c is e ,
th e p up il s h o uld be re q uir e d
to d e sc ri be th e thin g in his o wn w or d s , w itho ut an
y su g
g e s tio n s fr o m th e t e a c h e r . A c hild m ight thu s d e s c rib e

a p e n c il
T his is c a ll e d a le a d -p e n c il . I t is m a d e Of woo d an d
b l a c k le a d
-
. I ts pa r t s a re , th e h e a d , th e wo o d , th e l e a d ,
th e t ip an d t he p o i I t I ts c olo r is bl ac k
. . I ts s urfa c e is
s m o o th . I t s Sh a p e i s r ou n d , lo n g a n d s l e n d e r. I t is
u se d fo r m a rk in g on p a p er .
The a b ove e x e r c is e is p ar tic ul a r ly v a l ua b le . The

p o we r Of t ellin g c o nn e c te d ly wh a t o ne k n o w s is m o s t
d e s ir a bl e .
ADDI TIONAL E X E RCI S E S AN D SUGGESTIONS .
Aft e r e v er
y les so n , re quir e th e p up ils t o giv e its s ub
s tan c e ih th e ir o wn wo r d s .
Q ue s tio n m in u te ly o n e ve ry
p a t an d se e th at e ve ry w o rd is u n d e s to o d a n d its
r , r
,
s p e llin l d T v ar th e e x e r c is e r e a d a s im p le
g e a r n e O y.
,
sto t o y o ur c l as s a n d r e q u ire t he m t o r e p e a t it in
y
r ,
PR I MARY C O URS E. 19
th e ir own wor d s . T he n re q uire it to b e writte n b y e ach

p u p il ,
a nd to b e re ad a lo u d . T his e x e r c i se I n v a r iab ly
in te r e st s , it c alls o ut th e p o we r Of e xp re s sio n ,
it im p a r t s
s e lf- c o n fid e n c e , d is c ip lin e s th e m e m o ry , le a d s th e p up ils
’
to n o tic e o ne a n o th e r s o m is s io n s and m is t a k e s , and
g iv e s th e te ac h e r o pp o r tu n ity t o m ake e fi c ie n t c or
r e c tio n s .
The h a b itu a l v ulg a r is m s O f s p e e ch m u st n ot b e t ol e

r a te d . If an in c o rr e c t p
e x re s s io n is u s e d , a sk th e c la s s
if it b e ri h
g ,t a n d l e t t h e m,
if p o s s ib le ,
c o rr e c t th e m
s e lv e s . I f th e y fa il t o d o it, th e t e ac h e r mu s t give the

c o rr e c t fo r m . The c om m o n e rr o r s Of s p e e ch m a y b e
e n tir e ly b a n ish e d fr o m th e s c h o ol by p atie n t effor t .
G o od -h u m o r e d r id ic ul e is o fte n s u c c e s s ful in o v e r c o m in g
s u c h e v il h a b its
?
T he a b ov e a re
g iv en as hin t s it re
g ar d t o th e m a n n er
Of t a k in g u p t h e s tu d of l a n gu a g e w i
al o n
t h o t he r
y g
Th e t e a c h e r w ill d e p e n d u p o n h e r
’
t hin gs . s suc c e s s
o wn in t e r e s t a nd p a tie n ce. F r e qu e n t r e v ie w s a r e a bso

l ut e ly y
n e c e s s ar .
—
Th e m or e fr e q u e n t th e r e v ie w, th e
m or e r a p id t h e p r o gr e s s . Su ch le s s on s as th e a b ov e
Sho uld b e giv e n for y e a r s b e fo r e the p u p il lo ok s in to
“
t e x t b o o k o gr a m m a r
-
n C o r e c t h a b it s o f th i ki g a d
. r n n n
c o m p o s in g m a y b e a c q u ir e d u c o sc io u s l y a d w it h o u t n n ,
n
fo r m a l s t ud
y . Wr itin g Of s e n te n c e s m u s t b e in s is t e d on .
P un c tu a tio n a n d u s e Of c a p it a ls a r e b e st t a ught t o yo u n g
c hild r e n b y m a k in g t h e m Ob s e r v e th e s e te c e s fo u d n n n
in t h e ir b o ok s I t . is a p r o fi ta b le e x e r c is e t o r e q uir e
ex a c t c o p ie s O f g iv e n s e te c e s on p a ag a p h
n ,
r r r s.
Th e c orre c t m e an i g Of w o r d s is a l s o b e s t t a u g h t b y
n
th e p la n h e r e giv e n . S uc h c o m m on e xp e s s io n s a s a wf u l r
n ic e , d r ea df u l p r e t ty, m o n s tr ou s s m a ll, live an d t h riv e ,
b e c a us e no one t ak e s p ai ns t o te a c h t h e c hild wh a t th e s e
l a r ge j
a d e c t iv e s m e an .
20 E NGLISH GRAMMAR .
Ma n y e xp e die n t s fo r e n l a r gin g th e c hild

’
s s t o ck Of
w or d s , an d fo r te a chin g th e ir c o r r e c t u se , w ill r e a d il
y
su
gg e st th e m s elv e s t o th e t e a c h er w h o d e s ir e s t o w a k e
u p m in d , an d wh o d a r e s t o d r o p t e x t -
b o ok s , an d t o t a lk
to c hild r e n O f thin g s w h ic h in t e r e s t th e m , a n d a r e u n d er
s to od b y th e m . A le a f ,
a flower ,
a b ir d m ay b e a b e tte r
,
x b o ok for
t e t- th e c hil d th an a s p elle r o r r e a d e r c a n
s s ib l b
p o y e .
Th e w e ll -
c on d u c t e d s t u d y Of th e u s e s a n d m e a n in gs
Of w o r d s is n eve r d ry , n or d is ta s te ful . If p u p ils fin d it
s o, t e ac h er s will fin d tha t the r e a s on lie s in th e m s el ve s .
IN T E RME DIA T E G RAMMAR .
S U G GES T I ONS TO TEA C HE RS .
TH E titl e I n ter m ed ia te is giv e n t o this p a r t, b e c a u s e

th e in s tr uc tio n h e r e in d ic a t e d s h o ul d foll o w a th o r o ugh
d rill u p o n th e pl a n l a id d o w n in th e P r im ar y C our s e , a n d
p r e c e d e th e C o m m on S c hool C o ur s e H a vin g att ain e d to
-
.
a t o l e r a b l e r e a d in e s s in c o m b in i g w o r d s i t o s e n te c e s
n n n ,
t h e p u p il is n o w r e q uir e d t o s e p a r a te in t o p a r t s n a m e ,
p ar ts n otic e r el a tio n s a n d d ivid e w or d s in t o c la s s e s

, , .
I f p up ils h a v e n o t h a d th e p r e limin a r y d r ill r e q uir e d th e ,
t e a c he r Sh o u ld p r o c e e d slo wly givi g p r o m in e n c e t o th e

,
n
c o m p o s itio n Of S im p le s e n t e n c e s u n til th e p u p il fo rm s
,
the m wit h e as e a n d acc ur a c .

y
I t is im p o s s ib le t o sa
y at wh at a ge this c o ur s e Should
be c o m m e n c e d. Th e a v e r a ge p u p il Of t e n ye ar s Of a g e
c a n e a s ily le a rn an y thin g giv e n h e r e . An d , c e r t a in l

y,
p u p ils at tha t a ge S hould giv e a s m u c h tim e t o t he
a c q uis itio n o f t he ir o wn l a n gu a g e a s t o an y s tu d
y of th e
c o m m o n s c h o o l.
T his p a rt c o n t a in s th e c o m m o n fo r m s and Si m ple c on

s t r uc tio n s o f th e l a n g u a ge . The a n a ly s is O f th e s im p le
s e n te n c e is giv e n , w ith o ut a n y a t te m p t t o e n l a rg e u p o n
irr e gul a r , a n o m al o u s , o r in tric a te c o n s tr u c tio n s . The

t e c h n ic a l t e r m s of g r a m m ar a r e u s e d a s lit tle as p o s s ib le .
The p r in c iple Of in fl e c tio n is j u st m e n t io n e d , th a t the

p up il m a y b e le d on to n o t ic e fo r h im s e lf h ow a nd why
wo r d s a re c h a n ge d in fo r m . C a s e is n ot d e ve lop e d ,
22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
ex c e p t b y n otic in g th e P o s s e s s ive Rule s o f S yn ta x ar e .
n o t l a id d o w n b e c a u s e th e y a r e n o t n e e d e d b y th e c h il d
,
.
Th e d e fi it io n s giv e n a re n o t p r e s e n t e d a s c om p le t e a d
n ,
n
b eyon d c ritic is m b ut as s uc h a s a c hil d c a n c o m p r ehe n d

,
an d u se .
P r a c tic al G ra m m a r d e als o n ly w ith th e s e n te n c e , a n d
th e u se of a w o r d in a s e n te n c e is t h e o n ly m eans of
c l a s s ifyin g it . T he com m o n o r d e r o f to p ics in gr a m

m ar r e v er s e s th e ord er Of n a t u r e . The c h il d n a t ur a lly
b e gin s w it h w o r d s in g ro u p s , o r s e n te n c e s , th e n g iv e s
a t t e n tio n t o s in gl e w o r d s , a n d l e arn s t h e e le m e n t s o f
wor d s la st . On e w h o k n o ws g n o t hin of th e p a r ts of
s p e e c h , o r o f th e r ul e s o f y n t a x ,
m a y y e t uSs e wo r d s
a c c ur a t e l Th r e is n o t hin i n a w o r d w h ic h in fallib l
y .e g y
in dic a t e s its p a r t o f s p e e c h Th is m u s t b e d e te rm in ed
.
b y it s use in t
a s en enc e .
W or d s a n d thin gs ar e s o fre q ue ntly c o n fo und e d th a t

s p e c ia l p a in s m u s t b e t a k e n t o m ak e th e ir d is t in c t io n
p l ain I n s te a d o f te a c hin g the p up il to s a y J o hn is a

.
n o un , t e a c h h im t o s a y T he w o r d J o h n ”
r e c o n iz in
g g ,
th a t t h e w o r d is y on l
g t he si n of th e t hin g . Th is m a y
s e e m t r iv ia l , b u t it is im p o r t a n t .
Le t p up ils ,
o n c o m m e n c in
g p a rt o f
g th is
r a m m a r w r it e
,
e ve r s e n t e n c e r e q u i e d u n d e r s t a d a n d s p e ll c o r e c tl
y r ,
n
y r
e v e r y w o d e m p l o e d fix e v e r
r d fi it i d p i ip le
y y , e n o n a n n c r
,
a n d r e v ie w f e q u e n tl
r T e a c he r s w il l O b s e r ve t hat this
y .
p la n r e q ui e s th e p u p il s to p re s e ve th e ir writte n w o rk
r r .
I n n o o th e r w a
y c a n t h e r e v ie w s w h ic h a r e a b s o lu te l
, y
n ec essar
y b
, e s e c u r e d E ac h p up il s h o ul d h a ve a b la n k
.
b o ok c o t ain in g a t le a s t a q ui e O f le tte r p a p e r a n d the

,
n r
,
t e a c h e s h o u ld t a k e g r e a t c a e t h a t t h e b o k b w itt e n
r r o s e r
n e a tl n d k e p t c le a n
y a .
Altho ugh th e b o ok is d ivid e d in to les s ons t h t e her

!
,
e ac
m u st n ot l e t th is div is ion a ffe c t th e a ss i n in O f c l ass

g g
IN T ERME DIATE C O URS E . 23
w ork . A single p a ra
gra p h m ay c on tain a week s work ’
.
The te a ch er c an b e st j ud ge of th e p r op e r rate of
r e s s.
p gro
Te a c her s will d o th e ir p u p il s a l a s tin g s er v ic e , a n d

m uc h t o h elp th e m o n in t h e ir s tu d y Of l an g ua ge , b y
in d uc in g th e m t o Ob ta in , and b y t e a c hin g th e m t o use ,
the b e st
d ic tio n ary w ithin th e ir me an s . No on e can
e xp e c t t o b e c o me v e ry a c c ur at e in the use of w or ds
withou t d aily s t ud y of the d ic tion ar y.
LE S S ON I .
TH E ELE MENTS OF T H E SE N TE NCE .
§ l . Fire b ur n s .
Wh at IS s aid of
fi re ? W ha t d o e s fir e d o ? W h at
bu r ns ? A b o u t wh at ar e we t al kin g ?
Su b je c t .
W e h a ve s aid s om e thin
g a b out fi r e ; a nd, th er e for e ,
fi re is a su bje c t .
John r ea d s .
Of wh o m is s o m e th in g s a id ? W h at is th e su bj e c t ?
W hat is s a id o f th e su bj e c t ?
Tha t which is sa id o f the su b
j ect is ca lled the
Pr e d i c a t e .
The with tha t which is the sub

su b ect,
j sa id o
f
ca lled a
j cet, is Se n t e n c e .
2 . We tell oth er s o ur th ou ghts b y W or d s.

A t hou ght p ut in to words b ecom es a sen
tence .
The wor ds which we u se a re call e d our la n

g ua
ge , They a r e sign s of id ea s . If on e sa
y s to
“ ”
y ou , I hav e a hor se in m y ba rn, t he w or d s
hor se an d ba r n m a ke y ou thin k of som e hors e
an d som e b arn , if you do
ev en n ot s e e th e m , an d
y ou m ake a sort o f
p ict ure them in your
of
m in d . The wor ds m a k e you thin k of thi s p ic

ture .
Let th e tea ch er ill us tra te b y talkin g of som e th in g w h ich th e

x
p up ils h a ve n ever s ee n ; a s, for e a m p l e , a p al m tr ee , an d h a vin g
-
d e sc r ib ed it ca r e fully , a sk th em to t hin k e actly h OW it l oo k s , x ’
u r gin g t h e m t o for m a d efi n ite m en tal p ic t ur e T h e n e p la in to . x

t h e m t h a t th e w o rd p a lm -tree m a k e s t h em th in k , n o t of th e r eal
tr ee , b u t o f th eir id e a or p ic tur e of th e tr ee .
The win d b lo ws .
I S this a s e nt e n c e ? W hy ? W h at is I ts su bj ec t ?
Wh a t is it s p re d ic a te
W rite t e n Sh or t s e n te n c e s Na m e th e s ubj e c t Of each
. .
N a m e th e p re d ic ates Tell why e ac h is a s e n te n c e

. .
3 . S tu di es b oy goo d th e well .
D O t h e s e w o r d s m ak e s en se W o ul d y o u k n o w wh a t
th e p er s on w a s thin k in g a b ou t wh o use d wo r d s l ik e
th e s e ? P ut th e w o r d s t oge th e r S O t h a t th e y will m a ke
a s e n te n c e W h at is the s ubj e c t of the s en tenc e whic h
.
y o u h a ve m a d e
My r un s h ors e .
To rn y o ur is b ook .
S c h ol a r s le s s on s th e ir s tu d y Sho uld .
C ol t s orr el th e r u n n in w a s
g .
P r a is e d goo d a r e b o y s .
F in ish e d l ar ge is h o u s e th e .
S q ui rr el tr e e s little th e c lim bs .
26 ENGLISH GR AMMAR .
Th e s e w or d s are s o m e th in g s a id a b ou t a su bj e c t , an d
are, th e r e fo r e , a s e n te n c e . Th a t la rg e tr ee 18 th a t of
w hic h s o m e t h in g is s a id , an d is , th e r e fo r e , t he su bj e c t .
Wa s blo w n d o w n is t h a t w hic h is s a id o f t he s u bj e c t ,
and, th e r e fo r e , w a s blo w n d o wn is th e p re d ic a t e .
Notic e th a t t he su bj ect an d p r e di ca te are O ften

m a de of sever a l w o r ds
u
p .
C o p y fr o m y o u r Re a d e r t e n s h or t s e n te n c e s . N o ti e c
t h a t e a c h s e n t e n c e b e gin s with a c a p it al le tt e r . N tic e o
a ls o th e m a rk at th e end of e a c h s e n te n c e. A al y
n ze
the s e s e n t en c e s .
LE SS ON II .
CLASSES OF WORD S .
6 . Wor d s div id e d in t o d iffer en t

are
a s the u il s in a s ch o ol a r e d iv id e d in t o cl asses
p p .
S cholar s a r e cl a s sifie d by th eir s tu di e s

,
Words .
a r e cl a s sifie d b
y t h eir u s e T h e cl a s s es of w or d s
.
a re call e d P a r t s o f Sp e e c h T her e a r e eight .
of these cl a s se s
1. Su b s t a n t i v e s , or Nou n s.
2 . V er b s.
3 . Pr o n o u n s .
4. A dje c t i v e s .
5 . Ad v e r b s .
6 . Pr e p o s i t i o n s .
7. C o n ju n c t i o n s .
8 . E xc l a m a ti o n s.
INTERMEDIATE COURSE . 27
§ 7. An y word , or
g r ou
p of wor ds , u se d as
the s ub e ct of a
j se n t en c e , is c all e d a S u b sta n
tiv e .
Na m e s of o bj ects ar e ca lle d Noun s , an d a ll

n ou n s a r e s u b s ta n tiv es .
An y wor d , or
g r ou
p of word s, m a y b e a su b
sta n tiv e, thus
A is a le tt er .
This book is the su bj ect of the sen te n ce .
P o in t ou t th e n ou n s , o r n a m e-w o r d s in th e s e n ten c e s ,
whic h y o u h a ve wr itt e n , th u s :
D og is th e n a m e o f s o m e thin g ; th e r e fo r e , th e w or d
d og is a n o u n .
P oin t o ut t en no un s in your ge ogr a p h y . Te ll w h y

e a ch is a n ou n .
Wr ite te n s e n te n c e s , e ach c o n ta in in g two n oun s .
A n al
y z e e a ch s e n te n c e .
§ 8. Wor dswhich a r e used to asser t somethin g

a su b ect ar e ca l ed l
f
o
j V er b s.
Asser t m ea n s n e a rl
y the sa m e as sa y or
tell The p r edica t e of a s en ten ce al wa ys c on ta in s

.
a v erb Verb s gen era lly exp re ss a ction

. The .
C hin ese ca ll v er bs live w ord s , an d n ou n s dea d

w or d s . Un til a v e rbis p u t in to a gr oup Of
wor d s , th ey d o no t a ss e rt a n
y t hin
g S c h o la rs .
lesson s, tell s
—
ou n othin g a b o u t s ch ol a r s , or
y
le sson s , b u t if you p ut th e v er b stu dy b etwe en ,
o u tell s o m eth in , o r a sser t s o m e thin o f s cho l
y g g
ar e.
C a ll a tten tionfr eq u e n tl y t o th e fa ct th a t th e verb is n ot al way s

a sin gl e wo rd , b u t Often two or m or e ; as, was trotting, ha ve been
N am e th e v e r bs whic h y o u h a v e a lr e a d y wr itte n , and
t ell w hy e ac h is a ve r b , thus
B u rns a s s e r ts o r t e lls s o m e thin

g a b ou t fi r e ,
an d , th e re
fo r e , bu r n s is b
’
a v er .
P o in t o ut th e v e r s b in y ou r r e a d in
g l
-
e s s on , an d t e ll
why th e y a r e v e r b s .
W r ite p r e d ic a t e s a ft e r th e follo win g su bj e c ts ,

t e ll in g
wh a t e a ch su bj e c t d o es th u s
Wha t d o e s t h e h or s e d o The h ors e d r a ws a wa g o n .
S UB J E C T s :
th e c at, th e d oc to r , th e c o o e r , p th e s un ,
the ra bb it ,
th e ba be r r
, t he b la c k s m ith ,
t h e win d ,
the s q u i r el
r ,
th e fa r m e r, t h e t a ilo r , t he r a in .
O f w ha t pa rt of s p eech is t h e a s s er tin g wor d in th e
p r e d ic a t e A na l yz e y o u r s e n t e n c e s .
W r ite te n s e n t e n c e s , with s u bj e c t s of y o u r own s ele c
t io n .
D a r k w a s th e ni
g h t .
B e a u tiful wa s t h e m o r n in g .
W h e r e is th e b o ok
S om etim e s , as in the a b ov e s en ten c e s , th e
su bj e c t c om e s b efor e the p re dica t e . The s en
te n ce is the n s a id t o b e i n v e r t e d .
I f th e p up il s h a ve a n y d iffi c ul ty in fi n din g th e sub ect in a n j

in ve r ted s en te n c e, it m a y b e d e v elo p ed b y a q u es tion T h us, in .
t h e a b ove s e n te n c e , D a r k wa s the n ight, as k wha t was d ark , a n d

s o in o th e r s en ten ce s .
A n al
y z e th e foll o win g s e n te n c e s
How sad w a s th e s to r y
G re at w a s th e j o y.
F ie r c ely ra
g e d t he b attle .
I NTE RMEDIAT E COURSE . 29
W rit e s en te n c e s w ith th e follo win g n o un s a s s u bj e c ts

Sol d ie rs , ic e , e a gl e s , b ook s ,
s pri g
n ,
m a rb l e s , m ou s e , k n o wl e d g e .
W ite r s e n te n c es c o n t a in in g th e follo win g p r e d ic ate s

a r e r u n n in
g, is goo d , r o lls , j um p s ,
plan ts ,
is c om in g , a r e u s e ful, falls , s win s

g fl a
,
sh e s .
A n al
y ze th e s e n te n c e s .
LESS ON III .
MODI F IERS OR LIMITING WORDS .
9. Wor ds w hich in a n y wa y cha n ge ,
lete the m ea n ing other wor ds, a r e sa id

or comp o
f
to m o di fy or l i m i t the other w or ds .
Mr Ree d . b ou ght a h ou se .
Mr Reed .
,
the ca rp en ter , b o ught the h ou se .
I n th e s ec o nd s e n te n c e , th e wor d s Mr Reed. are m odi

fi e d b y th e w o r d s th e ca rp en ter , w h ic h e xp l a in w hi ch Mr .
Re e d is m e a n t B ou g h t is m o d ifi e d b y th e w o r d h o u se
.
w hic h comp letes t h e m e a n in g, t ellin g wh a t Mr Re e d .
b o ugh t
S om etim es a whol e sen t en c e is m odified .
H e h a s l ea rn e d his l esson .
H e ha s n ot le ar n e d his less on .
Th e w or d n ot ch an
g es th e m e a n in g o f th e wh ole s en
te n c e , or m od ifies th e s e n te n c e .
Modify m ea n s to v ar
y, or to cha n
g ; l
eim it
m e a n s t o S hu t u
p, or to c o n fin e . When on e sa
y s,
“ ”
B oys stu dy, t he a ss ert ion is m a d e of all b oys ,
an d is sa i d t o be u n lim ited . But if on e

“ ”
G oo d b oys s tu dy ,
th e a s s ert on i is m a d e
of good b oys , an d is li m ited .
§ 1 0 . No un s ar e m ost fre quently lim ite d

cla ss of w or d s c a lle d
ADJE C I I VE S .
' ‘
T ha t l a rge white h ous e is for s al e .
A n al
y z e . P oin t o ut th e n o un in th e su bj e c t. H ou s e
is m o d ifi e d b y t h e w o r d s l a rg e an d w h ite, w hic h lim it it s
m e a n in g b y n a m in g s o m e th in g b y w h ic h th e h o u s e c a n
b e k n o wn fr o m o th e r h ou s e s T he y a r e s a id t o n a m e
.
it s p r op er ties o r
qu a l ities . Th a t lim its h ou s e b y p oin tin g
o ut w hich on e is m e a n t .
This b ook is m in e .
Yon der tree is tall .
This lim its bo o k b y p o in ting o ut whic h on e is m ea n t .
Y o n d er lim it s tr ee in th e same wa y .
Five re b el s were ca
p ture d .
F ive m o d ifi e s re b e ls b y lim iting ou r th ought s t o an
e xac t nu m be r .
A few m en a ssem b l e d .
F ew d o e s n ot lim it o ur th o u ghts t o an exa c t n u m b er ,
b ut t o a s m a ll n u m b er .
§ ll . An Ad je c t i v e is a w ord which m od ifies

a s u b sta n tiv e by n a m in s om e u a l it
g q y p or ro
p
ert
y, or b y p oin tin g ou t which, or how ma n y a re
m ea n t .
INTERME D IATE COURSE . 31
An a dj ectiv e may be u se d as a
p a rt of a
p redica te, b ut c a n n e v er be a su bj e ct .
An a dj ectiv e ca n gen erally b e k n own b y its

m a kin g goo d sen se Wh en p la c ed dir ectly b efor e
the n ou n .
§ 12 . The wor d m ay b e s om etim es

sa m e of
o n e cla ss , a n d s o m et im e s of a n o ther The u s e . of
a w or d in the s en t en c e is th e on l
y fact b
y which
w e t ell its p ar t of sp eech .
The silver cor d is l o ose d .
The sp oo n is m a de of s ihj er .
Je welers silver th eir work .
I n th e fir st s e n t e n c e , s i lver m o d ifi e s co r d by n am n i g a
p r op e j
l
rt
y, and is an a d e c tiv e . I n t he s e c on d , it is a
n ou n ,
n a m in
g a m e tal . I n th e th ir d , it a s s e r ts s om e
th in g , an d is a ver b.
The s a ilor s m a n the b oa t .
T hat m a n b ought my s k a te s .
H e sen t hi s m a n ser v a n t
-
.
O f wh a t p a rt of s p eech is m a n in e a ch of th e a b ov e
s e n te n c e s ?
I n the foll owin g s en t en ce s , t ell t o wh a t p a rt

of s
p ee ch the w or d s in ita lics b elon g .
The sa w I S b rok en We . sa w woo d .
Cha lk is u seful . We cha lk th e l in e .
The fish s wims . An glers fish .
Girl s we ar r in
gs . The se xt on r in
g s the b ell .
W r ite te n s e n t e n c e s , u s in g s om e w ord a s a n ou n in
o n e s e n t e n c e , a n d a s a ver b in the ne xt.
LES S ON IV .
NAMES OF Q UALITIES OR P ROPERTIES .
§ 1 3 . Chal k is so f,
t white,
br ittle,
us
eful .
S of t, w hite, br i ttle, a n d u se u
f l ar e wo r d s w hic h n am e
p op e
r i
rt e s , or q u alitie s of th e c h a lk . T h e y m ak e se nse
w h e n th e y s ta n d dir e c t ly b efo r e th e n o u n a n d t he y c a n
,
n ot be u s e d al o n e a s the s ubj e c t o f a s e n t e n c e T he re .
for e th e y are j
a d e c tiv e s .
I t is con v en ien t t o ha ve f p rop ertie s

n am es o
which ca n be u se d as s ubj e cts of s en ten c es The .
n ess , whiten ess, br ittlen ess , u se u ln ess

n am es
f
sot f ,
d for th e sa m e u a litie s . These w ord s

a re u se q
do n ot when p la c e d
m ak e s en s e d irectly b efor e
the n ou n , a n d t hey c a n b e u s e d as t he su bj e cts
o f s en te n c es , t hu s :
The u se u ln ess o f ch a l
f k is g r ea t .
U s e ful n e s s is a n ou n .
A th i g ins d es cr i bed b
y n am n i g its p r o p ert ie s E ith er
.
n ou n n a m e s o r a d e c tiv e j n am esI f yo u m ay b e u sed .
k n o w th a t t h e r e is in th e d e s k s o m e th in g r ou n d , s m oo th ,
m ello w , r ed , s w eet, a n d r ip e, y o u h a v e a des cr ip tion o f it
fr o m t h e s e n a m e s of qu alitie s .
N a m e all th e qu alitie s of
ru bb e r ,
iv or y, ir on , w oo d , a b all ,
p a p er , gl a ss, lead , s n ow , a k n ife .
Urge p up ils to m ak e th e m in g
q ual ities c om p l ete a s p o ss i
na of
b le .A q ual ity m a y b e n o ticed or s u gges ted fo r which th e p u p ils
h a ve n o n a m e T h ey m ay ob s e r ve t ha t w o od a n d p a p e r b u r n ,
.
wh il e ir o n a n d l ea d d o n o t, b u t th ey d o n ot k n o w t h e w o r d co m
bu stible D o n ot g ive o u t n a m e s h a s tily
. Le t t h e p u p ils h un t for
.
th em P a r ticul a rly en co ur age th em t o go h om e with q ues tion s

.
34 E NGLTS H GRAMMAR .
2 T ho s e which p oin t
. o ut which or wha t
o bj ect s a r e m ea n t T hese . a re c a ll e d S p e c i fy
in g Adj ectiv es .
3 . T ho s e which d e n ote how m a n y are m ean t .
Thes e are ca l le d N u m e r a l Adj e ctiv e s .
§ 17 . S o m etim es an a dj ectiv e a
pp e a rs to b e
the su b ec t
j of a s e n t en c e . When thi s IS t he
c a s e, the n ou n which th e a dj e ctiv e m od ifies is
o m itt e d ,
thu s
B oth wer e m ist a k e n . T his m ea n s , b o th p er

son s w er e m ista k en .
The wise sa
y . T his m e an s, th e wise m en say .
A n o un is o ft e n u s e d as an j
a d e c tiv e ; a s , s to n e w all ;
i r on fr a m e . I t m a y th e n b e c a ll e d an a djec tive ,
or a
n oun u s ed a s a n a dj e c tiv e .
A n a ly e z th e fo llo win g s e n t e n c e s , and p o in t o ut th e

j
n o u n s , a d e c t iv e s a n d v e r bs in e ac h. T e ll t o wh a t c la s s
j
e ac h a d e c tiv e b e lo n
g s.
Th e o th e rb lac k h o r s e is .
T h a t s ilve y c l o u d is b e a u tiful
r .
T ho s e la ge e d a pp le s a e th e b e s t
r r r .
T he s e i d u s t io u s s c h ola s a e b usy
n r r r .
Th e p o o o l d m a n is l a m e
r .
F e w r ic h m e a e h a pp y n r .
S ev e l s e v e e b attle w e r e fo ught
ra r s .
T w e ty b a v e s old ie r s w e e k ille d
n r r .
An y a tt e n tiv e p u p il w ill le a n r .
E v er y d a y b i gs e w d utie s r n n .
C o m p o s e a d w it e t e s e t e n c e s e a c h c o n t a in in g 3
n r n n
,
D es cr ip tive a dj e c t iv e ; t e e a c h c o tai i
g a Sp ify
n,
ec n n n
INTERME D IATE C OURSE . 5
in g j
a d e c tive ; an d te n , e ach c o n t ai n n g i a N u m er a l
j
a d ec tive .
A wo rd which m odifies the su bj ect ,

can n ot
be a p ar t o f the p r edica te , a n d a n y w ord which

is in the p r e d ica te , is n ot a m od ifier Of the
su bj ect .
LESS ON V .
E N TE N C E S CONTAINING MODIFIERS .
§ 1 8 . T he b ra v e s ol dier s of the Un ion fought

well in the war .
Th e ,
p
p al wo r d in th e s ubje c t o f th is s e n te n c e is
ri n c i
s o ld ier s The p in c ip a l t hi g s a id O f t h e m is f o u gh t
. r n .
S o ldie s l s m o d ifi e d b y the a Sp e c ifyi g a dj e c tive a n d

r ,
n
,
br a ve a d e s c ip tiv e a dj c tiv e lim iti g t he s u bj e c t

,
r e ,
n .
The wo r d s of the U io n lim it t he s ubj e c t s till fur the r

n .
I t is n ot s a id th at a ll s o ld ie r s fo u g ht w e ll , b u t o n ly
th at th e br a ve s o ld ier s of th e Un ion fo ught . F o ug h t is

m o d ifi e d b y br a vely , t e llin g h ow th e y fo ugh t, an d b y in
the wa r , t e llin g wh e n o r w h e r e th e y fo ugh t .
My dog ra n through the ga rd en .
D og is m o d ifi e d b y th e w o r d m y , t e llin g t o wh o m th e
d og b e l o n gs , and ra n is m o d i fie d b y t h e w o r d s th r ou gh
the g a r d en , sh o
w in g w her e t h e d o g r a n .
W ords are d ivid e d in t o ei ht cla s ses

g .
The su bj e c t ,
w or d s , is n ot l im ite d , fo r th e a s s e r tio n is
m ade Of a l l wo rd s . Ar e d ivid ed is m o d ifi e d b y th e wo r d s
in to eig h t c la ss es , s h o win g h o w w o r d s a r e d ivid e d .
Th e p u p il s s uccess in gr a mm ar d ep en d s l arge l y u p on the

’
cle arn ess with wh ic h h e com p r e h en ds th e ej ect of m od ifie rs Th e

‘
.
p r in c ip a l id eas in a s im p l e s en ten ce a r e th e ea s ily un d er stoo d ;

d ifficul ties a r e gen era ll y w ith t h e m o difi e r s , n o t s o m u ch in
p er
c eivi n g wh a t t h e y a r e , a s in tell in g wha t t ey mea n Th e a b o ve h .
x
e a m p l e s S h o w h o w th e efi ect Of m odifie rs sh o uld b e m ad e p l a in
‘
to a class .
A n al
y z e th e foll o win g s e n te n c e s , n a m e th e m o d i fi er s ,
an d t e ll ho w each m o d ifi e r c h a n ge s th e m e a n in g , or
lim its t h e a s s e r tio n .
E v ly e m a n w e n t to h is h o u s e .
T he fi rst N a p ol e o n w a s ba n is h e d to S t . H e le n a .
T hr e e w is e m e n Of G o th a m we n t to se a in a b o wl .
T he s e l a r g e ye llo w o r a n ge s c am e fr o m H a va n a .
The s a ilo r b
ro u h t h o m e a
g p a r r o t fo r h is b r o th e r .
§ 1 9 . A su bj ect without m o difiers is ca lle d a
sim p le Su bj ect . A su bj ect with lim iting words

is c al le d a m o difi e d s u bj ec t The sim p le sub
.
j ect is al w ays b
a su sta n tive.
Pre dica tes , lik e su bj ects ,

ar e sim
p l e or m odi
fied . The Sim p le p r e d icate is a lwa ys a v er b.
Re vie w th e s e nte n c e s whic h y o u h a v e a lr e a d y w r itte n ,

p oin t out the m od ifiers ,
a n d t e ll wh a t t h e m o d ifi e r s e x
p re s s .
W r ite t e n s e n te n c e s with m o d ifi e d su bj ec ts an d p re di
c a te s .
Modifiers Of n ou n s a re c all e d a d ective

j m odi
fiers ; m od ifiers Of v erb s a r e ca ll e d a d ow bia l or
ver ba l m o difier s .
CL AUS E S .
§ 2 0 . S om etim es a
g rou
p of wor d s is u se d as
a m odifier , which, when u se d b y itself, forms a
se n ten ce .
INTERME DIATE COURSE . 7
1 . Who is here ?
2 D O y o u kn o w who is her e ?
.
3 I d o n ot k n o w w ho is her e
. .
4 . Wh o is hon e st ?
5 . The m a n who is hone st is p res e cte d .
I n th e a b ov e ,
the wor d s which for m the fir st
an d fou rth s e n t en c es a r e u se d as m o d ifiers in th e
oth er se n t en ce s .
A m o difier c on t a in in bj ect d
§ 2L g a su an
p re dicate ,
an d which, when u se d al on e ,
can be a
sen t en c e , is call e d Cl a u s e
“
a .
Wor ds p ro
p e rl
y p ut t ogether , n ot m akin g a
s en t en ce or a cla u s e , a r e ca ll e d a Ph r a s e .
I n the hou se, is a p hr a se My booh, is a .
p h rase Thom a s a n d
. W i lli a m , is a
p hr ase .
D o wn by the m i llp
-
on d , is a
p hr a se .
P o in t o ut th e m o d i fie rs in t h e fo llo win g s e n te n c e s ,
an d te ll wh a t the y e xp r e s s
Th e snow fa lls s te a d il
y .
The r a in fa lls in t orr e n ts .
The c ar s m ov e s wiftl
y .
B o y s s k a te on th e ic e .
T hre e c h ild r e n we re go in g t o s c hool.
An a lyze ea ch s en ten ce.

LE SS ON VI .
A D VERBS .
§ 2 2 . H e Sp e ak s s lo wly an d in d istin ctly .
Marth a wr it es nea tly a n d r ap id ly .
These wor d s in ita lics b el on g to a n e w cra ss .
T hel r c omm on n am e is a d v e r b s , m ea n in g tha t

they a re a dde d to v er bs . T he y n e v er m o dify
su b sta n tiv es . Most Of th e m a re fo r m e d fro m
a dj ectiv e s b y ddin gly lg t o the a dj ectiv e
a .
B esid e s m od ify in g v erb s , a dv er b s O ften m od ify
fi
a c ectives . On e a dv erb m a y m o d ify a n oth e r
a d v e rb ,
an d so m etim es , in st ea d Of m o d ifyin g
s in l W or d , d v erb m odi fies whole
an
y g e an a a
s en t en c e
Most a d v erb s m o d ify in g v erb s ex r ess

p when ,
wher e, or how so m e t hin g is d on e .
The work wa s d on e y es ter da .

y ( Wh en ) .
My br other liv es her e .

(Wh e r e ) .
Y o u hav e l e arn e d w ell . ( H ow ) .
§ 2 3 . AD V E RB S MODI FYI N G AD J E OTI VE S .
H is h o u s e is v er y la r ge .
Th e a pp le is to o s o u r.
O ur s c h o o l- r o o m is r ea lly b e au tiful .
The c o lo n e l was o ver c o n fide n t.
T h is m ov e m e n t w a s m or e s u c c e s s ful .
Th e we a th e r is ex cess ively hot .

ADVERBS MO D IF YING OTHER AD VE RE s .
H enr
y w r ite s ver
y w e ll .
Th e h o r s e s r a n too fa s t .
Y ou S h o u ld n ot re a d s o ra p idly .
Y ou o u gh t to s tu d
y m o r e d il ig e n tl
y .
A D VERBS MO D I F YING WHOLE S E N TE N C E S .
The b o y h a s n o t l e a r n e d h is l e s s o n .
Cer ta in ly t h e m o n e y w a s s e n t .
I n d eed y o u a re m is tak e n .
Ver ily I sa
y u n to
y o u.
P er hap s I s h a ll see h im .
§ 2 4 . E X AMPLE S F OR AN AL S I S Y .
P o in t o ut th e v e r b al m o d ifi e r s in th e follo win g sen
t en o e s , and t e ll wh at e ac h e xp r e s s e s . P o int out th e

p hr a s e s us e d.
The lightn in g w a s b igh t la st e v e n in g

r .
Th e w a v e s d a s h e d up o n th e S ho r e .
Th e s t o r m r a ge s fi e r c ely .
He c o m e s ev e ry d ay .
He r e m a in e d in Eu p ro e th r e e ye a r s .
Th e w o o d w a s c ut w it h a n a x.
Th e p o or m a n d ie d Of h u n ge r .
M ar y s in
g s, b ec aus e S he is h a pp y .
T h e h u n t e r k ill e d t wo bea rs.
Th e t e a c he r lik e s a tt e n tiv e p up ils .
Verb al m o difiers p w hen , wher e, wh ,

y ex re ss
how, how h n g, who m , wha t, with wha t, by w ha t .
Comp ose t w e n ty s e n t e n c e s , c o n t a in in
g v er b al m odi
fie r s Of a ll t he s e k in d s , and ive the m e a n in Of e a c h
g g
m o d ifi e r .
C LAU S E S O
AS M D IF I E RS .
Th e m a n who m you sa w w ith m e wa s

§ 25 .
my u n cl e .
Th e b oy who da r es to sp ea k the tr uth is re
s e c t ed
p .
H e t ol d m e w ha t he ha d seen .
S a m u el s ho we d m e ho w the exa mp le wa s
w or ked .
C la u se s , like m o difier s , m ay b e
o th er a
dj ective
m o d ifier s , or v er ba l m o d ifie rs .
Adjective cl a u s e s u s u a ll
y b e in
g w ith w h o,
w hose, w hom , w hich, or tha t, a n d s ta n d d ire c tly

a ft er t he su b sta n tiv e which t he y m od ify .
Ver ba l m o difyin g cla u s es Often b egin w ith

so m e w or d a n s w e r in the i
u est on s , w he
g q n
wher e ? how ‘
? or why ?
E X AMP L E S F OR A N AL YSIS .
ADJ CTI VE MOD IF IN CLAU SE

E Y G S.
Th e m a n wh o m I m et w a s a Ge rm a n .
I h a ve s ol d t he h o rs e th a t I u s ed to d r ive .
T his is t h e b o y wh ose a rm wa s br o ken .
Th e s t o r m w h ic h w a s r a g in g is o v e r.
Th e p u p il who is d ilig en t w ill im p r o v e .
VE RBAL MOD IF ING CLAUSE S

Y .
H e l e n s a id th a t s he w o u ld go .
H e w e n t w her e h is c ou n tr y ca lled .
T he o a k s t a n d s fi r m when temp es ts ra
g e.
in th e sen t en ce which foll o ws , he u s es

you in st e a d
Of t he The t e a ch er
’
p er s o n s n a m e . d oes n ot s a
y,
” “
C ha rle s , C ha r l e s m u st s tu dy . B ut, C harl es ,
”
y ou m u st s tu dy .
§ 2 7 . Words u se d in stea d Of n oun s a r e c all e d

Pr o n o u n s .
In stea d Of th e
f thos e p er son s who
n a m es O
s e a k in , t he ron o un s , I , m , m in e, m e, w e,
are
p g p y
ou r , ou r s , u s , ar e u s e d .
In s tea d of t he n a m es Of t o wh om w e
p ers on s
s
p ea k ,
we u se the p r on ou n s , thou , thy , thine, thee,
y e, y ou ,
your ,
y owr s . In comm on s
p e ech we u se
onl
y y ou ,
y ou r ,
y ou r s . Thou , thy, thin e, a n d
thee a re u s e d m ostly in p o etr , an d in a dd r ess in
y g
God .
In ste a d Of the n a m es Of those Obj ects of
w hich we s
p ea k ,
we u se three cl a s s e s Of
p ro
n ou n s .
1 . In s
p ea kin g of a sin
gl e m al e b ein g ,
we u se
the p r o n ou n s he, his , him .
2 I n S p e ak in g Of a S in gl e fe m ale
. b ein g ,
we
u se the p r on o u n s , s he, her , her s .
3 . I n sp ea kin g Of a s ihgle thin g, n e ither m ale

n or fem al e , or Of a thin g wh ose sex is u n im p or
t a n t , we u se the p r on o un s , it, its .
I n sp eakin g O f thin gs m ore tha n on e , we u se
the p ron o un s, they, their , their s, them .

I NTERMEDIATE COURSE . 43
A na lyz e th e follo win g s e n t en c e s . N ame the p r o n oun s ,
an d t e l l w h e th e r t h e y sta n d fo r th e n a m e Of the s p e ak e r ,
th e pe p ok e n t o o r s o m ethin g s p ok e n Of
rs o n s , .
I h a v e m y b o ok a d y our p e n c il
n .
J a m e s h a s his b all a n d m y hat .
Y o u p u p ils h a v e l e a r e d th e ir l e s s o n s
r n .
S h e h a s r e c e iv e d a p r e s e n t fr o m h im .
I h av e m y b ook y o u h a v e y ou s sh e h a s h e
,
r ,
r s.
T his is m y b ook T his b o ok is m in e

. .
If oun d t h e m in t h e ir g ar d e n .
Y ou p r a is e us , b e c ause we d o o ur d u ty .
H e fo u n d m y k n ife , a n d lo s t it a ga in .
Th e b ir d fe e d s its y o u n g a n d c a r e s fo r th e m .
Th e c hild ha s c ut it s fi n ge r .
§ 2 8 . The n a me
k er or a Of a sp ea , p ron oun
sta n d in
g for his n a m e is sa id t o b e Of ,
the fi St
r son b eca u s e t he s ea k er is the fir st who has
p e , p
an
y th in
g t o d o with t he sen t en c e , Th e n ame
Of a er s on s oken t o , or a p r on o u n s t a n din
p p g
for his n a m e , 1 s s ai d to be of th e secon d p er son ,
b ecau se the p er s o n sp ok en t o , is the n e xt in

der
or who ha s a n y thin g t o d o with the sen ten c e .
All other n ou n s an d p r on oun s a re s a i d to b e Of
the thi rd p er son .
T ha t for which a
p ron ou n stan d s is c al le d its
An t e c e d e n t .
§ 2 9 . Pr on ou n s which y in on e a re u se d on l
p er son a r e calle d P e r s o n a l
p ron ou n s I ,
m y, .
w e, ou r , u s , ar e u se d on ly in p l ac e Of the n a m e
Of the s k er ; u onl i l Of the n am e O f
p ea
y o
y n
p a ce
k en to ; they on l in la ce Of the
p erson s s
p o y p
n a m e s Of Obj ects S
p ok en Of. All th e p ron oun s
i b ove erso n a l.
g v en a ar e p
RE LATI VE PRO N O UN S .
3 0 . The w ord s , w ho, whose, w hom , which,

an d tha t, st a n din g at t he b eginn in g Of a cfiective
c la u ses a re ca ll e d R e l a t i v e Pr o n o u n s .
The An t e c e d e n t Of a r ela t v e i p r on ou n is to
b e fou n d in the s a m e s en ten ce , a n d u su all st a n ds
y
direc tly b efor e it .
W r ite te n s e n te n c e s w ith c l au s e s c o n t a inin g r ela t ive
p r o n ou n s .
S e le c t fr o m y o ur re ad er ten s e n te n ce s c on t a in in g
r el a tive
p r on ou n s . A n al
y z e the m , and n am e th e a n te
ced en ts Of t h e p r on ou n s.
The p ro n ou n s , m y, thy, him , her , your ha v e

som etim es t h e w or d sel
f a dd e d t o th e m . The
p r on o u n them a dd s selves, in the sam e wa y .
T hese p r on oun s with the wor d t hu s a dd e d

are c all e d C o m p o u n d p e r s o n a l p ron ou n s .
T hey ar e u se d wh en the a n tece d en t Of the p ro

n ou n is the su bj ect of th e s en t en c e, an d al so to
m odify a n ou n , m a kin g it emp ha tic .
I hav e h urt m yself .
Jam es ha s cut himself .
Is ab ell a m a d e her self sick .
T hose b oys will kill them sel ves .

The kin g hi mself coul d d o no m ore .
I m yself a m t o b lam e .
A de scrip tiv e a dj ectiv e st a n din g b efor e a

n ou n often m e a n s t he sam e a s a n a dj ectiv e c la u se
which m ight s ta n d a fter it .
Th e wis e m a n . Th e m a n wh o is w is e .
Th e s hin in g s t a r . Th e s ta r wh i ch s h in es
3 1 . I n sert a dj ectiv e cl a u s e s a fte r the su bj ects

Of the foll owin g sen t en ces, th u s
Th e tr a in has n o t a rr iv e d .
’
The t r a in which w a s d u e at eig h t o c lo ck ha s n ot
a rr iv e d .
The b o ok is l o st .
My fr ie n d ha s c o m e.
Th e fa r m has b e en s ol d .
Th e m e r c h a n t ha s b ou ght a h o u s e .
W a sh in gton is c a lle d a p a t rio t .
I n s er t
j
a d ec tive c la u s es in th e p r e d ic a t e s Of th e fol
lo win g s e n te n c e s , th u s
F a th e r h a s
'
s old th e fa r m
F a th e r h as s ol d t he far m which h e bough t
T h e y a r e c h a s in g a h or s e
W e fo u n d a gu id e
I Sh o u ld l ik e t o re a d th e bo o k
The c o u n t ry h o n o r s th e m a n
I r e c e iv e d t w o d olla r s fo r t h e wh e a t
I N TE RR G AT I VE
O PRO N OUN S .
IVho did it ? W a t did

did yo u s e e ? l Vhich wa y /
I t h as alr e a d y b een n o tic e d t h a t th e s e n t e n c e is s om e
t im e s in ver ted wh e n t h e p e d ic a te o r p a r t Of the

r ,
p re d ic a t e , c om e s b e for e th e s ubj e c t T his is u s u ally the

.
c ase q ue stio n s I n th e s e n te c e H O W d o you d o

in . n
o u is t h e s u bj e c t d o d o h o w is t h e p r e d ic a te
y , .
A n alyz e t he qu e stion s giv e n a b ov e W ite a n d a n a . r
lyz e te n s e n te n c e s e a c h in t he fo r m Of a q u e s tion .
A s en t en ce In which a q u esti on Is as k ed is
c all e d an I n t e r r o ga ti v e s e n t en c e .
The p r on ou n s who, w hose, who m , which a n d

wha t, whe n u se d in askin g qu estion s, ar e c alle d
I n t e r r o g a tiv e p r o n o un s.
The wor d for which an in terr oga tive p ron oun

s tan d s is fo un d in the a n s wer Of the
q u e s tion ,
t hu s :
Who b roke the win d o w ? J a m es b rok e it

‘
Who s ta n ds fo r J a m es .
W r it e ten s e n te n c e s c o n ta in in g in te r ro g a tiv e p ro
n oun s . A n al
y z e the m .
S e le c t fr o m s om e one Of y o ur b ook s t en s e n t en c e s
whic h c o n t a in i n ter r og a tive p r o n ou n s .
LE SS ON VIII .
PREPOSITIONS .
§ 33 . My d og is the tab le .
C h a rl es S its the t ab le .
The b o ok l ies the t a ble .
Fa th e r s to od t he t abl e .
INTERMEDIATE COURSE .
Put a wor d in to e a ch Of the a b ove se n t e n c es
th at will co m
p l e t e t he s en s e . No tic e tha t thes e
wo r d s sh o w s o m ethin b ou t t he p osition or
g a
p la ce O f th e su bj ect c om
p ar e d with the t a b le .
Un der , by, sho w ho w the t a bl e is p la ced, or

a t, on ,
in wha t wa y it is r ela ted t o e a ch subj ect .
T her e a re a b ou t forty c o m m on wor d s which

are u s e d t o con n ect s ub sta n tiv es with other w ord s ,
a n d, a t th e sa m e tim e , t o S how ho w the follo w

in g su b sta n tiv e is r el a t e d to som e
p r e ce din g
wo r d . T hese word s are calle d Pr e p o s i t i o n s .
The n a me p r ep osition m ea n s p la ced befor e The .
foll owin g s ub stan tiv e who s e rel a tion is ex p r es se d ,

is call e d t he su b seq u en t the p r ep osition The
Of .
p re
p osit on i an d its s u b s e u en t u s u a ll
q y m a ke a n
a dv er bia l h a n s we rin th e u estion wher e

p r a se,
g q ,
“
a s, The b ook is -
wher e ? The b ook is on
A LI S T OF C OMMON PRE P O S I TI ON S .
Pr ep osition s a r e v er y cl osely r elate d to a d verb s,

an d a re u se d m os tly in a dver bia l
p hras es . Of
is th e on l
y p p re o sit io n which is Often em l
p yo ed
in an
j
a d ective
p hr a se .
Whe n the su b sequ en t Of the p r ep osition is

om itte ,
th d
e r
p pe os it io n m a
y b e ca ll e d a n a d ver b .
Notice t ha t m a n y Of t hese p r ep osit ion s h a v e

ex a ct o
pp os ites in m ea n in g, an d m ay b e a rr a n
g e d
in p a ir s, thu s :
b e fo r e , b ehin d ,
o v er, u n d er ,
a b ove ,
b el o w .
N am e o th e r p r e p o s itio n s whic h h a v e o pp o site s .
W rite s e n te n c e s c o n t a in i g e a c h O f th e a b o v e p r e p o s i
n
t ion s .
(T w o or m o re c an be u sed in th e s a m e s e n te n c e
) .
A n al
y z e ; a d nt e ll wh a t r ela tio n th e p r e p osition and its
s ub s e q u e n t S h o w .
W O RD S TH AT C O N N E CT SE N T E N CE S AN D W O RD S .
§ 35 . In or d er tha t wor d s m a y m ak e s en s e,
they m u st b e j oin e d t ogether p rop erly . The

w ord s , stich, a , with, boy, dog, the, stru ch, do n ot
m ake se n s e b eca u se th ey a r e n ot in p r op er or d e r
to ex
p r e ss a n
y thi n
g .
The s am e w or d s m ak e s ense wh en p l a c ed
thu s
The b oy struck th e dog wi th a s tick .
G en erally th e s en se is sh own b y th e or der in

W rite fo ur s e n te n c e s w ith c om p ou n d su bj e c ts Write.
fo ur w ith c om p o u n d p r e d ic a te s .
W r ite fo u r w ith b oth s ubj e c t s and p r e d ic ate s c om
o un d , thu s :
p
C h ar l e s an d W illia m read an d s p ell .
S om etim e s a s en t e n c e is j oin e d to a n ot her s en
t e n ce , o r a cl a u se to a sen t en c e , by a con u n ct on , j i
thu s
Th e c om p an y w ill c om e ,
if it d o e s n ot r a n . i
H is c o u r a ge wa s n e v er d o u b t e d , bu t his j u d gm e n t wa s
n ot t r u s tw o r t h y .
W r it e tw o s e n te n c e s c o n n e c t e d b y a n d .
W rite t w o s e n te n c e s c o n n e c te d b y bu t .
W r it e tw o s e n te n c e s c on n e c te d b y or .
W r ite two s e n te n c e s c o n n e c te d b y beca u s e .
S om etim e s a r el a t iv e or an in terro ga tiv e p ro

n ou n st an ds a s a c on n e ct ni g w or d b e t we en a sen
te n ce a n d a cla u se Of th e s e n t e n c e S om et im e s .
an a d v erb c on n ects a s e n t en ce w ith a cla u s e .
Th e g e n e r a l a sk e d w h a t th e y s a w .
T h e y w ill h e a r u s wh en we c a ll .
W ho k n o ws w hy t h e arm
y fa il ed
EX C LAMATI ON S .
§ 37 . C ert ain wor d s a re u se d to ex

p r e ss feel
in g which the p s ea k er can n ot w ell ex
p r ess by
s en t e n c e s . P sha w F u dge B ah 0h are
ex a m
p l es . T her e a re n ot m an y Of the m in the
l an gu a ge . They fo r m no
p a rt O f t he sen t e n c e .
LESS ON IX .
CHANGES IN TH E FORM OF WORDS .
3 8 . The fa rm er bin ds the Sheaf with a ba n d .
T hey bou n d the thie f w ith bon d s .
Not ic e that a ll the four w or d s in it alic s c on
ta m the id e a of tyin g, tho u gh they d o n ot m ea n

e x a ctl
y t h e sa m e The letter s b, n, d, a re fo un d
in e a ch wor d , an d these l etters con t a n i the p ri n
cip a l m ea n in g They a r e ca lle d t he
. r oot Of the
w or d The cha n ges in m ea n in g a r e m a de b y

.
cha n in th e o th er letter s Of the w or d

g g .
When on e wor d is for m e d from an other by

ch a n i s om e Of it s l ette rs , or b y a ddin l t t
g g
n
g e e r s
to the b egi n n i n g, or t o the en d Of the w o r d , we

th a t w w or d is der iv ed from th e first
s ay a n
e .
3 9. Word s are d er ive d from other w or d s in

fo ur w a y s :
1 B y cha n gin g letter s within th e word ;
. as ,
bin d, ba n d, bon d, bou n d .
2 By p la cin g lett e r s b efore the wo r d ;

. as ,
bin d, u n b in d ; u s e, m is u se , a b u se
- -
.
3 . By a dd in g l ette r s t o the w ord ; a s, ca r e,
c ar e) in g, c ar es
c a r e u l, c a r e less ,
f ( .
4 . By j oin in g o n e wor d t o a n ot h er ; as, wat ch

fa c tory .
T hes e ha n ge s m odify the m ea n in g

c Of the
fier s to
ro o t, b u t a s we h a ve u se d m o d i ex
p res s
wor ds which m od ify o th e r w o rd s , w e c a ll th e se

c ha n ges which a re m a d e in the wor d , or in its
en din g ,
ch an ge s i n fo r m .
§ 40 . When the sa m e ch a n
g es a re m a d e in
the for m of a c a ss Of l w or d s , t o d e n ote the s a m e
c ha n
g in m e a n in , th e
e
g c ha n
g e is ca lle d I u n e c
ti o n .
Nou n s p r o n o u n s, a d je c t i v e s , ver bs and

,
a few a d ve r b s ar e in fl e c te d .
§ 4 L P en cil , b o ok , h ou s e .
P en cils , b ook s , h ou se s .
Notic e tha t un d er e a ch Of t he n ou n s
giv en in
th e fir st lin e , t her e s ta n ds an o th e r n ou n d e riv e d
fr o m it b y a dd in g 8 E a ch . n o un in t he u
pper
lin e d en ot e s on e thin g the n oun d eriv e d fr Om

it in the l ower lin e d enote s m o r e t ha n on e thin g .
T ha t form Of a s u b stan tiv e which d en otes on e
th in g is ca lle d th e Si n gu l a r n um b er .
T ha t for m Of
'
the su b stan tiv e which d en otes

m o r e th a n on e t hin g is c all e d t he Pl u r a l n um
b er .
TO a n nex, in s
p ea kin g Of cha n
ges in form ,
m e a n s to p la ce after .
TO p r eyix m e a n s to p la ce befor e .
Mos t n o un s , lik e those giv en a b ov e, ar e chan

ged
from th e s ingu la r form to the p lu r a l for m b y
a n n exin g s t o th e s in u l a r
g
IN TE RME DIAT E CO URSE . 8
When 3 an n exe d c an n ot be e a sil

y s oun ded ,
es
is a dde d to for m the p lural , as
b ox , gl a ss, m a tch , b u sh ,
c hur ch .
b ox es , l a ss e s , m a tch es , b u shes ch ur ches .

g ,
A fe w n ou n s for m the p lur a l b y ch an i

g g
n
lett er s within the wo rd ; a s,

m an , m en ; mou s e , m ice ; foot, f eet; t o oth , teeth .
C an yo u giv e an
y o th er w or d s of e ith e r Of th e s e
c la ss e s ?
CH AN GE OF SE X .
§ 42 .A few n ou n s chan
g e their en din gs to
sh o w whether the p ers on s n am e d b y th e m a re
m a le, em a le
or
f .
A ctor , a ctr ess ; coun t , co un tess ; h ero , heroin e;

wido wer , wido w ; Fra n cis , Fra n ces .
PO S S E S S I ON .
§ 43 . This is the n est Of a n e a

gl e .
Th e hou s e Of m y father is l ar ge .
H o w c an these sen t e n c es b e sh ort en e d ? What

my f a ther Sh o w ?
d oes th e p hr a s e o
f
Which s ou n ds the b ett er ,
“
T his Is th e r in
g
” ”
T his is m y m other r in
’
Of m y m ot her , or s
g ?
DO t h e s e n te n ces d iffer in m e a n in
g
?
The p hra se f
o m y m other sh o ws t o whom the
rin
g b el on s ;
g or who p ossesses or owns the r in
g.
The s a m e re la tion is exp r es se d in the shor ter

s en ten ce byi t h e e n din g Of the n o u n

ch a n
g g
n
m other , a n d b y b rin gin g the n o un in to a n other

l a ce in th e s en t e nc e
p .
Wh en the p r ep osition of ,
an d its su bsequen t
m o dify a n ou n , t he s a m e r ela t ion is som e tim e s
d by i
ch a n t h e e n d in Of th e su b s e
ex
p res s e g g
n
g
q u en t n ou n , and
p l a cin
g it b efore t he n o un
m odified .
C h a n g e th e p hr a s es in it a lic s t o s h o r te r fo r m s
Th e fl a s h of the l ig h tn ing w a s b ight r .
Th e p o e m s of M ilto n a r e a d m ir e d .
Th e fl igh t of th e s w a llow is a p id r .
Of an d its su b sequ en t fre qu en tly e xp r ess

p os
session , a n d n ou n s wh os e en din g is cha n ge d to

ex r ess this r e la tion a r e c all e d P o s s e s s i v e s
p .
44 Nou n s in th e sin gula r exp r ess the r ela

.
t ion Of o s s e ssio n b a ddin s d d b

p y g , p r e c e e
y a n
a
p o s tr op h e . The a
p o s tr o
p h e sh o ws th e om is sion
Of i which wa s on ce wr itten in t he en din g .
Ma ry s ’
,
t ea ch e r
’
s,
p p il
u s,
’
bir d s ’
.
N o un s in the p l u ral, s, e n din

g in a d d t he
a ostro h e t o m a k e the o s s es siv e for m
p p p .
T u rk e y s
’
,
ea
gl es
’
,
s oldier s ’
,
b ab ies
’
.
W r ite s e n te n c e s c o n t a in in g th e p l u r a l s Of th e fo ll o w
in g n oun s :
m o n k e y, her o, k in g, que e n ,
fo x .
W r ite s e n t e n c e s c o n t a in in
g t h e
p ossess i ve s in u la r Of
g
th e fo ll o w in g n ouns :
s e rv a n t , s o ldier , t e a c h e r, d oc tor .
I NTERMEDIATE COURSE . 55
F in d ten s e n te n c e s in y o u r r e a d er c o n t a in in g n o u n s
m th e p os s es s ive.
§ 45 . No u n s , then , cha nge their for m t o de

note thr ee r ela tion s .
1 . The r el a tion o f n u m b er .
2 . The r el a tion Of s e x.
3 . The r el ation Of p o s se s sio n .
The chan
g e o
f t he f or m of the n ou n which
denotes n u m ber and ossession is c a ll e d D eclen
p
sio n .
LESS ON X .
CONJ UGATION .
§ 4 6 . I wr ite to day . I wr ote yester day I .
sha ll w r ite t o m orr o w -

. Joh n wr ites The letter .
is wr itten . Fa ther wa s wr itin g .
I n thes e six s en t en ce s t he sam e a ctio n is

sp o ken of ; the a ctio n Of wr iting . The l e tt er s
w —J
r -
t ar e th e r oot Of the v er b ,
an d con ta n i th e
p rin ci a l
p m ean in g .
The v er b is v a rie d in t he foll o w in g wa y s

By cha n gin
g l ett e r s within the wor d ; as ,
wr it e , wrot e .
By a n n e x in l et t ers a s, wr ite , write s, wr it (e)

g
ing .
By p refixin g other w ord s , which , altho ugh n o t

j oin ed to it, a r e call ed a p a rt Of the p r ed ica te
ver b wr ite, sha ll write, m a y write
; a s, .
W r it e s e n ten c e s c o nt a in in g s o m e v ar ia tio n Of e ac h Of
th e fo ll o w in g v er bs
g iv e, t hr o w , k n o w, h e ar , fe e l
.
S om e Of th e se cha n es Sho w the ti m

§ 47 .
g e
Of th e a ct on i ; s om e S h o w wheth er th e a ct on i is
fi n i sh ed or u n fi n ish ed s o m e S ho w the p er
son of th e su bj ect s om e sho w whether

t he su bj ect is t he d oer Of the a ct on i ; s om e sho w
whether the su bj e ct is sin gul ar or

p l ur al .
E X AMPLE S .
S ol dier s fight . S ol diers fou ght .
Th e c h a n ge in t h e fo r m Sh o w s a c h a n ge in tim e .
I am wr itin g a l ette r . I ha v e writt en a l et

t cr .
Th e a c t io n i n t he first s e n te n c e is un fi n ish e d ,
in th e
n is h ed
s ec ond , fi .
Thou Go d s e e st me .
Go d s e es a ll thin gs .
Th e c h a n ge g S hin e n d in
o w s th a t th e
p er so n of th e
i s c ha d I h e fi r s t s e n t e n c e G o d is s p o k e n
subj ec t g e t n . n
to in t h e s e c o n d H e is s p o k e n of
,
.
The m a n p l o ws t he fiel d .
The fiel d is p l o wed .
I n th e fi s t s e t e n c e th e s u bj e c t d oes th e a c tio n w hic h

r n
is a ffir m e d ; in th e s e c on d , th e s am e a c tio n is affir m e d ,
b ut t h e su bje c t is n ot t he d oor , and t he s e n te n c e d oe s

n ot t e ll w h o d id it .
The m an is here . The m en ar e here .

58 E NGLI H G S RAMMAR .
a ction , a n d whether it is fin ished or un fin ished ,
a r e c a ll e d Ten s e -fo r m s. Ten se co m e s fr o m a
w or d m e a n in g tim e . Whe n a v er b has the fo rm

which d e n ot es r esen t tim e, it is sai d to b e in
p
the p r esen t ten se
'
w he n its for m d en otes p a st

tim e , it is in th e p a st ten se .
The form s which sh o w t hat t he su bj ect IS the

d o er Of t he a ction are c a ll e d the for m s Of t he
Ac t i v e V o i c e . I f t hese for m s ar e n o t u se d,
t he ve r b is sa i d to b e in the Pa s s i v e V oic e.
50. I re a d ,
he r ea ds . Y o u go , She goes .
The din gs s a n d es
en Sh o w th a t th e s u bj ect is
Of th e thir d p er s o n a n d s in
gula r n u m b er .
W r ite fiv e s e n te n c e s , in w hic h t h e r e is m e ntio n e d

n is h ed a c ti o n
som e u n fi ; as,
Th e b oys were s k a t in
g .
W r ite fi ve s e n te n c e s in wh ich t he v er bs e xp re s s
n is h e d a c t io n
fi ; a s,
Th e t im e h a s c om e .
W rit e fiv e s e n te n c e s with a v er b in th e p r es en t ten s e ;
M oth e r is m e n d in g m y k ite .
W r it e fiv e s e n te n c e s w ith th e v er b in p a s t t im e , e ith er
fi n is h ed , or u n
fi n is h ed ; a s,
I s o ld m y k n ife . S he w a s s in in
g g a h vm n .
W r ite fiv e s e n te n c e s with th e ver b In

f u tu r e t im e ,
n is h ed , o r u n
e ith e r fi fi n is h ed ; as,
The b o y will fall . The m a il will h av e b e en O p e n e d .

IN TERMEDIATE C OURSE . 59
TH E P ARTI CI PLE .
5 1. Verb s ha v e j
a d ective for m s or for m s
which ar e u se d t o m odify n ou n s . T hes e for m s
a re c o m m on ly c alle d Pa r t i c i p l e s , or Ver ba l
Adje c t i v e s T here t wo Of the se bal
“
. a re v er
a dj e ct iv e s for e a ch v er b . On e a l wa
y s en d s in
in g, th e o th er e n d s in d, or n a s, s ee in ,
g seen .
T his la bor ing m a n earn s his wa ges .
H e wa s la bor ing with grea t e a rn e s tn ess .
In thefi s t s e te c e la bor in g a s s e ts o thing a d is a

r n n r n ,
n
v e b a l a dj c t iv e
r e I n th e s e c o d s e n te n c e it m a y st ill b e
. n
c a l le d a a dj e c t iv e b u t a s it is a p a t o f th e p r e d ic a t e
n ,
r
,
it is a s s e te d Of t he s ubj e c t d o e s o t m o d ify th e s ubj e c t

r ,
n
a d is g e n e r a lly c alle d a p a t O f t h e v e b
n r r .
§ 52 . bThe
al a dj ec ti v e I n m y 1 s c a ll e d
v er
the I m p e r fe c t (o r u nfin ished ) Pa r t i c i p l e ;

t he oth er en d in gs b elon g to t he Pe r fe c t (or
finished ) Pa r t i c i p l e .
The p rin cip al d iffe r e n c e b e twe e n the v er ba l

a dj ec tiv e a n d oth er a dj e ctiv e s is , t ha t t h e v er b al
a dj ectiv e m a y ha v e a ll th e m o d ifie r s Of t he v erb .
The p articip l e ha vi ng jom e d with t he p erfect

a rt ici le o f a v e r b , m a k es w ha t is c a lle d a
p p
Co m p o u n d p i
a rt c i
p l e .
A Cl a u s e 2 0) is s o m e t im e s shor tened by
lea vin g ou t t he su bject, an d by u s in t h a rt i
g e
p
c ip l e in stea d Of s om e for m Of t he v er b w hich
ex
p r es ses a sser t on . i The p art icip le is then s ai d
to r e fe r to the word which wo ul d b e th e su b
j cet Of th e se n t e n c e , if i g w a s om itte d
n ot h n .
When I ha d fin ishe d m y l esson , I ha d a n hour

left for r ea din g .
H a ving fin ished m y lesson , I h a d an h o ur

left fo r r ea d in g .
Th e c omp o u n d ver ba l a dj ec tive (or p a rtic ipl e) h a vin g
fi n is h ed r e fe r s t o t he su bj e c t I . The e n d in g in g in
h a v in g s h o w s t h a t it is th e imp erf ec t p a r t ic ip le ; th e e n d
in g ed in fi n is h ed s h o ws th a t it is t h e p erfect p a rt ic ip l e .
H a vin g fi n is h ed is m o d ifi e d b y m y less on , s h o w in g wh a t
is fi n is h e d , a n s we r in g t h e q u e s tio n w h a t H ou r is m o d i .
fie d b y lef t, a ve r b al j
a d e c t iv e , d er iv e d fr o m th e ver b
lea ve .
§ 53 . T his v e rb al a dj e ctive for m in ing is

a l so u se d as a n ou n , while it still i
r et a n s t he
m od ifiers Of the v er b .
W iting rap idly is very tire som e

r .
I n th is s e n te n c e w r itin g is a n oun, b e c a u s e it is th e
su bj e c t o f the s e t e c e B ut it is
n n . m o d ifi e d b y th e ad
v e b r ap i d ly
r T h e r e fo r e it d iffe r s
.
,
fr o m o th er n o un s ,
b e c a u s e it a d m it s a v e r b al m o d ifi e r .
Ta k in g his g un , th e fa r m e r w e n t o ut .
Th e fi n is h ed g a rm e n t l a y b e s id e h e r , .
H u n ti n g t ige r s is d a n ge r o u s s p ort .
A n e a tl
y w r i tte
-
n l e tt e r in d ic a t e s a c ar e ful s c h ol a r.
H a vin g r ea d the l e t t e r , he p u t it in h is o c k e t. p
The b a t tle ,
h o t ly c o n tes ted fo r t hr e e h o ur s , wa s at la s t
w o n b y th e b el
re s.
P o in t o u t th e p a r t ic ipl e s in th e a b o v e s e n te n c e s . T e ll
wh e th e r t he y d e n o t e fi n is hed or u n
fi n is h e d a c tio n . P ut
cl a us e s in pl a c e Of th e p ar tic ip le s and th e ir m o di fi ers .
TH E IN FI N I TI VE .
§ 5 4. Verb s ha v e a n o t he r sub s t a n tiv e fo r m

b es id e s tha t In in
g . T his for m is u s u a lly p re
ce de db y the p r ep osition to, an d is c a ll e d th e

I n fi n i t i v e of the v er b .
S h e tr ie d to s in g t h e s o n g .
To s in g w e ll is a v a l u a b le a ccom p lis h m e nt .
To w r i te n e a tl
y re q uir e s p ain s .
We h a v e l e a r n e d to sp ell c o rr e c tly .
Th e s u b s t a n tiv e fo r m , o r ver ba l n ou n ,
d iffe r s fr o m
o th e r n o u n s I n h a v in g a d ver bi a l m o d ifi e r s . The to b e
fo r e the v er b is so me tim e s O m itte d .
Verbs are c on uj
g at e d to exp r ess Ten se,
V o ic e , Pe r s o n an d N m n b er .
LE SS ON XI .
COMP ARISON .
§ 55 . S om e d e scr ip tiv e Ad je c t i v e s , an d a
fe w Ad v e r b s , a dm it a ch a n
ge Of form c a lle d
Co m p a r i s o n .
When an a dj e ctiv e s im l
p y n a m es a
q u alit
y, it
is sai d to b e in the P o s i t i v e d egr ee ; as, w ise,
br a ve, hin d .
But when , b e sid e s i g the q u ality , o n e

n am n
er s on o r thin is o m a re d w it h a n o th e r b y
p g c
p
th e a dj ec tiv e , the a dj ec tive is s a id t o b e in t he
C o m p a r a t i v e degr ee . The comp a r a tive for m
a n n ex es r or e r t o t he p ositiv e form ; a s, wis er ,

kin d e r
b ra v er , .
When b esid es
, g q y, th
n am in
e a dj e ctiv e a u alit
c o m a r es a n e rson o r thin g w ith m o r e than

p y p
on e o t he r , t he a dj ec t iv e is s a id t o b e in t h e
S u p e r l a t i v e d egre e . The su
p erl a tiv e for m
a n n ex e s st or e st t o t he p osi tive for m ; as,
wise s t , b r a v e s t , kin d e s t .
T his is a la rg e b oy .
T h is b oy is la rger th a n his o lder b r oth er .
T ho m a s is th e la rges t b oy in s c h o ol .
Ne v e r u se th e e n d in
g es t j
w it h anw h en a d e c t ive
c om p ar i n
g tw o . DO not sa
y H e IS t he O ld es t O f t h e
,
t wo . Y ou m ight as we ll s a y H e is O ld es t th a n h is
,
b r oth er .
D escrip tiv e a dj ectiv es Of on e

ysll a b le , a n d a
fe w Of m or e t h a n on e s ll a bl e, a d m it t he in fl e c
y
tion Of com a r ison .
p
D e a r , d e a r e r , d e a re st .
T all ,
t alle r , t a lle s t .
L o v e ly , l o v e l ie r , l o v e lie s t .
C o m p ar e s m a ll, wis e, o ld , n ea r ,
fi n e, s weet.
D I MI N UT I V E S .
56 . Fro m n o un s ar e s o m e tim es form e d

n ou n s w hich d e n ote a s m a ll t hin g of th e sa m e
kin d . S u ch n ou n s a re c a lle d B im in u t iv e s .
The w or d fro m which a n o ther w or d is for m e d is
c a ll e d a Pr i m i ti v e wor d .
INTERME D IATE C OURSE . 63
Fr o m s tr e a m w e fo r m s tr e a m let
; m e a n in
g li ttle s tr ea m .
F r om r iv e r w e fo r m r iv u let
; m e a n in g a li ttle r iver .
F ro m g o o se we fo r m go s lin g ; m e a n in g a lit t le , or
o un g g o o se.
y
Fro m la m b
w e fo r m l a m b kin ; m e a n in g a little l a m b .
Fr o m h ill w e fo r m h illo clc ; m e a n in g a little hill .
Fr o m c at w e fo r m k i t ; m e a n in g a lit tl e c a t.
For m d i m i n u tiv e s fr o mth e fo llo win g
l an c e , fl o we r w av e , lak e ,
l e a f, I s le ,
eye , bi r d ,
AB S T RACT N UNS O .
5 7 . In 1 3 w e ha v e n a m e s Of
q u a lities u s e d
as su b ects ,
j an d n a m es which are u se d on l
y as
m od ifier s O f n ou n s . The su b st a n tiv e n a m es
Of Q u a l itie s a re ca lle d Ab s t r a c t n o u n s .
They ar e deriv ed from a dj ectiv e s b y a n n exin g

n e ss, it y, th , cc, c y, an d a fe w ha v e o th e r
en d in gsT hus , fr om good we for m goo d n ess ;

.
fro m hin d, kin dn ess fr om a ble w e for m a bil ity ;

from wu e’
,
tr u th fr om lon g, len gth from el o
g u en t, eloqu en ce from fi u en t,
fi u en c
y .
F or m a bs tr a c t n o u n s fr o m t h e fo llo w in g :
w id e , s tr o n g, d ee p ,
h igh , b ro a d ,
a c t iv e , a gile , a c id , pl u al r ,
d o c il e ,
n e at , u s e ful , id le , h pp ya ,
w e a ry ,
e l e g a n t, fl ue n t ,
e lo qu e n t ,
d iffe re n t , t ru a n t .
LESS ON X II .
KI N D S OF SE N TE N CE S .
DE C LARATIVE SENTENCES .
§ 5 8 . T he k in g h a s g ov e r n e d w e ll . My fa th e r w ill
r e t ur n . Y o ur p la n m ay n o t s uc c e e d . We s h o uld s t u d
y
d ilige n tly .
INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES .
C a n yo u r s to r y b e t r u e ? D O y o u in te n d t o r e m a in
W hy d id yo u n o t l e arn this le s s o n ? W h a t d id you s ay ?
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES .
Le t s ev e n s e n te n c e s b e w r itte n G O ho m e n o w, b ut
’
r e t ur n im m e d ia te ly . Le nd me a k n ife . DO n ot be r ud e.
E X CLAMATORY SENTENCES .
W ha t a b e a utiful sun se t ! H o w h e d oe s talk ! A ve r

y
s tr a n
g e s to r
y ! Ho w v e r y r id ic u l o u s !
5 9. A D e c l a r a ti ve s en te n ce assert s a thin g
as a
f a ct. The thin g a sser te d m ay n ot b e tru e ,
b u t the sp e a k er gives it as a fact .
An l n t e r r o ga tiv e se n te n c e co n t a n s a i q u es
tion .
An Im p e r a tiv e s en ten ce ex
p r es se s the will
of th e s
p ea k er ,
a s a com m a n d , en tr ea t , or r e uest.
y q
The su bj ect Of a n im p era tiv e is ge n e r
s e n t en c e
all Of t he secon d a n d is u su a ll om itte d

y p er son ,
y .
A comp lex se n t en ce m ay c o n t a in s e v er a l
cla u s es . A se n ten c e m a y b e b oth co m l ex d
p an
c om
p oun d .
INC OMPLE TE S E N TE N C E S .
§ 61 . A s en t e n c e is Often left i n com p l e te

b y t he s ea k er eith er to w or d s , b e ca u s e
p ,
sa v e or
his m e a n in g is p la in ly u n d ers too d with out wor d s .
Le a vin g Ou t w ord s w hic h t he he ar er e a sily

su
pp l ies is c a lle d E l lip sis
,
an d a s en t en c e fr o m
w hich s o m e thin
g i s o m itte d , is c a l le d a n elli tica l
p
s en t e n c e . S o m et im es t he s ubj ec t is o m itte d ;
s o m et im e s th e p r edica te s o m etim es b oth .
G O h om e .
The su bj e c t y ou is o m it te d .
How str a n
g e
T his s e n t e n c e in full w o ul d b e “
H o w s tr a n ge it is ! ”
E ll ip sis is m os t c o m m on in I mp er a tive a n d
E xcla m a tor y se n t e n ce s . I t m a y b e us e d in
sp ea hing m u ch m or e tha n in w r itin g, b ec a u s e the
loo ks d m otio n s m ay m a k e his m ean
’
s
p ea k er s an
in g p la in .
S pp ly th ellip i
u e s s in t h e fo llo win g s e n te n c e s
G iv m e b k
e a oo .
G O t o th a t c h a m b e r . W hy B e c au se you a re h id d e n .
W h ith e r a r e y o u
g o in
g ? To th e c ity .
W hy d id h e com e b a ck ? F or his bo oles .

INT E RMEDIATE COURSE . 67
§ 62 . The n a m e Of t he
p er s o n a ddr esse d for m s
ar t Of t he se n t e n c e . I t is u s e d s im l t
’
no
p p y o
ca ll his a tt e n t ion t o t he se n t en c e follo win g .
Ha rry , wha t ha v e y ou there ?

Ja n e , is this y ou r b ook ?
E xcla m a tion s g en er a lly d st a n l
a on e , an d
n e ither m o dify , n or a re m odifie d . The y a re a
kin d Of e llip tica l s en t en ce .
Yes, ly an d so m e other w or d s u s ed
n o, cer ta in ,
in a n s werin g q u e stio n s , do n ot m odify th e sen

te n c e w ith which t hey stan d con n ect e d T hey .
m o dify eith r e an om itt e d v er b ,

or the sen ten ce
c o n ta in n g i the qu est ion .
NO, yo u a r e m istak e n .
C ert ain ly , with p lea sur e .
Y es , y ou m a y h a v e it .
S u pp ly s e n te n c e s t O whic h th e a b ove m ay he a n s wer s ,
an d if th e r e is an
y p s is
ell i ,
su pp ly it .
§ 63 . AN AL YSI S OF S E N TE N C E S .
An is n o w p r esen ted, th a t a p l an fo r
a n al y s is Of s ever al sen t en ces
g e n e ra l u s e m a y b e m a d e p l a in I t is n o t S O im p o r ta n t t o n a m e
.
x
t h e e a c t fo r m a s to n a m e t h e u s e O f th e w o r d in a se n te n c e .
Th e a n a ly sis Offer e d is d e s ig n ed to S h o w wh a t a p u p il o ugh t to

k n o w Of a s en ten ce w h e n h e h a s fi n is h ed t h e b o ok up t o th is
p oin t .
1 On l e a s a n t m orn in in the e a rl
. a
p g y au
t um n , a tra v el er wa s r idin g l eis ur ely a l on

g t he
v all e
y .
T his is a s im ple s e n te n c e , c o n t a in in
g b u t o n e s ubj e c t
and on e p re d ic ate . It a ss e r ts s o m e th in
g as a fa c t,
a n d
8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
is th e r e for e d ec la r a tive . A tr a veler is th a t of wh ic h th e

a s s e r t io n is m a d e , and is , th e r e fo r e , t h e su bj e c t . Wa s
r id in g leis u r ely a lo n g th e v a l ley , o n a p lea s a n t m or n i ng
i n th e ea r ly a u tu m n , is t h e p r e d ic ate . Tr a veler is th e
n a m e Of a n Obj e c t a n d is th e r e fo re a n o u n I t is m o di
, , , .
fi e d b y th e Sp e c ifyin g a d je c tive a Wa s r id in g is the ver b .
O f t h e p r e d ic a t e I t s for m S h o w s th t th e a c tio n s p ok e n
. a
O f is p a s t a n d u nfi n is h ed I t is m o d ifi e d b y leis u r ely a n
.
,
a d v e b t e llin g h o w;
r b y t he p h a s e a lo n g th e va lley te ll r ,
in g w h er e; a d b y t h e p h ra s e s on a p lea s a n t m or n in g
n ,
an d in th e ea r ly a u tu m n , t e llin g w h en t h e t r a v e l e r wa s
ridin g. On , i n and a lon g a r e p r e p o s itio n s . T he ir re
e c t iv e s u bse u en ts ar e m or n in g , a u t um n an d va lley .
s
p q
Mo r n in g is m o d ifi e d b y th e d e s c rip tiv e a dj e c tive p lea s
a n t, a n d th e s p e c it in g a dj e c tiv e a
y Au tu m n is m o difi e d .
b y th e d e s c r ip tiv e j
a d e c t iv e ea r ly , an d th e Sp e c ifying
j
a d e c tive the . Va lley is m o d ifi e d b y th e s
p e c if i
y g
n
a dj e c t iv e th e .
§ 64. 2 . The tr e e which st oo d b y the roa d

si e d wa s s tr u c k b y light n in g la st n ight .
A d e c l a r a tive s e n te n c e c om p le x b e c a u s e the s ubj e c t

,
c o n t a in s an j
a d e c tiv e c l a us e . Th e s ubj e c t is Th e tr ee ,
w h i ch by the r oa d s id e ; th e r e s t o f th e s e n te n c e is
s to o d
t he p r e d ica t e Th e n o u n tr ee is m o d ifi e d b y th e, a Sp e c i
.
fyin g a dj e c tiv e , a n d b y th e cl a u s e w hi ch s to o d by the

r o a d s i d e. T his c l a us e is a sp ec f
iy g
in j
a d ec tive c la u se
;
j
a d ec tive, b e c aus e it m o d i fies a su b s ta i
n t ve , a n d sp ec i
i
fy g
n , b e c a u s e it t e ll s whic h tr e e is m e a n t . Wh ich is
a r el a t iv e p r o n o u n I t s a t e c e d e n t is tr ee
. n I t is . t h e s ub
j e c t Of th e cla us e. S to o d by th e r oa d s ide is th e pre di

c at e of the c lau s e . S too d is a v e r b ; it a s s e rts s om e
t h in g Of I t s fo r m s h o w s p a s t tim e, fi n is h ed
w h i ch . I t is .
m o d ifi e d b y th e p hr a s e by the r oa ds id e, t ellin g wh er e .
IN TERMEDIATE COURSE . 69
Wa s s tr u ck a s s e r t s s o m e thin
g aof tr ee, an d is , t h e r e fo r e ,
ve b r .I ts fo r m s h o w s p a s t tim e, fi n is h ed , a n d a l s o t h at
th e s ubj e c t is n o t t h e d o e r O f t h e a c t io n I t is s a id t o .
b e in th e p a s s ive vo ice, p a s t ten s e I t is m o d ifi e d b y th e .
p hr a s e by ligh tn ing, t e llin g w h at d id the a ctio n ; a ls o b y

th e p h ra s e ,
la s t n ig h t, t ell in g wh en th e a c t io n wa s d one .
§ 65 . 3 . Ha
d yo u fin ished yo ur wor k when
I sa w
y ou walkin g in the ga r d en ?
A c o mp lex in ter r og a tive s e n te n c e , c o n t a in in
g an a d
ver bi a l c la u s e. Y o u is t he su bj e c t . I t is a p ron oun
s t a n d in g fo r th e n a m e Of s o m e
”
p er s o n a d dre s s e d , a n d is ,
th e r e fo r e , Of th e secon d p e rso n . Had fi n is h ed is th e
ver b O f th e p re d ic a te . I t s fo r m s ho ws th a t th e a c t io n
is p a s t a n d c o mp lete I t is m o d ifi e d b y y o u r wo r k , te ll
.
in g wh a t w a s fi n is h e d , a n d b y th e c l a u s e wh en I s a w
y o u, e xp r e s s in
g tim e . Th e su bj e c t Of th e cl a u s e is I, a
p r o n ou n s t a n d in
g fo r th e n a m e Of the Sp e ak e r a d th e r e
,
n
fo r e Of th e
fi rst p ers o n . S a w is th e v e b Of t he c l a u s e
r .
I ts fo r m s ho ws th a t t h e is p a s t a n d fi n is h ed
ac t io n I ts .
p r es en t fo r m is s ee. I t is m o d ifi e d b y y o u , t ell in g w h om
I Y o u is m o d ifi e d b y w a lkin g , a v e rb a l a dj e c t iv e
s a w. .
Wa lkin g is m o d ifi e d b y in the g a r d en , a p hr a s e d e n o tin g

p la ce . Wh en is an ad ve r b Of tim e , m o dify in g sa w,
a n d a ls o c o n n e c t in g th e c l a us e to t he p i
r n ci p al s e n te n c e .
66 . 4 . All i
a n c e n t a rt wa s r el igiou s , b ut all
m od e r n a rt is p r ofa n e .
A c omp o u n d d ec la r a tive s en ten ce, c o n s is t in g Of t wo
s im ple s e n te n c e s . ( Th e su bj e c ts a nd m o d ifie r s a re
pl a i n ly seen
) . Th e s e n te n c e s a r e c o n n e c t e d b y th e con
ju n c t io n b ut . T his c o nj u n c tio n sh o ws t h a t th e s e n te n c e s
a re com pa re d w it h e ac h o t he r , and t h a t th e s p e ak e r
wis h e s 11 s t o n o tic e a d if er en ce .
§ 67. 5 . T hr ee kin gs ha d on ce m e t t o form

tr e aty Of
a p eace .
AN AL YSI S BY W O RD S .
A s im ple d e c l a r a t iv e s e n te n c e.
Th r ee is a n u m e r a l a d e c t iv e j m o dify in g k in gs . Ki n gs
is a n ou n , in th e p l ur al ,
su bj e c t Of th e s e n t e n c e . Had
m et is a ver b p r e d ic a te
,
o f th e s e n te n c e , p a st te n s e ,
a c tiv e v o ic e , d e n o te s c om p l e te a c t io n . On ce is an ad
v er b ,
d e r iv e d fr o m th e n um er al j
a d e c tiv e o n e, d en o te s
t im e , and m o d ifi e s h a d m et . To f or m is an in fi n itiv e
ph r ase , m o d ifi e s ha d m et, Sho ws why th e y h a d m e t , or
fo r w h a t p u r p o s e th e y ha d m et . A is a s p e c ifyi n
g ad
je c tiv e , m o d ifi e s tr ea ty . Tr ea ty is a n ou n , m o d ifi e s to
f or m S h o w s
,
w h a t th e y h a d m e t t o fo r m . Of is a p re p
o s itio n , sho w s th e r e l a tio n b e t we e n tr ea ty an d p ea c e.
P ea c e is a n ou n , Su b s e q u e n t Of o f ,
an d w ith o f fo r m s a
p hr a s e m o d ifyin g tr ea ty , s h o win g w h a t k in d of t r e a ty .
§ 6 8 . S E N TE N CE S F OR AN ALY S I S .
Th e follo w in g s en ten c es ar e s el ec ted fr om th e T h ir d Rea de r s of

s eve r a l c om m on s e r ie s , as p r es en tin g th e k in d Of sen ten ces with
w h ich c h ildr en , c on te m p l a ted b y t h e p l a n of t h is gra m m a r , a r e
x
e p ec te d t o b e fa m il ia r T ea c h e r s m us t r em e m b e r t h a t p u p il s a t
.
x
t h is s ta ge a r e n ot e p ec te d to a n a ly e ve r y c o m p l e z
s en ten c es x .
J u st th e n h e r fa th e r c am e in fr o m the fi eld .
U n cle W illia m ,
m ay Ig o ov er t o yo ur s to r e th is m o r n
in g ?
a ft e r
’
One e v e n in g , s o on his fa th e r s r et u r n fr o m th e
c it y, E d wi n t o ok his s e at b e s id e h im .
H O W l o n g ha v e yo u h a d th a t b o x
D u r in g t h e n igh t th e c a t tle g o t in to t h e ga r d e n , and
d e s tr o ye d e ver
y t h in g in it .
JVever g ive up is a g ood m o t to .

INTERME D I ATE COURSE . 71
Out of th e littl e t wigs th e s e t a ll t r e e s w e r e m ade .
H is g a r m e n t s are r ed w ith th e blo o d Of th e g r a pe .
T e ll m e ,
if y o u k n o w , w h o h e is , an d w h a t is h is n am e .
The fr o s t l o ok e d fo r th o n e s t ill; c l e a r n igh t ,
An d wh isp e r e d , N OW I s h all be o u t Of s igh t.

”
.
Ben Ad am had a g o l d e n c o in on e d ay
W hic h he p ut a t in te r e s t w ith a J ew .
W ill yo u give m y kite a lift ? ”

s a id m y little ne p he w
t o h is S is t e r .
I thin k J oh n B r o wn h a s it for I ,
s aw h im p ic k it up .
A r ou n d th e fir e o n e w in t e r ni h
g ,t
Th e far m e r
’
s r o s y c h il d r e n s a t .
The t yp e s w ith whic h the l e tt e r s ar e p ri n te d ar e m ad e

Of m e t al .
Th e s o u n d Of d r o pp in g n ut s is h e a r d in th e w o o d .
As we w e r e c o m in g h o m e we s a w, a he a d Of u s, a
qu e er lo ok i -
g n fa ir
af in t he ro a d .
A m o n g th e m o s t b e a utiful Of s m all b ir d s is th e Au s
t r al ia n r o b in .
Th e C a d i bowed to th e gr o u n d , an d k is s e d his m a s
ha n d
’
t er s .
A pl e a san t n a
p ,
i n d e e d ! r e p ”
lie d t h e s wa llo w .
Ke e p y ou r d is t a n c e s a id t h e p a c k h o r s e , a
g a in
th ro win g u
p his h e e ls .
He h e a r d it r in gin g, and saw it gl a n c i n g d o wn th e

Ol d m o ssy s to n e s .
LESS ON X IV .
LETTER WRITING .
O ne Of t h e m o s t im po r ta n t thin g s fo r a p up il to le a r n
is how to w r ite a letter . I t is a n e c e s s it
y in e ve r y c om
m on e d uc a tio n . Y e t m is t a k e s in d a tin g and d ir e c tin g

le tte rs a r e v e ry c o m m o n . S ome y e ars a
g o , an im p o r t a n t
s c h o ol in M a s s a c h u s e tt s a d v e r t is e d fo r a t e a ch e r, a C ol
le ge gr a d ua te , a n d o n e w ho h a d h a d exp e ie n c e r in H igh
S c h o o ls Of o n e hun d r e d a n d te n
. a pp lic a n t s ,
s e ve n ty
w e re j
r e e c te d in c o ns e que n c e of m is tak e s in s p elling ,
p unc t u a tio n ,
an d in d a t in g , fo l d in g, an d d ir e c tin g th e ir
l e tt e r s .
Th e da te Of a le t te r p r o p e rl y m e a ns th e t im e at w hic h
it is w r itt e n . It c o m m o n ly in c lu d e s t h e n am e Of the
p la c e fr o m whic h t he le tt e r is s e n t. Th e d a t e s h o ul d
s ta n d n ear th e t o p Of th e p a ge ; on th e fi rs t lin e , as a
g e n e r al r ul e . C are s h o ul d b e t ak e n t o c o m m en c e fa r
e n o u gh t o th e l e ft t o p r eve n t c ro wd in g .
Th e n a m e Of th e p o s t offi c e c om e s fir s t, th e n t h e n am e
Of t h e c o u n t y , t h e n th e s t a t e , t h e n t h e m o n th an d d ay Of
t h e m o n th , t h e n t h e y e a r . The se g e n e r a ll
y s t a nd u po n
the sam e lin e , b u t if th e names of th e p o s t Offi ce and
c o u n ty a r e l o n g , it is b e tte r t o m a k e t wo lin e s , th u s
P RIN CE T N B UREAU CO
O , .
, I LL .
, J a n 3oth, 1 8 69
. .
J EFFE RSON , AS H TAB ULA C O O HIO .

, ,
S ep tember 2 9th, 18 68 .
I n wr itin g fr o m la rg e to wn s , or c ities w h e r e le tt e r
c a r r ie r s d e live r l e t t e r s , th e n a m e Of the c o u n ty is o m it
t e d , b u t t he n am e of th e s t r e e t , a n d t h e n um b er Of t he
house are g iv e n , th u s
3 1 0 E 55TE S T
. .
, N E W Y ORK, J u ne l s t, 18 69 .
Le t th e p up ils wr ite o th er e x a m p l es. N o tice th e p un ctu ation

c ar e fu l ly .
N xte fo llo w s th e a d d r ess . It s h o uld n e ve r s ta n d on
th e sa m e l in e w it h t h e d a t e . I ts u su al pla c e is on th e
P IN GF LD SAN GAMON LL OI
}
S R IE ,
I IN CO .
,
S,
F ebr u a r y 2 6th , 1 869 .
MR S AM U EL JONES
.
,
D ea r S ir ; In a n s w er t o y o u r l e tt e r Of in quir y, I
b e g l e a v e to s a y , e tc .
244 C A NAL S T .
, NE W Y ORK ,
Aug . l s t, 69
’
.
M ESSRS P S MI TH . . CO ;.
W e e n cl o s e y ou ou r p r ic e list , with th e l a t e s t a d di
t ion s a n d c or r e c tio n s .
23 C R A OND ELET S T .NE w O

, AN , LA , RLE S .
N ovem ber 25th , 1 867 .
D EAR B ROTHER W ILLIAM ;

Y o ur l e t ter Of th e 1 5 th in s t w a s . r ec e iv e d s o m e d ays
s in c e .
I f t h e full nam e Of th e pe rson a dd r e s s e d does n ot
a pp e a r at th e b e gi i g O f th e
nn n l e tt e r , it is c u s to m a ry to
t h e b o tt o m O f t h e
b elo w t he w it e r s ’
w r it e it at l e tte r , r
s i n a tu e a n d a t t h e l e ft h a n d T h i s is O fte O f im p ort n
g r
,
.
a c e a s l e t t e s a e s o m e tim e s m is c a
n ,
r r ie d a d a e o p e e d rr n r n
b y th e w o g p e r s o n r n Th e o e w h o o p e s t h e le tt e r
. n n
m a y w is h t o s en d it t o t h e ri
gh t ful o wn e r, b u t if it is
O nl
y a d d re s s e d
“
D e ar E ll en ,
”
or C o u s in Ra lp h ,
”
he
d oes n ot k n o w t o wh o m to sen d it .
Ab roa d m a r gin S h o ul d al wa
y s b e l e ft on t h e le ft ‘Of
th e p a ge ,
b u t t h e lin e s s h o ul d b e fi ll e d o ut t o the ri
g h t .
G r e a t c a r e s h o uld b e t ak e n to h a ve no blo t s o r er a s u r e s ,
and t o w r ite le g i ly b . A m is t a k e m a y s o m e t im e s le a d t o
s e r io u s c o n s e qu e n c es .
F o r th e e n d in
g Of a le tte r t h e r e a re m a n y fo r m s . A
fe w Of the c o m m on o n e s ar e
g ive n . T he y s h o ul d s t a n d
t o th e ri
g h t r a th e r th a n t o th e l e ft Of the p a ge .
INT ERME DIATE COURSE . 75
B USINESS LETTER FORMS .
H op in g to r e c e iv e
y o ur o r d er
, we r e m a in ,
Y o ur s r e s p e c tfully ,
H ARPER AND B RO T HERS .
M E SS RS J . . H . WILDER CO .
Y o ur s tr ul y,
JAMES A L OC KW OOD . .
Ag e nt fo r S . P . S AN D ERS .
Y o ur s with r es p ect ,
JOHN H OLMES .
D ANIEL ANDERSON ,
E SQ .
L e t te rs t o fr ie n d s a d m it m or e v a r ie ty .
Y o ur a ffe c tio n ate s o n ,
H ENRY .
TO MRS E LLEN G REEN

.
,
I n d ia n ap o lis , Ind .
C o rd ially y ours ,
JAMES B OWEN .
J R C LARK,
l
. .
D erry , N I I . .
Yo ur s Afl e c t io n a tely Y o u r s in l ov e ,
’ ’
as ev e r , y o urs,
Y o ur s in t h e go o d c a u s e , Y o ur s in C hr is t, a re o t he r
fo r m s w h ic h m a y b e m e n t io n e d .
NO s p ec ial d ir e c tio n s n e ed b e give n fo r fo ldin g a

le tt e r . One s im p le r ul e is t o h a v e a s fe w fo ld s a s p o s
si b le . The pap e r sh oul d fill t h e e n v e lo pe ,
b ut n ot c ro wd
it. N o th in g l o o k s m o re c l u m s y t h a n a s m a ll e n v e lo pe
w ith a l a r ge She e t of pape r c ro wd e d in t o it . Ap p a er
fo ld e r s h o u ld be u s e d to p re s s d o w n t he fo ld s , a nd m ake
th e m lie s m o o th , a n d to a v o id s o ilin g th e p ap e r . The

fi r s t p a ge s h o uld b e fo ld e d in s id e .
Th e c o m m on fa u lt in d ir e c tin g e n v elo p es is t o b e gin

t oo fa r t o t h e rih t so th a t t h e wr itin g is c ro wd e d a n d
g ,
o n e - s id e d . The d ir e c tio n Sh o uld s ta n d a b ou t in the
m id dle Of th e e n v e lo pe . Th e p la c e fo r t h e s t a m p is o n
the u pp e r ri
g h t h-
a n d c o r n e r , a n d t h e w ri tin
g s h o uld n o t
in te r fe r e w ith th e s t a m p Th e g r e a t e s t p a in s s h o uld b e
.
t ak e n to h a v e t he d ir e c tio n p la in . Ni n e - t e n th s o f l e tt e r s
los t ar e lo s t b y c a r el e s s d ir e c tio n .
FORM F OR DIRECTION .
S
[ t am p
!
D a n ie l A n d e rs o n , E s q .
,
288 Br o a d St .
,
N e w Y o rk .
C a re Of Rip le y M or s e .
Th e g u m m e d p ar t Of th e e n v e lo p e , th a t is , th e m o v a
b le fl a p , i s a l w a y s t h e t o p O f t h e l e t t e r Th e p o s t O ffi c e .
a n d s t a te S h o ul d be very d is t in c t , fo r th e c o n v e n ie n c e O f
t ho s e w ho are to d e live r it . T he y do n ot c a re SO m uc h
t o k n o w t o w h om it is t o g o , a s w h er e it is t o g o SO .
m an y p o s t O ffi c e s in th e U n it e d S
t a t e s h a v e th e s a m e
n a m e, t h a t t he s ta t e s h o u ld a lwa y s b e g iv e n , a n d g e n e
r a ll
y t h e c oun t
y . E x p t th
ce at in t h e c a se Of la r g e c itie s
l ik e N e w Yo rk , P hil a d e l hia , p B o s to n ,
e tc . , t he n am e of
the c ity a lo n e is e n o u gh .
A FORMAL B USINESS LET T ER .
WAS H IN GTON , D C . .
, Ap r il 1 9th, 183 1.
SI R ; I h a v e th e h o n or t o a c k n o wl e d
g e th e r e c ei p t Of
o u rs o f t his d a te , in a n s we r t o m in e o f th e sa m e.
y
IN TERME D IATE COURSE . 77
In re p ly t o y o ur r e m a rk th at t h e r e is xp r e s sio n on e e
in m y l e t t e r t o wh ic h yo u m u s t e x c e p t I w o uld r e s p e c t
,
fully a n s we r th a t g a v e wh a t I I u n d e r s t oo d t o b e th e
su b s ta nce of y o ur c o n v e r s a t io n . I d id n ot p r e te n d to
q uo t e y o ur la ngu a ge .
I hav e t h e h o n or t o b e , w ith th e gr e a t e s t re s p ect ,
Y ou r o b e die n t s e r v a n t,
JOHN B RAN CH .
H is E xc e ll e n c y , AN D REW JA C K SON ,
P r es id en t o f th e Un i ted S ta tes .
O RDINARY B USINESS LETTERS .
RINCETON P , I LL .
, Augu s t l st ,
1 869 .
MESSRS . G . C . W S HERW O OD ;
.
The d e s k s a n d s e tt e e s o rd ere d b y m e in Jun e w ere

r e c e iv e d
y e s te r d a y , in go o d c o n d itio n fin d , b y m e a s . I
ur e m e n t Of o n e of o u r r o o m s , th a t it will a c c o m m o d a t e
a fe w m o r e p up ils ,
an d y o u will o b lige m e b y for w a r d in g
im m e d ia te ly
T w elv e ( 1 2 ) s in l e d e s k s , fol d in g s e a t , S iz e B
g .
I w ill r e m it the a m o u n t o f y o u r b ill o n r e c e ip t of th e
g o o d s.
Y o urs tr uly,
W ILLIAM A . D IC KINSON ,
Ch a ir m a n o
f B oa r d f
o E d u c a tion .
OVE R B U RE AU CO D , .
, I LL .
, J uly l oth, 1869 .
M ESSRS HURD AND H O U GHTON

.
P le a s e c h a n g e th e a d d r e s s O f th e Riv er s id e M a ga
z in e , sent me at t his p la c e , t o S a bu la , J a cks on
I owa , an d o b lige ,
p e c tfully Y o u rs res ,
W ILLIAM H F RENCH
. .
MESSRS H URD AN D H O U GHTON

.
,
45 9 B r oome S t , l Véw Y or k .
ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
FAMILI AR LETTERS .
ALPINE H OUS E GORHAM N H , ,
J u ty 20th , 1869 .
D EAR M O T HER ;
A c c o r d in g to our p r o m is e
we w r ite y ou im m e d i
a t el y a ft e r o u r a rr iv a l a m o n g th e m o u n t a in s W e a re .
s o t ir e d with o u r lo n g j o u r n e y , a n d s o m u c h c o n fu s e d
w ith t h e h u n d r e d s Of n e w an d s tr a n
g e t hin gs t h a t w e
h av e see n , th a t w e h a v e d e c id e d t o w a it u n til we are a
littl e b e fo re w r iting y o u a full his t o ry o f o u r

r e s te d
j ou r n e y W e c an o n ly t e ll y o u th a t w e a e t oo h app y
. r
t o t hin k o f b e in g s ic k a n d h a v e a l re a d y s e e n m o r e
,
w o n d e rs t ha n w e s u pp o s e d w e r e in t h e w h ol e wo r ld .
W ith ou r b e s t lov e to yo u a n d a ll the fa m ily .
Y our af
fe c tio n at e s o n s ,
G EORG E AN D HE NRY .
MRS . E LLEN M AR C Y .
MARIETTA , OH IO , J u ne 18th, 1869 .
D EAR J OE ;
Y ouk n o w t h a t y o u o w e m e tw o l e tte r s a lr e ad y,
b ut I h av e s o m e g o o d n e w s t o t e ll y o u , a n d s o w r ite I .
O ur A c tiv e B a se - B a ll Cl u b h a v e j u s t play e d a m a tc h
am e a d I n s en d o u e n c lo s e d a Slip f o m o u r n e w s
g , y r
p ap er , wh ic h w ill t e ll y o u all a b o u t it W e w o n t he .
g am e h a n d s o m e ly . I p la ye d s e c o n d b a s e a n d d id s o m e ,
p r etty go o d b a ttin g I m a d e a c le a n s c o r e I wi h yo u
. . s
h a d b e e n h e r e t o c h e e r fo r u s T his is all th at I c a n
.
for d
af to wr it e you u n t il
y o u
y p
p a u .
Y o ur o ld fr ie n d ,
HARRY MC KEE .
JOSE P H MARTIN .
§ 7 0 . C OMMO N E RR RS O C O RRE CTE D .
A fe w c om m on err o r s a r e n o ted Th eir in fi n ite n u m b er p r e .
ve n ts a full l is t Let e ver y t ea ch e r fi r m l y r es ol ve to b a n ish e very

.
o n e o f th em fr om h is o w n S p e ec h , a n d fr om th a t o f hi s p u p il s .
Wh en ev e r an d w h er e ver th ey o ccur , in th e sch ool r oom or o u t o f -
it, m a k e wa r u p on th em
‘
Keep th e m os t c om m on a n d m os t
.
o fien sive p osted o n th e b la ck b oar d u n til th ey a r e o ver c om e .
WRONG E X PRESSION . C ORRE C T E XPRESSION .
W hen do y o u ta ke up W he n do y ou begin or
s c h oo l ? com m en ce s c h o ol ?
I a ll wedo t o go . Im a tt g e n o o.
I ul d
co n ot
g i t to go . I o ul d t g
c no o.
We d on e o ur w o r k . We d id our wo rk .
He s een him . He saw h im .
Th e re he s o t. There he s a t.
I t wa s m e . I t was I
I t w a s h er . I t w a s s he .
I t w a s him or th em . I t w a s he or th ey .
W ho w a n t s th is Me . W ho w a n t s th is ? I .
Y ou ha d ou
g h t t o go ; Y o u ou
g h t t o
g o .
Ha d I ou
g h t t o g o I th in k O u gh t to go ? I I thin k
y ou ha d .
y o u ou g h t .
G iv e m e th em b o ok s . G iv e m e th os e b o ok s .
Th em m ol a s s e s . Th a t m o l a s s e s
H e thr o wed a s to n e . H e th r ew a sto n e .
H e p r ea ch ed a f i m er a l . He p re ache d a f u n er a l
s er m on he c o n d ue
; or,
te d a fu n e r a l s e r v ic e .
I gu es I w ill go
s
I thi k I s h a ll g
.
n o.
I ck o I w i l l g
re n o.
La s t T ue s d ay w as a week . L s t T u s d y week;
a e a or, a
w eek a go la s t T ue s d a y .
Y o u w a s th e r e . Y ou w er e t h e re .
I we re th e r e . I wa s the r e .
Eve r
y m an w e n t to th eir E ve r
y m a n w e n t t o h is
h ous e . hous e .
Wh o d id y o u
g iv e it t o Whom d id y o u g iv e it to
Th e m a n w hi ch c am e. Th e m a n wh o c a m e .
S et d o w n an d be q u ie t . S i t d o wn and be q uie t .
I k n ow ed it . I k ew it
n .
I l a id a b ed a ll d ay . I la y b e d a a ll d ay .
J u s t a s li ves a s n o t . Ju s t a s lief a s n o t .
B e p r e s en t in o u r m i ds t . B e p r e s e t in the m ids t of
n
A sp e ie f Sh ll c o e s. A Sp e c i s o f shell
e .
I h v e g o t m y le
a s s on . I h v e m y le s o
a s n.
Th is h er e k n ife . T his k n ife .
T h at ’
a re b o ok . Tha t b o ok .
Y our b o o k is w or e o u t. Y o u r b o ok is w or n o ut.
H e d r a wed a k n ife . H e d r ew a k n ife .
H av e y o u wr o te an e x e r c is e ? H a v e y o u w r i tten an ex
e r c is e
I h ea r n tell of it . I h av e h e ar d of it .
H e h a s d on e g o n e . H e ha s a lr ea dy g o ne.
I m e a n t to h a ve s een h im . Im e an t to s ee him .
I ho p ed to h a ve vis i ted y ou . I h op ed to v is it y o u
We in t e n d e d to h a ve wr i t We in te n d e d to wr ite .
ten .
He s a id a s h ow h e b ough t it . He s a id th a t h e b ou ght it .
The y w e n t f or t o fin d h im . They w e n t t o fin d h im .
Y ou m ig h t h a v e w en t . Y ou m igh t h av e g o n e .
H e lea r n ed m e gr a m m a r . He ta u gh t m e gr a m m ar .
I an d m y fa th e r . My fa th e r a nd I .
D o l ik e I do . DO as I do .
A h eap of p e ople . A g e t m a y p e p le
r a n o .
R ig h t s m a r t o f c o rn . A g e t de l f c o
r a a o rn .
Ag oo d m an y . A gr ea t m a y n .
Q u i te wa r m .
( Q u it e m e an s ex a c tly , or
comp letely .
) Ver y w a rm .
82 ENG I L SH GRAM MAR :
s e n te n c e ? W h a t ar e t h e in te rr og a t iv e p r on o un s W her e
is th e a n t e c e d e n t Of a n in t e r r o g a tiv e r o n o u n fo u n d p
p p
F o r w ha t a r e r e o s it io n s u s e d N
a m e th e c o m m o n
p pr e o s it io n s ? N
a m e th e p p
r e o s itio n s w hic h h a v e o
pp o
s i tes . W h a t is t h e s u s e u e n t o f a r e o s itio n ? W h a t
b q p p
do a p p
r e o s it io n b q
a n d it s s u s e u e n t u s u a l ly m o d ify ?
W h a t r e o s itio n with it s s u s e u e n t u s u a lly m o d i e s a

p p b q fi
n oun W h a t a r e c o n u n c tio n s ? W h a t a r e t he c o m m o n
j
j
c o n u n c tio n s ? W h at o t h e r w or d s a r e u s e d t o c o n n e c t
c la u s e s t o s e n t e n c e s ? W h a t a r e e c lam a tio n s ? x iv e G
x
e a m le s p .
W h a t is th e r o ot of a w o r d W h e n is a w o r d s a id
t o b e d e r iv e d fr o m a n o t h e r ? H O W a r e w o r d s d e r iv e d
fr o m o t h e r w o r d s ? W h a t is in e c t io n ? W h a t c l a s s e s
fl
o f w o r d s a r e in e c t e d fl W h a t is t h e s i n g u l a r n u m e r ? b
W h a t is t h e l u r a l n u m e r ? H o w is th e lur a l fo r m e d
p b p
fr o m th e s in g ul a r ? W h e n is a n o u n c a lle d a os s e s p
s iv e ? p
H o w is t h e o s s e s s iv e fo r m e d in t he s in gu la r ?
H o w in t h e l u r al ? W h a t r e o s itio n a n d s u s e u e n t
p p p b q
o ft e n m e a n t h e s a m e a s t h e p
o s s e s s iv e ? W h a t t hr e e
r e l a t io n s o f n o u n s a r e e re s s ed bxp y c h a n e o f e n d in
g g ?
fi
D e n e D e c le n s io n .
H o w m a y v e r s b e v a r ie d in fo r m ? W h a t is e x
b
p re s s e d b
y t h e s e v a r ia t io n s ? W h a t i s t e n se ? W hat
a r e th e d iv is io n s o f t im e W h a t is c o n ug a t io n W h a t j
d o t h e a c tiv e v o ic e fo r m s h o w S W h a t is in d ic a te d b y
th e p a s s iv e v o ic e fo r m s ? W h a t a r e a rtic i le s ? H o w p p
b
m a n y h a s a v e r ? I n w h a t d o e s th e im e r fe c t a r ti p p
c i le e n d ?
p H o w d o e s t h e e r fe c t p a r t ic i p
l e e n d ? Wh at p
is t h e d iffe r e n c e b
e t w e e n a v e r b a l a d e c tiv e a n d jan
y
j
o t h e r a d e c t iv e ? W ha t is a c o m o u n d a r t ic i le ? H o w
p p p
is a c l a u s e s o m e t im e s s h o r t e n e d b y t h e u s e o f a a r ti p
c ip l e ? W h a t o th e r u s e h a s th e v e r b al a d e c tive in ing 9 j .
W h a t is t h e in n it ive fi ?
W h a t is c o m a r is o n ? W h a t a r ts o f s e e c h a r e
p p p
p
c om a re d ? D e n e the fi o s it iv ep d e gr e e D e n e t he . fi
c om p p
a r a tiv e , t h e s u e r la t iv e H o w is t h e c o m a r a t ive
. p
fo r m e d ? H o w t h e s u p e r l a t iv e ? Ar e a ll a d e c tive s j
p
c o m are d ? G x p j
iv e e a m l e s o f a d e c t iv e s w h ic h c a n n o t
b e c o m ar e d p . W h a t is a d im in u tiv e ? I n w h a t d o
d im in u tiv e s e n d ? G
iv e e a m le s x W h a t a r e a s tr a c t
p . b
IN TERME D IATE CO U RSE . 83
n ou n s ? Fr o m wh a t are th e y d e r iv e d , and in Wh a t do
th e y en d
?
W ha t is a d e c l ar a tiv e s e n te n c e ? W h a t is a n in te r
r o a t ive se n t e n c e ?
g W h a t is a n e x c l a m a t o r y s e n t e n c e ?
D efi ne a s im p le , a c o m p o u n d , a n d a c o m p le x s e n t e n c e .
G iv e e x a m p le s .
D e fi n e e llip s is I n wh a t s e n te n c e s is it m o s t c o m m on
.
G iv e e x a m p le s
‘
W ha t is in c lu d e d in th e d ate o f a le tter ? W he re
‘
s h o u ld t h e d a t e b e p l a c e d ? W h e n m a y t h e s ta t e , o r
c o u n t , b e le ft o u t o f t h e d a t e
y I n w r it in
g fr o m c itie s
o r l a r e t o w n s , w h a t is in c l u d e d in t h e d a t e ?
g i vGe
e x a m le s o f d a t e s p r o p e rly w r itt e n
p .W h e r e d o e s th e
a d d r e s s sta n d ? H o w is t h e d a t e p u n c t u a t e d ? H o w is
t h e a d d r e s s p u n c t ua t e d ? W h e r e is a m a r gin l e ft b l a n k ?
G ive e x a m p le s o f t h e a d d re s s o f a l e tt e r . G
iv e e x a m p le s
o f t h e s i n a t u r e o f l e tt e r s D ir e c t a n e n v e lo p e p r op e r l
g .
y
t o th e p u b lis he r s o f t his b ook .
C O MMO N S C H O O L G RA MMA R .
S U GGES T I ONS TO T EA C HE RS .
TH E p u p ils wh o c o m m e c e this p a r t s h o ul d b e
n fa m ilia r
w ith th e I t e r m e dia te p a rt o r it s e q u iv a l e t
n ,
n . T he y
s h o u ld k n o w t he e le m e n ts o f th e s e n te n c e and t he p a r ts
of s p e e c h a d S h o uld h a v e th e id e a o f in fl e c tio n a n d
,
n
m o d ifi c a t io n Th e t e a c h e r sh o ul d c o n tin u e t o r e q u ir e
.
a b u n d a t illu s t r a t io
n c o n s t a n t w it te n p r a c t ic e a d fr e
n, r
,
n
q ue t r e vie ws a n d r e qui e e x a m p l e s to b e t ak e n f o m
n ,
r r
b ook s in c o m m o u se w hic h will ill u str a te e v e ry p oin t

n .
C o r e c ting p r in t e r s p r o o f sh e e ts is a v e y v a lu a b le
’
-
r r
e x e r c is e The fi r s t p r o o fs a b o un d in m is Sp ell e d w o r d s
.
-
,
i n v e t e d l e tt e r s fa u lty p u n c tu a tio n im p r o p e r u s e o f
r , ,
c a p it a l s d iffe r e n t k in d s o f ty p e m ix e d a n d in o m is s io n s
, ,
w h ic h m a t e r ially a ffe c t th e s ense. In c o r r e c t in

g t h ese
e rr o r s , t he p up il l e a rn s p
l g r a m m a r , a n d fix e s t h e
r a c tic a
a ll im p o r t a n t h a b it o f c los e, p a tien t a tten tion

-
er
y . V
l ik e ly t h e p up il s w ill n o t o b s e r v e e v e r y e r r or , b u t th e y
will im p r o ve ra p id ly b y p r a c tic e .
LE SS ON XV .
a n g u a g e is th a t b y which thou ght

§ 7 1 . L
a n d feelin g a r e e x p r e s s e d I t in clu d es signs , .
gestur es ,
ea
p r ession s o
f cou n ten a nce, p i c tu r es or
other symbols, i na rticu la te s ou n ds, a n d w or ds .

COMMON SCHOOL COURSE . 85
G en er ally wh en l an gua ge is Sp ok en of, th e l a n guage of wor ds

is m e a n t . x
B r u tes h a v e a k in d of l a n gu a ge , e p r ess ed b y m o t ion s
a n d in a r tic ul a te so un ds
.
Th e d eaf an d d um b h a ve a l a n g uage
.
of s ign s .
AW or d is the wr itten or s
p oken sy m b ol o f
an idea .
An I dea is a m e n ta l p ic tur e . The n a m e of a pe rs o n
with wh o m w e a re ac q u a in t e d ,
c a lls u
p in m in d a k in d
of im a ge of th e p e so
r n. I n th e s am e w a y w e pi c t u r e t o
o ur s e lv e s u n r e a l o bj e c t s ,
or o bj e c ts whic h w e h ave n e ver
s ee n. The w o r d is t h e Sig n o f t his p ic t u r e . D iffe r e n t

la n g u age s em p loy d iffe r e n t si
g ns fo r th e sam e id e a .
7 2 .G r a m m ar tr e a t s of th e fa c t s , l a w s
,
an d r u l e s o f la n gu a ge .
G en er al Gram m ar tr ea ts of fa cts which

a re c o m m on to a ll la n gu a ges .
Th e fac ts in rega r d to th e sen ten ce give n in 1, ar e th e sa m e

in al l l a n gu ages , an d b el on g to gen er al gra m m ar .
E n gl i s h G r am m ar giv es the
f a cts , la ws
a n d r u les Of the E n gl ish l a n guage .
A La w is a fac t wh ic h ap p lies to a wh ol e cl a ss of w or d s a
Ru le is a g u ide in th e u se of l a n g uage I t is a la w o f t he l a n .
u
g g a e th a t a b s t ra c t n o u ns 5 7 ) a r e d e r ived fr om a d ec tiv es ; it j
is a r ul e t h a t th e r el a tive p r on o u n s ta n d s a fter its an teced e n t .
Lan gua ge is u s uall d ivid e d in t o O r a l an d

y
W r itte n O ral . lan gua ge is sp o k e n a n d is ,
a dd r esse d t o the e a r ; written la n gua ge is a d

d resse d on ly to the eye .
73 . Gra m m a r is d iv id e d in to fou r p a rts .
O r th o gr a p h y , which t r e a ts of L e tte r s .
E tym o l o gy, which trea ts of W o r d s.

S yn t a x, which tr eats Of S e n t e n c e s .
P r o s o d y , which tr ea ts of Ac c e n t , Pun c
tu a t i o n ,
an d V e r s i fi c a ti o n .
LESS ON X VI .
ORTHOGRAPHY .
§ 74 . O r t h o g r a p h y tr e a t s of e l e m e n ta r y
so u n ds an d the l e tt e r s w hic h re
p r e s en t t hem ,
of s y l l a b l e s, an d of s p e l l i n g.
Th e s oun d s o f t h e la n g u a ge and it s p r o n u n c ia tio n are
o ft e n tr e at e d under a se pa r a te head c a ll e d
Or th o ep y .
P up ils a r e e xp e c te d t o l e a r n m o s t o f Or th o g r a p hy fr o m
Re a d e r s a n d S p e lle r s , a n d to l e ar n th e s oun d s th o r
o ughly.
The E n glish lan gu age ha s forty three el em e n -
t ar y so un d s T he se s o u n d s a r e e xp r e s s e d to th e
.
e
y e b y t we n ty S ix -
d iffere n t cha r a c ter s , ca lle d le t
t e rs . The l ett er s Of a l an gua ge are ca ll e d it s
Al p h a b e t .
S in c e fo r ty th r e e -
s o un d s a re re prese n te d b y t w e n ty
s ix l e tte r s , it fo ll o w s t h a t e ith e r s o m e l e t t e rs m u s t r e p r e
sent m o r e th a n on e s o un d , or t ha t s o m e sounds m ust b e
re p r e s e n te d b y t w o o r m o r e le t t e r s com b in e d . N o t ic e
t h a t th e n a m e o f t h e l e t t e r is n o t t h e s ou n d o f t h e l e t t e r.
§ 75 . T h er e are fo ur p rin cip al st

y l e s of let
t ers .
RO MAN , A , a ; B ,
b ; C,
c ; D ,
d ; E ,
e ; F,
f .
I ta lic, A ,
a ,
°
B , b; D, d ; E , e; F .
(IBIS Qt ugl is b, Q , a; 13 , h ; QI , c; B, b; 5 .
ea sy c an , Ea x, u , g , a e? .
E h l tt
ac e er is re p
d b y t w o c h a r a c t e r s , d iffe r in g
r e s en te
in z
si e , a n d g e n e r a lly in fo r m Th e g re a t b o d y o f w r it
.
te n or p r in t e d m a tt e r is m a d e u p o f s m a ll le tt e r s F o r .
r ule s fo r t h e use of the la rger l e t te r s , c a lle d C a p it a l s ,

see th e App e n di x .
I ta lics are u se d p h a s is E m p h a tic w o d s

to e xp ress e m . r
a e s o m e tim e s c o m m e c e d w ith a c a p ita l l t t

r n F ull e e r.
fa c e d t y p e is e m p l o y e d i s c h o o l b o k s t o a tt a t t h e
n o r c
a t t e n t io n t o im p o r t a t w o d s I s c ip t th e u n d er s cor e
n r . n r ,
is e m p lo y e d t o d e o t e e m p h a s is n .
76 S oun ds a r e div id e d in t o t wo cl a sses

.
,
Vow el So u n d s , an d C o n s o n a n t S e n n el s .
Le tt er s a re divid e d in to V o w e l s an d Con
so n a n ts .
A Vow el is a l etter re
p r e sen t n i g a s ou n d
which is u t te r e d with t he or
g an s o f sp ee c h Op en ,
an d which ca n b e p rolon ged .
A Co n s o n a n t is a l et t er which re r e sen ts
p a
s ou n d th a t c an n ot be u tt e r e d withou t br in gin g
s om e of the or
g a n s of s p e e ch in co n t a ct .
The V o w e l s are a , e
,
i, o
,
n
,
W ,
an d so m e
tim es y . The o th e r l e tt er s a r e con s on a n ts . Y

is a c o n son a n t a t b egin n in g of a sylla ble
t he .
A D i p h t l no n g is a c om bin a t ion of t wo v owels ,
and is u tt er e d a t a sin
gl e im ul s e
p of the v oice .
In a p ro
p er d ip h th o n g b o th v o w e ls a r e s o u d e d ; a s n
in bo i l ; in an i mp r op er d ip h th on g o n e v o w e l is s o u n d e d ;
as in bea t, r eceive.
§ 7 7 . C on so n a n ts are d ivid ed in to L i q ui d s
and Mu te s .
Th e l iq u id s a re l, m ,
n , r . T he y ar e a ls o c a lle d
S e m i -v o w e l s, b e c a us e the y re p resent s ou n d s wh ic h can
be p r o lo n
g e d.
M u te s a r e s ub - divid e d into
1 . L a b ia l s , ( or lip -
c o n s o n a n ts
) b ,
f, p , v.
2 . G u tt u r a l s, (
or th r oa t- c o n s o n a n t s ) 0 h ar d , g , h ,
R, q .
3 . L in g u a l s , (
to ng u e -
c o n so n a n ts
) (l , j, t, s, z .
S, 2 ,
a n d c s o ft a r e c a ll e d S i b il a n ts, or his s in g le tt e r s .
H is c a lle d a n a s pir a n t, o r b r e a thin

g l e t t e r . C is s o ft ,
th a t is , h a s its his s in g s ou n d , b e fo r e e, i , and

y ,
an d
b e fo re th e d ip h th o n g oe as in c en t, c ity , cy c le, Caes a r .
O t h e r wis e it is h a r d ; t h a t is , it h a s th e s o u n d of k .
G is s o ft , o r is s o u n d e d lik e j , b e fo r e e, i y, i
andn
w o r d s d e r iv e d fr o m th e L a t in a n d G r e ek . O th e r wis e it
is h a r d ; a s in g o , ba g .
A l e tt e r is s i l e n t , o r m u te , wh e n it h a s n o s ou n d ; a s,
k and w in k n o w , t i n o ft e n , n in h ym n .
§ 7 S. The so un ds of the l a n gu a ge g iv enare
b el o w as c l a ss ifie d in t o l ab ia ls , gu tt u r a ls , a n d
L a b ia l s . G u tt u r a l s. L in g u a l s .
SONANT N ON ONAN T SONAN T N ON S ONANT SONAN T NON SONANT
,
-
S .
,
-
.
,
-
.
b . p g k . q d t . . .
‘
. .
V . f ph
. . ch h ard . z. s. c s o ft .
j . c h.
zh , a s s h.
in a z ur e .
th, as th , as
in th is . in thin .
E TY MO L O G Y
LESS ON XVII .
§ 8 0 . E tym o l o gy tre a ts f th e Me a n i n g ,
‘
D e r i v a ti o n Cl a s s i fi c a t i o n , Infl e c tio n an d
,
H i sto r y of w ord s .
The m ean in g ofw or d is l e a rn e d b y it s

a
u se , b y its d e r i v a t i o n , or fr om a d i c t i o n
a r y.
N e ith er tea ch er n or p up il can a ffor d to b e with o u t a d ic tion !
a ry .
D e r i v a t i o n tr e a ts of the O r i gi n p r im a r y
,
m ean in g, an d fo r m a ti o n of wo r d s .
Th e E n
glish l a n g u a e o r igin a t e d fr o m
g t h e An g l o
S a xo n a n d th e N o r m a n -F r e n c h I t c o n t a in s m a ny
.
w o r d s fr o m th e L a tin a n d fr o m th e G r e ek .
From th e A n
gl o -
S x
a on c om e a ll o u r p r o n ou n s
,
p rep
o s it io n s a nd j
c o n u n c tio n s , and a ll v er bs of th e s tr o n g
j
c o n ug a t io n .
igin , w or d s are cl a s sifie d

/
§ 8 L In r es
p e ct to or
in t o Pr i m i ti v e , D e r i v a tiv e , Si m p le an d
Co m p o u n d .
A Pr i m i t i v e w or d is n ot d eriv ed fr om an
y
othe r w or d in the l a n gu a ge ; a s m a n, boy, S h ike r
.
A B e r i v a t i v e w o r d is form e d fr om som e
oth er wor d in the la n gu a ge b y p r efiwin g or su fi az
C OMMON SCHO OL COURSE .
i n g l etters , or ll
sa b l es , or b y cha n gi n g le tt er s
y
wit hin th e wor d ; a s, b oy is h, m a n lg, u n m an ,- -
s tr o ke .
A p im itiv e
r w o r d , fr o m w hic h o th e r w or d s a re de
r iv e d is c a ll e d a s tem . Fr o m th e s te m man are fo r m e d
t h e d e r iv a t iv e w or d s , m a n ly , m a nf u l, u n m a n , m a n n is h ,
men .
Th e roo t of a w o r d is th at p a rt whic h r e m a in s n u
c h a n ge d ih its d e riv a tive s . The r o ot is g e n e r a lly m a d e

u
p of c o n s o n a n ts Th e v o we l s o f a w o rd ar e m ore
su bj e c t t o c h a n ge th a n th e c o n s o n a n ts . Th e sam e root
m ay b e c om m on to s ev er al p rim itiv e w o r d s whic h re
sem bl e e ac h o th e r in m e a n in g . T hu s ,
tw is th e r o ot o f
two , twa in , twelve, twin e, tw is t . S tr is th e r oo t of
s tr in g , s tr o n g , s tr ew , s tr a ig h t.
A S im p l e wor d c an n ot be se p a r ate d in t o t wo or
m or e w o r d s ; as, d oor , wi n d o w, m a chin e .
A Com p oun d w o r d is m a d e u
p of t wo or m or e s im
l w r d s ; a s , d o or m a t, win d ow s a s h , s ew in m h i
p e o
g a c n e
- - -
.
I n c o m p o u n d w o r d s t h e a c c e n t is up o n t h e fir s t p a r t ;
a s , s tedm - bo a t, r éw bo a t-
.
Le t th e p up il s th in k o u t t h e r e a so n of th is . If th ey h ave a
cl ea r id ea o f e m p h asis , i t w ill n ot b e d ifli c u l t .
F o r th e u se o f th e h y p h en b e t ween t h e p a r ts of a com p o un d
j
word , see th e s ub ect of P un c tua tio n .
W or d s a re s o m e tim e s c om p o un d e d to ex p re s s on e
m e a n in g , and w r itt e n se pa r a te ly t o e xp r e s s a n o th e r .
F o r in s t a n c e , a g l a s s h o u se is a h ou s e m a d e o f
g l a s s ;
a g la s s -
h ou s e is a h o u s e w h e r e gl a s s is m ade .
Th e teach er is e xp ec te d to req u ire o f

ill us tra tion s th e c l a ss
e n o ugh to fi x e ve r y fac t cl ear l y in m in d Wh en th e p up il is .
a b le t o b r in g to th e c l a ss a c o n s id e rab l e n u m b er o f ill us t r a t io n s
o f h is o w n s e lec tion , i t is tol era b ly c e r ta in t h a t h e u n d e r s ta n d s
ti e p r in cip le
r R eq uir e wr it ten ill us tra tion s, an d a gr ea t m a n
.
y
0 t th em .
§ 82 . By the Cl a s s i fi c a t i o n of w or d s is
m ea n t their a rr a n e m en t I n cla s s es a cc or d in g to
g
their u se . The cl a s s es a re c a lle d Pa r t s of
Sp e e c h .
T her e a re ei
ght cl a sse s of w or d s in E n glish ,
the N o u n ,
t h e V e r b , th e P r o n o u n , t he a d
j e c t i v e , the Ad v e r b , t he Pr o p o s i t i o n , the
C o n j u n c t i o n , a n d the E xc l a m a tio n .
Th e sp ecify in g a d ec tives, a nj or a an d the a r e som e tim e s call ed

Ar ticles Th e v e rb al a d ec tive
. j is al so m a d e a sep a r a te p ar t
o f sp ee c h b y s om e a uth or s , a n d ca ll ed a P a r ticip le .
A N o u n is the n am e Of a n ob ect , either of

j
p er c e
p t ion or of th ou ght, an d ca n its elf b e the
su bj ec t of a s en t en ce .
A V e r b is a wor d which , in so m e o f its form s,

ca n be u se d as th e sim p l e p r e d ic ate of a s e n t en c e .
I ts office is to a s s e r t . I t u s u ally a sser ts the

being, sta te or a ction of the su bj e ct .
A Pr o n o u n is a w or d u se d to su l
pp y t he
p l a ce o f a n ou n .
An Adje c t i v e is a word which m o d ifies a
s ub sta n tiv e by n a m in q u a l ity tt r i b u t e ,

g a or a
or b y p oin tin g ou t w h i c h , or h ow m an y are
m ea n t .
An Ad v e r b is a wor d wh os e office is to
m o dify a v erb a s en t e n ce or, ,
som e w or d which
is n ot a s u b sta n tiv e .
A Pr e p o s i t i o n is a word which con n ects a

C OMMON SCHOOL COURSE . 93
su b st an tiv e to s om e wor d which is m odi fied b y

the p rep osit ion an d it s s ub s e u e n t
q .
A C o n ju n c t i o n is a wor d Whos e ofli c e is to

con n ect w or d s, p h r a se s, c la u s e s an d se n
ten ces.
An E x c l a m a t i o n is a w or d u se d b y itself to
ex re ss em o tion or feelin g, —
form in g a rt of
p no
p
t he s en t en c e .
The T h e m e of a wor d is tha t for m whic h is

u se d as t he n am e o f the w o r d ; or , a s the s ta r tin g
p oin t fr om which o t h er for m s are d erive d . T hu s

we s
p ea k Of t he p r on o u n W h o , thou gh it ha s
the form s W h o s e a n d W h o m . W h o is the
th e m e Of the p r on ou n .
§ 83 . By l n ll e c t i o n is m ean t tha t chan

ge
Of for m which w or ds f
un dergo to ex
p r ess c ha n ge
in their i
r ela t on s to o th e r wo r d s , or in t heir
m e a n in g . If a cha n
g e
pis ex r e s se d by a se
p a
r ate w or d , t he wo r d ch a n e d is m o d ifi ed n ot
g ,
infl e c te d .
Wi s e ,
t ak e n as a th e m e , h a s t he in fl e c te d fo r m s w is er ,
w is es t . E 3 an d h im are infl e c tio n s of th e t h e m e h e .
8 4 . The H i s t o r y of a w or d t ells its or ii

g n,
its p rim ary m e a n in g, an d t he ch a n

ges whic h it
ha s u n de r gon e .
T hu s kn a ve fi rs t m e a n t boy , th e n s er va n t, n o w r a s c a l .
An Ob s o l e te word is one which wa s o n ce in

94 EN G LI S H G RA MMA R .
g ood u se , b ut is n ot n o w. An O b so le sc e n t
w or d is goin g o u t of u se.
Leas ing, m ean in g lyin g, is obsolete; p ate for h ead, is obsoles ce n t .
LESS ON XVIII .
TH E NOUN .
§ S5 . A N o u n is a su b s t a n ti v e n a m e, or
t he n am e of an o bj ect . I t in clu d es th e n a m es
of a ll thin gs which e xis t , k en of as

or ar e s
po
e x is tin
g .
A S u b s t a n t i v e is an
y w or d or
g r ou
p of
wor d s which is u se d as a su b ect

fj o a sen ten ce,
bject f a v erb, or a s u bse u en t o

an o o q f a p r e osi
p
tio n .
I n gr amm a tical an al y sis m an y for m ed wh ose

sen ten ces ar e
j
s ub ec ts a r e p hr a ses , or w o r ds u se d ou t of th e ir c om m on u se T h ese .
j
s ub e c ts s h o uld b e c a l l ed s u bsta n tives o r s ubs ta n tive p hr ases In .
z
a n a ly in g th e s e n t en ce, Will go is th e p r ed ic ate, ca ll will go a
”
s ubs ta n tive p hra se .
No u n s ar e divid ed in P r op e r and Co m m o n .
A Pr o p e r n ou n is the n am e of o n e obj e c t di s ,
t in guishin g it fr om a ll oth er s of its cl a ss ; a s,
P e or ia , I llin ois , Willia m .
A Co m m on n oun is th e n am e of a c la ss
wh ich m ay in cl u d e a gre at num b er of in d ivid

u al s ; a s , c it , st a t e , b o
y y .
Th e n am e Of th e c l a s s m ay b e a pp lie d to a n
y Obj e c t
in th e clas s. I f th e p r op er n am e o f a p e rs o n is n ot
kn own , we a d d r e s s him b y a c om m o n n a m e r ien d ,

; a s, f
L CO MMON SCHOOL C OURSE . 95
str a n ger , s ir . H is p r op er n am e is his o wn n am e

'
It
b e lo n g s t o h im a lo n e .
Ap ro
p er n o u n b e c om e s com m on wh e n m a d e t o a ppl y
to a C l a ss ; a c om m on n ou n b e c o m e s p r op e r w he n
a pplie d e x c lu s iv el y t o a n i d iv id ual n .
E x T here a r e S I X Willia m s i t he s ch o ol IVi llia m s

.
*
-
n .
is a c o m m o n n o u n b e c au s e ap plie d t o a cl a s s
‘
.
,
M F ie ld b ou ght t h e fi el d The s ubj e c t f i eld is a

r. .
p ro p e r n o u n b e c au s e m a d e t he
, p pr o er ty o f o e m a n n .
8 6 . C om m on n ou n s a r e su b divided in t o Ab
s tr a c t
,
C o l l e c ti v e , V e r b a l an d D i m i n u tiv e .
An Ab s t r a c t n ou n is the su bsta n tiv e n a m e of

u alit 13 ; d eriv e d from d e scrip
a
q y a
tiv e a dj ective . A b stra c t n ou n s

g en e r a ll
y en d in
n c s s as in kin dn ess ; th as in Wuth , ’
c c or c y
as in p r u den ce, clem en cy in fl y a s in a bility .
T hey d o n ot a dm it the p l ur a l n or the p o sse ssiv e

for m .
A C o l l e c tiv e n ou n ha s a Si n ul ar for m , b u t
g
is a
pp l ied t o a n um b er of in divid ua ls ; as ,
flock,
arm
y, hos t .
A Verb al n ou n a d m it s t he m o d ifiers of a
v er b . I n fo rm it m a y b e either t he P a r t i c i
ple or t he I n fi n i t i v e
Ex .
—
P la y ing fo o t
“
-
b all is v iol e n t e x e r c is e . L ea r n in g
La tin is n ot e a s y. To h ea r and to s ee a r e v e r
y d iffer
e n t.
A D im in u ti ve is a d e riv a tiv e n ou n d e n otin g

a s m all thin g o f th e k in d exp resse d b y its p rim
itiv e The dim in utive en dings ar e e t,
k in ,
lo ck ,
l in g , cl, ie .
Ex .
— F lo w e r e t m a n n ikin , h illo c k , d u c k lin g p e t r el
, ,
(th a t is little P e t e r b e c a u s e it w a lk s o n th e wa t e r )
, , ,
w ifi e , M a ttie . L in g s o m e t im e s d e n o te s c o n te m pt ,
as in
l o r d lin g . D im in u tiv e s fr e qu e n tly e xp r e s s en d ea r m en t.
A Co m p l e x g p n ou n is a r ou of n a m e s n ot
c om o u n d a l ie d t o a S in le rs on ; a s , Pr esi
p pp g p e
d en t William Henry H arrison Ma rcus Tul .
liu s C icer o .
LESS ON X IX .
IN F LECTION OF TH E N OUN .
§
'
87 . N o un s are in fl e cte d or c h a n ge th e ir
fo r m s , t o d is tin guis h a n am e w hic h d e n o te s m or e th a n
on e fr o m a n am e wh ic h d e n o t e s on e o bj e c t . T h is is
c a ll e d th e in fl e c tio n of Numb er
T he y a r e als o in fl e c te d to d e n ot e t h e r el a t io n o f P os
s e s si o n T his is c alle d th e i n fl e c tio n of Ca se .
A fe w n o un s a re in fl e c t e d t o d e n o t e _
a d iffe r e n c e in
S e x. T his is c all e d t h e in fl e c tio n of G en d er .
Th e I n fl e c t i o n Of a n o u n is c a ll e d D ec l e n sio n .
N u m b er , G en d er , an d Ca s e a re c a ll e d
Att r i b u t e s of a n o un . Pe r s o n 2 8 ) is a l so
c a ll e d a n a ttr ib ute Of n o u n s , b ut is n ot in d ica te d

b y in fl ection .
T he p i
r nc i p al u se of a k n o wle d ge of th e s e a ttr ibu tes
i s t o d e t e r m in e t h e p r o n o u n , w hic h s h o ul d b e u s e d in
pl a c e o f th e n o u n , a n d th e f or m Of th e v e r b t o whic h
,
the n o un is su bj e c t .
P ea, p e a s (in d ivid u al s ) . p e a s e ( d iffe r e n t kin d s) .
P e n n y, p e n n ie s (c o in s) ,
p e n c e (v alu e ) .
C o w, c o ws , k in e ( o n ly in p o e tr y) .
Ge n iu s ,
g e n iu s e s (m en of g e
g e n ii (s p ir it s ) .
n iu s ,
)
M an y for e ign pl ur al ; a s
w or d s r e t a in th e ir o r ig in al ,
e u s e n er a N o r u l e s c a n b e g iv e n fo r th e i in fl e c tio n r
g n g ,
. .
S om e for e ign w o r d s h a v e a n E n glis h p lur al a n d a ls o ,
r e t a in th e ir o r ig in al ; a s, c h er u b, c h er u bs , or c h er u bim
( n ever cher u b im s
) .
L e tte r s a d fi gu e s for m th e ir p lur al b y a dd in g 3 p r e

n r ,
c e d e d b y a n a p o s tr o p h e ; a s C r o s s y o ur t s a n d d o t y o ur
’
, ,
i
’
s. Make y o ur 9
’
s c lo s e d a t th e t o p .
N ou ns d e n o tin g t hin g s w e igh e d or m e a su re d , u sed in

th e ir c o m m on s e n s e , h av e no p lu ra l id e a , a n d , of c ou r s e ,
no p lur a l fo r m ; a s , w h e a t , g o ld , s u g a r If . u s ed in th e
p lu ra l, t h e y e ith e r d e n o t e d ifi er en t k i n ds ;
'
a s, w in es ,
tea s ; or , t h in g s m a d e Of th e m a t e r ia l ; as , ir o n s , br a s ses .
N a m e s o f c h e m ic a l e l e m e n t s h ave no p l ur a l ; as , o xyg en ,
io d in e .
Ab st r a c t n ou n s h ave no pl u r a l. C o l l e c t iv e n o un s
s o m e tim e s e xp re s s p l ur a lity with o u t th e p lu a l r fo r m .
S om e n oun s h a v e o p lu a l fo r m b u t a e u s
n r ,
r e b o th
d in
num be rs ; a s,d eer ,
s h ee
p , tr o u t .
( G iv e o th e r e x am ple s
) .
S om e n o u n s h a ve o n l
y t h e p lu ra l fo r m ; a s , vi ctu a ls ,
em ber s a s h es . I n t his c la s s are s ev e r a l n a me s o f o h
j e c ts m ade u
p of t wo c o rr e s po n din g p a rts ; a s, to n gs ,
dr a wer s , s c iss o r s .
( G iv e o th e r e x a m p le s ) .
S om e n ouns w hic h seem t o h a ve p l u ra l fo r m s a re
al wa ys s in g ul a r ; a s, m o la ss es , m e a s les , n ews .
90 . In Co m p o u nd n ou n s th e p l ur al e n d in
g i s an
he x ed t o th a t pa rt w h ic h is r e a ll
y m ade p lu r al ; a s,
ma n -
tr ap ,
m a n tr ap -
s
f a th er - i n - la w, f a th er s - in -la w.
COMMON SCHO OL COURSE . 99
W he n p rop er n ou ns ar e p
d e d b y a titl e b e fo r e
rec e
whic h a Sp e c if yi n g or a n u m e r a l a dj e c t iv e s ta n d s t h e
,
name is m a d e plu r al a n d n ot t h e title ; a s , o ur s ix G en

e r al S m i ths; th e t wo Mis s Ch ap in s .
W h e n e ve r t he sam e su r n a m e is a nn e xe d to mm or
m o r e C hr is tia n n am es, p rec e d e d by a t itle , or wh e n e v e r
th e s am e t itle in c lu d e s d ifl e re n t
'
p er s o n s , t h e t i t l e is
m ad e pl u r al ; a s, Miss es M ar y and B r o wn ; Mes s r s
E ll en .
G e or
g e and J a m e s H a rp e r ; Gen er a ls M e a d e B a n k s a n d ,
B utle r .
In -
o th er c a se s, e ith e r th e n a m e or th e ti tle m ay b e
made plu ral ; a s, th e M sscs Th o mp s o n ; o r , the iss . M
Th omp sons . U s a ge in c lin e s t o th e l a tt e r fo r m wh e n
th e na me d oes no t en d in 8.
W he n w or ds a re u s e d s u b st a n t i v e l y t h e y fo r m th e
p l u r al g re
y; ul a rl as, th e wh y s an d th e w h er ef o r es . In
lo n g c o m p o u n d s t he s is a dded t o th e l a s t w or d ; a s,
will O the wis ps

’-
- -
.
LESS ON XX .
GEND ER AND CASE .
91. Af e w n oun s h a ve an in fl e c tio n c o rr e s p o n d ing

t o th e d iffe r e n t sex of th e b e in gs n am e d b y the m ; a s ,
Abb o t, a bb ess h e r o , h e r o in e ; Lu c 1u s , L u c ia T h is in
.
fl e c tio n is c a ll e d G en d er .
T he of is t o d e te r m in e w h a t p r o n o u n
e n d er
us e
g
s h o u ld be u s e d in s t e a d o f a n o u n in t h e th ir d p er s o n
a n d s in g u l a r n u m ber .N a t u r a l ge n d e r d e e n d s u o n p p
th e m e a n in g of th e w o r d ; G r a m m a t i c a l g e n d e r v a rie s
th e fo r m t o exp s th e
re s m e a n in g .
N ou n s d e n o tin g m a le b e in gs a re of the
1 00 ENGLISH G RAMMAR .
M a s c u l i n e gen d er ; n oun s d en otin g fe m ale
b ein gs a r e of th e F e m i n i n e
g e n d er .
Na m es of Obj ect s w ithou t s ea , or wh o se sex is

u n im p or ta n t , a r e o f t he N e u t e r ge n d er .
Na m es a
pp l ie d to b ein gs of eith er s ex are
s om etim e s s a i d to b e of th e Co m m o n g d er ;
en
a s , chil d , p a r en t , c o u s n , i p p il
u .
N ouns whic h in fl e c te d t o d e n o t e ge n d e r , c h a n ge
ar e
t h e m a s cu lin e e n d in g in t o e s s , i n e , o r r i x , t o d e n o t e
th e c o rr e s p o n d in g f em in in e E ss is the . o n ly E gli
n s h
e n d in g , t h e o th e s b el o n g t o fo r e ign w o r d s
r . S o m e tim e s
the e n d in g s a r e a d d e d t o t h e m a s c ulin e fo r m .
Ex .
— A c to r , ; h
a c tr e s su n t e r , h un t r e s s
; c o u n t, c ou n t
J s eph J o s e p hin e ; W ilh elm , W ilh e l m in e ;

’
e ss ; o , he r o ,
h e r o i e ; e x e c uto r
n ,
e x e c ut ix ;
r a d m in is t r a t o r , a d m in is
t r a t r ix .
S m e fo
o gre i n wo r d s h a v e o th e r en d in
g s.
Su h w c ord s as u n c le , a u n t, kin g , q u e e n b e a u b e lle

, , ,
h av e n at ur a l
g e n d e r, b u t th e p ron ou n t o b e u s e d fo r t h e m
is k n o wn b y th e ir m e a n i n g , n o t b y t h e ir e n d i n g .
S e x is o ft e n a s c r ib e d t o t hin g s w ith o u t life b y a fig

ure c a ll e d P e r so n ifi c a t i o n . O bj e c t s r e m a rk a ble fo r
s t r e n gt h, v io l e n c e , o r s i e , a r e z u s u a ll
y m a d e m a s c u l in e ;
th o s e r e m a rk a b le fo r g r a c e , d e lic a c y , o r b e a u ty, a r e
m a d e fe m in in e . T h u s , t he s u n , the w in d , th e w in t e r ,
t h e fr o s t , m a s c u l in e ; th e m o o n , t h e r o s e , th e l il ,
a re
y
t h e S p r in g , a r e fe m in in e .
I n o r din a r y s p e e c h a n im a l s a r e m a s c ulin e o r fe m in in e ,
a c c o r d in
g t o t h e ir l e a d in
g a tt r i b u t e s T hu s
. th e lio n an d
e le pha nt are
g e n e r a ll
y m a s c u line
; t h e c at is ge n e r a lly
fe m in in e .
T h e m a s c u lin e g e n d e r is us ed fo r a ll n er al s ta t e
g e
1 02 E N G I SH L GRAMMAR .
P o s s e ss iv e , or as Ab s o l u t e ; th a t is , with out gr am
m a tic al r e l a t io n .
The P o s s e s s i v e sin g u l a r is form ed b y an
n ex n i g to the th em e the en din g s , p recede d by

an a p o s t r o p h e ; a s , ship , s hip s ; riv er , r iv er s
’ ’ .
Th e a p os tr op h e s h o w s th e om ission o f a vowel (e or i ) w hi ch
in old E n gl ish fo r m ed a p ar t o f th is e n din g .
Pl u r a l n ou n s en din g in s m a k e their Po s s es
form b y a ddin g the
’
s iv e p o stro h e ; as , fa rm ers
a
p
wi v es ; e a gle s win gs
’
.
P l ural n o u n s n ot en d in g in s m ak e their Po s
s e ss iv e fo rm b y a dd in g s
p r ece de d b y th e a
p os
a s , wo men s
’
trop he .
S o m etim es wh e n a n oun i n th e s in g ul a r , o f m o r e th a n
on e l
s l abl e , ends in a hiss in g s ou n d it adds th e a p os
y
tr op h e o n ly, es p e c ially b e fo re a w or d b e gin n i g wnit h s ,
to a v o id too m a n y h is s in g s o un d s ; a s, A c h ill e s s hi el d
’
Mo s e s ’
p
d is c i le s ; c o n s c ie n c e s a k e
’
.
C o m p l e x a n d C o m p o u n d n ou n s , an d n oun s w ith
m o d ifyin g ph ra ses r e
g a rd e d a s o n e t it le , a dd th e e n d in g
to t h e l a s t w o r d ; a s, J o h n P a u l J o n es ’
s hi p; a Maj or
Gen er a l s c o m m is s io n ; t h e I fin g
’
o f E n g la n d ’
s c r o wn ;
’
S m i th th e boo ks eller s s to r e .
93 . A w or d given as a m o d el b y which t o
in flec t ot her w or d s is c all e d a Pa r a di gm .
F ULL IN FLE CTI ON OF A N UN O .
S in g u l a r . P l ur a l .
Mascul ine . F emin ine . Mas cul ine . F emi n ine .
G e n e r a l fo r m , h e ro , h e r o in e , h e r o e s, h e r oin e s ,
her o
’
P o ss e ss i v e , s, h er oin e ’
s, h er o es
’
, he r o in e s ’
.
COMMON SCHOOL COURSE . 1 03
IN FLE CTI ON OF A N O UN W I TH O U T GE N DE R.
G en era l fo r m ,
P o s se ss i v e ,
LE SS ON XX I .
TH E VER B .
§ 94 . A V e r b is a wor d who se offic e is t o

a s se r t, an d which u su a ll
y a s s er ts th e e xi s t
e n c e , a c tio n or s t a t e of its j
s u b ec t
,
Th e w o r d ve r b m e an s w or d , a w a s giv e n t o th is
n d
p art of Sp e e ch as th e m o s t im p o r t a n t I n th e
. a t in L
l a n gu age , fr o m w h ic h w e d e r iv e t h e n a m e s o f o ur p a rts
of Sp e e c h ,
it w a s fre q u e n tly u se d al o n e as a c o m p le t e
s en te n c e . O th e r w o r d s ar e of e qual im p o r t a n c e in
m e a n in g , b u t n o o th e r w or d c an a sse r t .
As ver bs ar e n e c e s s ar
y i n e ve r
y s e n te n c e , and a s
a c tio n s a d m it of m or e v a r ia tio n s th a n o bj
e c t s , th e v e r b
h a s m or e v a r ia tio n s of fo r m t h a n any o th e r pa rt of
Sp e e c h . B e s id e s a ss e r t i n g a c tio n or e x is t e n c e ,
ver bs
h a v e fo r m s w hic h na me a c tio n s , an d a re , t h e r e fo r e ,
verb a l n o u n s. T he s e n ou n s d iffe r fr o m o t he r n o un s
by a d m ittin g v e r b a l m o d ifi e r s ; as, To sp ea k w e ll is
ve r y d e s ir a b le .
Th e t h e m e of th e v e r b is th a t for m wh ic h a d m it s th e
p r e p o sitio n to b e for e it ; as to h a ve, t o see. Th is fo r m
is c a ll e d th e I nfin it iv e , o r u n lim i ted fo r m .
Verb s h a v e a l so Ad j e c t i v e fo r m s , ca lle d
Pa r t i c i p l e s a s, a la boring m a n ; a
p r in ted
p g a e . Pa r ticip l e s distin gu ished fr om other

are
adj ectiv es b y their form th eir d eriv a tion , a n d

,
their m o d ifie rs .
Fr om the sam e them e , th en , w e ha v e a sser
ti v e form s , or v er bs p ro
p er , Su b s t a n t i v e
form s , an d Ad je c t i v e form s .
The In fin itiv e a n d Pa rticip le som etim es imp ly

a ss ertion b ut d o n ot m ake it dir ectly .
§ 95 . The I n fl e c tio n of a v erb is c a lle d its

C o n ju g a t i o n .
V er b s a rein fl e ct e d t o giv e a S ub stan tiv e form ,

an d t wo Adj e ct iv e for m s ; t o sho w th e t i m e of
th e ac t or sta te a s s er te d; an d t o in d ica te the
Pe r s o n an d N um b e r of th e su bj ect .
V b h a v e t wo A d j e c t i v e fo r m s ; th e I m p
er s e r fe c t or
i n comp lete, a n d th e P e r fe c t o r co mp lete for m .
( Th e I m p er fect is s om e tim es cal l ed th e P r esen t, an d th e P erfec t

th e P as t p a r ticip l e .
)
Th e Im p e r fe c t pa i
rt ci ple is fo r m e d fr o m th e th e m e b y
a d d in g i ng; as, do -
i n g , b e i n g , c h a n g ( e ) in g .
- -
This form is a l so u s e d as a Su b s t a n ti v e ; as ,
fia n n in g is v iol e n t e xer cise . When s o u se d it is

call e d a G er un d , or a Ver b al N ou n .
Th e P e rfe c t P a r tic ipl e is fo r m e d fr o m t h e th e m e b y

th e e n d in g s e d , a n d e n . E d s o m e tim e s b e c o m e s d o r
t, an d e n b ec om e s 11 . E x a m p le s :
L v d
o e ,
s av e d , p aid ,
Writte n ,
thr o wn , g iv e n,
1 06 ENG I H LS GRAM MAR .
e xp r e s s d iffe r e n t m e a n in gs
§ 9 7 . To th e fo u r te e n
iv en a b ov e fl e c i
th e th e m e w a lk h a s b u t t h r e e in
t o n s ;
g ,
w al k s w a
,
lk i n g w a lk e d I,
n p l a c e o f v a i
y g
. th e v e b r n r ,
h
t e id e a r e q u i e d i s e xp r ers e d b y o t he r v e b a l f
s o r m s r
s t a n d i g b e t w e e n th e s u bj e c t a n d t h e s t e m w a lk
n .
A L a ti v e b c o m p le t e h a d o v e r a h u n d e d d ifl er e n t
n r r
'
e d i g s ; n o t c o u ti g t h e s till g e a t e
n n n n n u m b er of i fl ec r r n
t io s o f it s a dj e c tiv e fo m s
n T h e s e e d i g s w e r e a ll
r . n n
ign ific a n t T hu s s e r v a b u n t u r m ea n t , T h ey w i ll be p r e
.
ser ved B d e n o t e d fu tu r e t im e ; 11 , t h e
. l u r al n um e r ; p b
t , th e th ir d p
e r s o n ; r , th e a s s i v e v o ic e ; u w a s u s e dp
s im ply t o g iv e t h e s
yll b
a le s a v o we l s o u n d .
The E n gl ish v e rb ha s p rop erly t w o t en s es ;

c a l le d the Pr e s e n t a n d t he P a s t .
Th e P r e s e n t t e n s e is used fo r g e n e r al a s s e r t ion s , a n d
m ay b e used fo r e ith e r p r e s e n t, p ast ,

or fut u r e t im e .
The s u n r is es in the E a s t, m e a n s th a t it d o e s g e n e r a lly ;

has r is e n th e r e in th e p a s t, a n d will r is e th e r e in th e
fu tu r e . I g o to S t L ou is to m o r r ow , im p lie s fu tu r e
.
-
t im e . A his t o r ia n d e s c r ib in g a b a tt le , s p e a k s t h u s o f
“
t he c om m a n d e r He c o m es in a ll h a ste, fin ds e v e ry
th in g in c o n fu s io n . He uses the p re se n t as if t h e
a c tio n s m e n t io n e d w er e g o in
g on in o ur S ight .
9 8 . Pa r a digm of the v erb s go an d ch an ge .

Pr e s en t t e n s e .
S in g u l a r . P lura l.
F ir s t p e r s on , g o, ch an
g e . o
g , c h a n
g e.
S e c o n d p e s on r , g oe st , c h a n g es t .
g ,
o c h a n
g e .
Thir d p e r s o n , g o e s, c h a n ge s .
g o, c h an ge .
g ) ( o l d e n d in e th .
No tic e th a t th e e n d in
g s t m a r k s t h e s e c o n d S in ul a r
g ,
( whic h i s u s e d o nl
y w it h t h e p r o n ou n t h o u
), a n d 8 m a r k s
COMMON S C HOOL COURSE . 1 07
the th ir d s in gu la r . E th is o b s ol e t e ,
e x c ept in s o le m n
s tyle a n d in p oe tr y . Th e o th e r fo r m s are th e s a m e as
t h e th e m e . S is t h e o n ly er s o n a l e n d in g in c om m on
p
use.
Pa st t en se of the v erb s m o v e an d w r it e .
S in g u l a r . P lura l.
F irs t pe r son , m o ve d , w r o te . m o ve d , w rot e .
S ec o n d pe rson, m o v e d s t , wr o t e s t . m ove d , wrote .
T hird p e r s o n ,
m o ve d , wro te . m o v e d , wr o t e .
N o t ic e th a t t h e P a st te n s e h a s b ut on e p e r s o n al en d
in g , and th a t o c c urs in th e se c on d s in
g u la r wh ic h is
s e ld o m u se d .
§ 9 9 . T h e re a re t w o m eth o d s of for m in g the

Pa st T e n s e an d Pa st Pa r ticip l e , a lrea dy illu s
tr a t ed . Move ,
an d s im ila r v er bs form t he Pa st
T en s e b y a ddin g ( 1 or e d t o th e them e . The
Pa s t Particip le of su ch v er bs is the sa m e a s t he
Pa st T e n se . l) is s o m etim es ch a n
g e d in t o it s
corr es
p on din g n o n -s on a n t t.
ula r )
S u ch v er bs ar e o f the w eak ( or re
g con
j u gation . Most v er bs are c o nj u a te d

g in t his
wa y .
S om e v er bs — m o stly of on e
yll a bl e , a n d a ll
s
of A n gl o S a xon -
or i
gin —
form their p a st t en s e
by c h a n g i n g t h e s o u n d o f t he them e ,
vow el
an d for m the ir P a st Pa r tici le b a ddin g 11 or

p y
en to th e t hem e , or t o the Pas t T en se .
S uch v er bs a re of the S t r o n g (or irregul ar)

con uga tion .
j
1 08 ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
F or c on ven ien ce , we c al l v e rb s wea k a n d s tr on g, in s tead of say

in g f
o the wea k , or o f the j
s tr ong c on uga tio n.
The t h e m e, t he p a st te n se
,
an d the p a st
p a r t i ci p le, a re ca ll e d the Pr i n c i p a l Pa r t s
of a v er b .
PRINCI PAL P ART S OF VERB S .
W ea k C o nj u g a t i o n .
PAS T TEN E S . PAS T PARTICIPLE .
ch a n g e d , c h a n ge d .
p aid ,
p a id .
h a (v e) (I , had .
a sk e d , a sk e d .
ilt i l t.
g , g
S t r o n g C o nj u g a t i o n .
k n e w,
r o se ,
s a w,
LESS ON XXII .
§ 1 0 0 . T RAN SI TI VE AN D IN T RAN S I T I V E VE RB S .
B efor e tak in g u p c om p o un d verb al for m s , i t seem s n ecessa r y

t o d is c u s s a r ela tion o f th e ve r b wh ich b el on gs to S y n ta r a th e r x
t h an to E ty m ol ogy .
In su ch e xp r e s s ion s as It s eem s ; I m a y; Tha t lo o ks ;

H e wa s infor m ed; H is n ame is ; I g a ve; f ra n k lin is
c a l led ; Th e m er ch a n t s o ld ; th e r e is a su bj e c t a nd a
v er b ,
or th e e lem en ts o f a s e n t e n c e , a n d y e t t he s ente n c e
is n ot c o mp le te . An a fli r m a t io n is m a d e , b ut s o m e t hin g
m or e is n eed ed to c om p l e te th e s en se.
in t r a n s itive v er b is c al l e d N e u te r . Th e d ic tio n a r ie s
m a rk a v er b w hic h is u s u a lly t r a n s itiv e v a . .
; t h a t i s ,
a
v er b a c t iv e ; a n d o th e r v e r bs v. n . th a t is , v e r b n e ute r .
ten c e m u s t d e t e r m in e .
—
B u t th e u se o f th e ver b i n the s en
S tr ik e e xp r e s s e s v ig o r o u s a c t io n , b ut is s o m e t im e s in o
t r a n s itiv e , as in th e s e n te n c e St k e fo r y o ur a lt a r s a n d
ri
y our fi re s !
”
Th e o bj e ct of a ver b
m a y b e d e v elo e d p
b y th e q ue s tio n whom or wh a t 9
. W ho m d id y o u see ?
I sa w th e Go ver n o r (Obj ect of s a w ) .
We h e a r d t h a t y o u w e r e g o in g W h a t d id y o u he a r .
Th a t y o u wer e g o in g ( Th e c l a u s e is t h e o. e c t of bj
h ea r d .
)
The j
ob e c t is o ft e n an infi n i tive, a c la u se, o r a n e n
t ir e s en ten ce; as, S h e h e a r d wh a t h e s a id .

‘
He s a id I
”
w ill g o .
A Cu s to m a r y o bj e c t is o ft e n o m it t e d ; a s, Th e fa r m e r
p lo w s (the g o u n d ) a n d r ,
s o ws
( th e seed
) . Th e tr a d e r
b uys a d s ells (go o d s)
n .
C a r e m u s t b e t a k e n t o d is tin gu ish t h e Obj e c t fr o m a
n o un fo r m in g p a r t of th e p r ed ica te I f t he v e r . b ad
m it s j p
a n a d e c tiv e c o m l e m e n t , it is n o t t r a n s it iv e . In
t he s en te n c e , H e is a s a ilo r , s a ilo r a n s w e r s t he q u e s tio n ,
W hat is he ? b ut it is n ot an Obj e c t for is a d m its , an
j
a d e c t iv e c o m pl e m e n t. T his s u bj e c t w ill b e r e fe r r e d to
a g a in u n d e r P r o n ou n s a n d un d er S yn ta
T he o bj e c t is o ft e n c a ll e d a n e l e m e n t o f th e s e n te n c e ,
b ut it is n ot an e
ess n ti a l e le m e n t.
LE SS ON XX III .
I RREGULAR AN D D E F E C TIVE VERBS .
§ 10 2 . Verb s whic h d o n ot form the p ri n cip al

p ar ts accor din g t o t he m od els give n In the p re
ce din g ch a
p t er a re c alle d I r r e g u l a r .
Ve rb s which a re n ot u se d in a ll t he ir p a rts
a r e ca ll e d D e fe c t i v e .
Th e m o s t ir r e gu l a r ver b in the l a n gu a ge is be, wh o s e

j
c o n u g a tio n is g iv e n b e lo w :
P r in c ip a l
p a rts b e w a s b e e n , , , .
P re s e n t t e s e S i gul ar n u m b e
n ,
nam a rt is r
, , , .
P e e n t t e n s e P lu a l u m b er
r s
,
a rer in a ll p e s o s
n
, r n .
P a s t t e n s e s in gul a r n um b e r
,
was w a st was , , , .
P a t t e n s e pl u al n u m b e r w e r e i a ll p e s o s
’
s ,
r n r n .
,
H a v e is i r e g ul a r b y d r o pp in g th e v b e fo e th e e n d
r r
in g s e x c e p t b e fo r e i n g
, .
P r e s e n t t e n s e , s in g .
,
Ih a ve , th o u h a
(v e st ,
) h e h a (v e )s .
P a s t te n s e , h a
( ve ) d , h a d st , had , e tc .
G 0 h as no p a st ten se, b ut su pp lie s th e pl a c e of o ne
by bo rr o win g fr o m th e v er b wen d .
P ast te n se , IW en t , tho u w e n t e st , e tc .
The foll o win g v er bs w a n t the in fin itiv e an d
the p a r ticip l es , an d a re irr egula r in t heir p a st

t en s e :
*
Th em e, m ay , can , m u s t, S ha ll, will , ou ht
g .
Pa s t , m ight , coul d m u st , sh o u l d w ou l d , o u ht
, , g ,
Re tu r n in g to th e L a t in ver b n o t ic e t h a t t he
E g
nl ish v er b h a s b u t t wo t e n s e s to c orre s po nd t o th e
s ix in L ti a n. T wel ve of th e fo u r t e e n m e a n in g s g iv e n
fo r t h e L ti a n fo r m s w e r e e xp r e s s e d b y c o m b in in
g t h e
ir re g u l a r an d d e fe c tiv e ver bs g iv e n a b o ve w ith one an
o th e r, an d w ith t h e G e run d w a lk in g , and w ith th e

I fi
n n it iv e w a lk . By s u ch c om b in a tio ns a v a r ie ty of
Will h a s som e times th e r eg ul a r w eak p as t, willed .

m e a n in g s is e xp r e s s e d ,
e ven g r e a te r th a n in th e L a tin
ver b . The fo r m s c o r r e s p o n d in g t o t h e L a t in te n s e s a re
g e n e r a ll
y c a lle d te n s e s of th e v e r b w h ic h s ta n d s l a s t in
the g ro u p ,
and th e p rec e d in g verb s a re c a lle d Au xi l i a
r ie s , or hel pe s r . B ut yr e a ll t he v e r b whic h s t a d s fi t n rs
in t h e gr o up o f v e r b a l fo r m s is t he .
p r in c ip al v e b th e r
true a s s e r t in w o d —
and t h e fo r m s s t a n d in g a fte r it ,
g r
whic h a re n ot a s s e r t iv e fo r m s , are it s m o d ifi e r s , com
p le m e n ts or a u xilia r ie s . Th e o n ly w o r d whic h v a r ie s its

fo r m is th e fi rs t in t h e g ro u p . T h is a d m it s p e rs on al end
ln s.
g
§ 1 0 4 . Th e follo win g gr o u p s o f ve r b form s

-
c o rr e
s
p on d t o th e t e n s e s of th e L a tin v e r b
P re s e n t c om p le t e or p e rfe c t ,
I hav e , th o u ha s t , he h as
w a lk ed
We
.
h a v e , yo u h a v e , t he y h a v e
P a st pe f
r e c t,
I had, th o u
'
h a d s t, he h a d
w lk ed
We
a .
ha d , y ou h ad , th e y h a d
F u tu r e i n c o m le t e , p
I Sh a ll , t h o u w ilt ,
w a lk
W e S h all
.
, y o u w ill ,
F u tur e pe r fe c t
,
I s h a ll , th o u w ilt , h e w ill
h w lk ed
We
a ve a .
s h all , o u w ill, th e y w ill
y
I n t his w a y a r e m a d e u p th e fo r m s fo r c o m p l e te d
a c tio n in p r e s e n t o r p a s t t im e , a n d fo r fut ur e tim e om
, c
p l e t e and in c o m p le t e .
10 5 . T o d e n o t e th a t a n a c tio n is fi i h e d in
n s p re s
en t t im e , t h e p re s e n t ten se fo r m s of h a ve t ak e a fte r
t h e m th e D e r fe c t p artic iple .
LESS ON XX IV .
P ROGRESSIVE AN D EMPHATI C F ORMS OF TH E VERB .
1 0 7 . The P r o gr e s s i v e fo r m of t he v e rb
§
is m a d e u
p of the for m s of t he v e rb be, follo we d
b y th e ger u n d . T his for m p r ese n ts a n a ction
a s in p ro gr e s s , a n d c orr esp o n d s t o t he o r d in a iy
m e a n in gs o f the La tin t e n se fo rm s .
A Syn a p sis o f a v er b is the givin g o f a s in
l ers o n al for m in eac h t en s e

g pe .
Sy p no s is of th e v e r b se n d . P r o gr e s s iv e fo r m , thir d
pe r s o n , s in
gu l a r.
P r e s e n t is s e n d in g P r e s e n t P e rfe c t , h a ve been s e n d
,
.
in g . P a s t, w a s s e n d in g P a s t P e r fe c t h a d been s e n d
.
,
ing . F u t ur e wi ll be s e n din g F utu r e P e r fe c t w i l l h a ve

,
.
,
b een s e n d in
g . In the fo r m w i ll h a ve been s en d in g , w il l
is t h e t r u e v er b o,
r a s s e r t iv e for m ; h a ve is a n in fi n itiv e
com p le m e n t, o bj e c t of w il l ; been is t h e p a s t p a r t ic ip l e
of be, and t ak e n w ith h a ve im p lie s c om pl e tio ; s en d in g
n
is a
g eru n d ; it w a s onc e p re c e d e d by t h e p e p o s itio n a
r
,
s hin g , a n d a n a dj u n c t
as we s t ill s a y , a
fi is of been .
10 8 . D o t a k es its p res e n t
an in fin itiv e aft er
an d a st te n s e , a n d m ak es t he E m p h a t i c f
o rm
p
o f th e v erb ; as , I do l e a rn , I d id tr
y .
I t is a ls o use d in q u e s tio n s b e fo r e th e su bj e c t ; as,
D id yo u g o ? D o y o u k n o w ? I n n e g a tiv e s e n te n c e s
d o m a y s t a n d b e fo re n o t fo llo w e d b y a n in fi n itiv e ; a s ,
H e d o es n o t kn ow , in s te a d o f h e k n o ws n o t .
§ 10 9 . Ma y ,
ca n , m u s t, s h a ll and w i l l t ak e a fte r
th e m t h e in fi n itiv e a s, m a y le ar n , m igh t h e a r, ca n t a lk ,
COMMO N S CH OOL C OURSE . 1 15
c ou ld s e e , m u s t st ay T he y often s ta n d
. b efor e th e c om
p l ete p r e s e nt a n d p a s t for m s of o th e r ve b s ; as r ,
m ay
h a ve w r i tten , m ig h t h a ve been .
T h e s e ve r b s a r e o fte n tr e a te d as if v e ry p e culia r in
m e a n in g . B ut if the p up il le a rn s th e ir e xact m e a n in g
fr o m a d ic tio n a r y, h e w ill fi n d no d iffi c ul t y in t h e ir u se ,
e xc ept xp la in ing h ow th e ir p a s t fo m s c a n b e u s e d
in e r
w h e n t h e s e n s e is p l a i ly f u tu r e T hu s o n e s a y s I
n .
, ,
W e cou ld e a s ily
.
”
m igh t d o t h a t fo r y o u t o m o o w -
rr .
s to
p t h a t
”
W h a
. t is p a s t 9 N o t t h e a c t io s I m p.lie d in n
do a n d s top th e s e are p r es en t fo r m s , and m ay b e u se d
fo r th e p re s e n t o r futu r e Th e s p e a k e r im plie s . th a t
s o m e th in g is p a s t in h is o wn m in d whic h h e is t h i n k in
g
of s o m e c o n d it io n , fo r in s ta n c e . I m igh t d o t h a t for
”
y ou t o -m o rr o w , if y o u wis hed m e to d o i t . Th e c on d i
t io n a l c la us e h a v in g it s ve r b in p a s t tim e , th e o th e r v e r b
is p a s t a l s o C o m p ar e. m a y d o it, if y o u w is h I
w ith “
I
m ig h t d o it , if y o u wis h ed ”
Th e fir s t s e n t e n c e .
im p lie s th at th e s p e ak e r is in d o u b t w h e th e r t h e p e r s o n
s p ok e n t o w ish e s i t d o n e ; th e s e c on d fo r m im plie s th a t
t h e d o u t is b p as t .
§ 11 0 . Th e for m s of the verb a r ea l dy giv en
are c alle d th e Ac t i v e V o i c e .
The form s of t he v er be, foll o we d b y t he

b
com l e te a r ticip l e , m a k e u p the P a s s i v e
p p
V o ic e ; as, am loved, w er e s eized , ha ve been
ta ken .
Th is fo r m d o e s n ot in it s e lf im p ly th a t th e bj e c t is
su
p a s s iv e
,
or ha sd os o m e th in g
n e t o it ; b u t s im p l y t h a t
th e a c t is fin ish e d B y c o m m o n u s a ge th is fo r m is u s e d
.
w h e n t h e a c t is n o t fin is h e d b y t h e s u bj e c t C o m p are .
I h a ve fi n is h e d th e l e tt e r w ith Th e l e tte r is fi n ish ed .

”
Th e first g iv e s p r om in en c e to the su bj e c t I as th e d e er
of th e a c t io n , th e s e c on d iv e s th e fa c t o f co mp leti o n
g
as th e im po r ta n t fa c t .
I f t h e d o or of th e a c t io n is e xp r e s s e d in th e P a s s ive
fo r m , it is d o n e b y a n a dj u n c t wh ic h fo l lo ws th e p r e di
c a t e v e r b , in tr o d u c e d b y t h e p r e p o s itio n by ; a s , Th e
b a ttle w a s w o n by th e E n g lish Th e s a m e id e a m a y b e .
a c t iv e ly e xp r e s s e d th u s : Th e E n
gl ish w o n t h e b a ttle .
§ 1 1 1 . O n ly t r a n s i t i v e v e rb s a d m it the p as
siv e form . An y idea ex

p r esse d by the a ctiv e
for m of a tr a n sitiv e v erb , m ay al s o be ex

p r ess e d
b y the p a ssiv e form , b y m ak in g th e dir ect o bj e ct
Of the a ctiv e form the subj ect of the p a ssiv e
for m ; as,
ACTIVE . P ASSIVE .
Ib r ok e th e s tic k . Th e s tic k w a s b r ok e n .
T he y c a p tur e d th e c ity . Th e c ity wa s c a p tu r e d .
T his d is tin c tio n o f the a c tiv e an d p a s si v e fo r m s is a
d iffe r e n c e in m ea n in g , r a th e r th a n in fo r m , a n d n e e d n ot
b e giv e n in a n al
y z in
g th e s en te n c e. I t is o n ly g iv e n
b e c a u s e p up ils w ill fin d th e t er m in g e n e r a l use , an d
o u gh t to k n o w w h a t it m e a n s T he r e is j u st . as m uch
p a s s ivi ty im p lie d in th e s e n te n c e , Th e b o y is s ick , a s in
the s en te n c e , The b o y is s tr u c k . I n e ith e r c a s e , t h e l a s t
w o r d in th e s e n t e n c e is a n a dj e c tiv e , fo r min a p a rt of
g
the p re d ic a te .
11 2 . Of l ate , a p r og r es s i ve p a ss ive fo r m h a s been

m ak in g it s w a y in t o n e w s p a p e r s , an d in t o c om m o n
sp e e ch I t in s e r ts bein g b e fo r e th e
. c om p l e te p a r tic ipl e
of th e g r o u p . A s yn o p s is of this fo r m , third s in g ul a r ,
is giv e n b el o w .
I f th o u wer t wise , th o u w o ul d e s t at o n c e e s c a
p e .
T h o u gh m y fo e s be m a n y , I a m n o t a fr a id .
Th e t hir d pe rs on s in g ul a r of o th e r ver bs o m it s t he
e n d in g s in t h e su bj u n c t iv e fo r m ; as, If h e wr ite a l e tt e r ,
in st e a d o f, I f h e wr i tes a le t t e r .
H a ve is used in th e s e c on d an d th ir d S in gular s ub
j un c tive ,
in s t e a d of ha s t an d ha s .
Th e su bj u n c tiv e fo rm s a r e a ll o b so l e sc e n t , e x c ep t in
th e p a st te n se of be .
§ p
1 1 4 . Th ea r tic ip l e h a vin g p r e fix e d t o a p e r fe c t ,
p ar tic ip le e xp r e s s e s c o m p l e tion in p a s t tim e ; a s h a vin g

, ,
wr i tten f T his is c a ll e d t h e c o mp o u n d p a rt ic ip l e In .
t h e s a m e w a y to h a ve t a k e s th e p a s t p a r tic ip l e a ft e r it ,
a n d fo r m s a co mp o u n d o r p erf ec t in fi n it iv e ; a s to h a ve
, ,
seen to h a ve k n o wn
,
T his i fi n it iv e is n o t t he e q uiva
. n
le n t o f th e G e u n d a s th e p e s e n t in fi itiv e is
r ,
I r n .
in te n d e d to s ee y o u
; or , Ii n te n d e d s eein g y o u , a re c or
re c t ; I in t e n d e d to h a ve s een
y o u, is n o t c o r re c t
,
for a
c om p le te fo r m is us e d in s t e a d of a
g e n e r al fo r m .
1 1 5 . B ewa r e, o ug h t, q u o th ,
w i t, and th in k in th e
s e n s e o f s eem a r e d e fe c t iv e .
B ew a r e is use d on l
y in t h e in fi n itiv e , and in im p e r a tiv e
s e n te n c e s. Ou g h t is p a s t in fo r m (fr o m o we) b ut is
u sed e ith e r as p r e s e n t or p a s t Qu oth i u s e d o n ly in
. s
th e p ast ten s e . Wit is u s e d ly in t h e i fi n it iv e

on n .
Thi n k is u sed o ly i
n t h e p e s e n t t e s e th i d p e r s o n
n r n ,
r
Sign ul a r , pre c e d ed
b y m e ; a s ,
M e t h in k s I see h im n o w.
Th e s u bj e c t o f th in ks is t h e fo ll o w in g s e n te n c e. Th e
m e a n in g i s I t s eem s to m e th a t I s ee h im n o w. I n this
la t t e r s e nte n c e it stan d s fo r t h e s e n te n c e fo llo wing
s eem s . T hi s ver b th in k is n ot fr o m t h e s a m e r o ot as th e
ver b t hin k wh ic h m e a n s to h a ve th ou gh ts .
COMMON S CHOOL COURS E . 119
LESS ON X XV .
11 6 . Th e p r in c ip al p a rt s of w e ak ver bs a r e e a s ily
fo r m e d fr o m t h e t h e m e . Th e v ar ie t y o f v o we l c h a n g e s
in t h e St ron
gV b
er ren d e r s it n ec e s s a r
y t o g iv e a lis t of
them .
R e g u l a r S t r o n g C o nju g a t i o n .
PAS T TE NSE . PAST PARTIC IPLE .
a r os e , a r is e n .
( wa s, ) b e en .
b ade ,
b id d e n , or b id .
c hid
( ob s . c h o d e
) ,
c hid d e n , o r c h id .
c am e , com e ( o b s . c om e n
) .
d r e w, d r a wn .
d rove , d riv e n .
at e , o r e a t , e a t e n , o r e a t.
fe ll, falle n .
fo r s o ok , fo r s a k e n .
g a ve , g iv en .
e n t) ,
( w g o n e.
g re w,
g ro wn .
hid , h id d e n , or h id .
h eld , h eld , or h o ld e n .
k n e w, k n o wn .
rode, r id d e n , o r r o de .
r ose, r is e n .
s a w, s een .
s l e w, s l a in .
s m o te , s m it te n .
s tr o d e , s tr idd e n .
t o ok , t ak e n .
w r o te , w r itt e n .
11 7 . Ve r b s wh os e P a s t P a r tic ip l e is fo r m e d fr o m
th e Pa st Tense by a dd in g n ,
or is th e same as th e P a st .
B e ar , b or e or b a re
, ,
b o r n e o r b Orn,
.
B in d , b ou nd ,
b o u d o r b o u n d en
n
, .
B e at , b eat , b e a t e n or b e a t ,
.
B le e d , b le d ,
b le d .
B re a k , b r ok e ,
b r ok e n .
B reed , b re d ,
bred .
C l in g, c l u n g, c l u n g.
Fee d, fe d ,
F ight, fo ugh t, fo ught (fo ughte n ) .
F in d , fo u n d , fo u n d .
F o rb e ar , fo r b o r e , fo r b o rn e .
G e t, o
g ,t g ,
o t o r
g o tt en .
Le a d , le d , led .
Lie , Ia y, l a in .
Me et , m e t, m et .
Re a d , re ad, r e ad.
Ring, r un
g ,
o r r a n g, r un
g .
Ru n , ra n, r un .
S hoot ,
Sh o t ,
Sh ot (sho tte n ) .
Sh i k
r n ,
shr a nk , s h r un k
( s h r u nk e n
) .
S it, s a t, s at ( s itt e n
) .
S li gn ,
slu n
g, slun
g .
S li kn ,
s lu n k , s lu n k .
Sp k ea ,
sp o k e (s p a ke ) ,
s p ok e n .
Spi n, spu
(nsp a
) n ,
sp u n .
Sp i gr n ,
sp a r
g no r s ru
p ,
n
g ,
s p r un
g .
St d an ,
sto od , s t oo d .
St l ea ,
s t ol e , s to le n.
S ti kc ,
s tu c k , s tu c k .
S ti gn ,
s t u n g, s tun
g .
S ti kn ,
s tu n k
( s ta n k ,
) s tu n k .
M an y v er bs n ot
g iv e n in th is lis t c on tr a c t e d in t as,
b l e s s e d b u ild e d gild e d p a s s e d
b les t, bu i lt, g ilt. p a s t, fo r , , , .
V e r b s o f t h e m ix ed
c o j ug a t io n c h a g e t h e v o we l
n n
a nd ad d d or t i th e p a s t te s e :n B i g b r o ugh t ; n r n ,
b u y b o u gh t ; d o d id ( s t o n g p a r tic ip le d o n e
, , ,
s ee k
r
,
s ou
gh t ; s e ll, s o ld ; t e a c h ,
t a u g h t ; t h i n k , t h o u
gh t .
RE D UN D ANT V E RB S .
§ 1 2 0 A v e r b is r e d u n d a n t w h e n it h a s d o u b l e
.
fo r m s fo a y o f it s p a r t s
r n S o m e e x a m p le s h a v e a lr e a d y
.
b e e giv e n M a n y v e r b s o n c e s tr o n g a r e wea k in c o m
n .
m o n u s e b ut r e t a in th e ir s tr o n g fo r m s in p o e tr y
,
Th e .
fo ll o w i g a r e a m o g t h e m o r e c o m m o
n n e du da nt verbs n r n
Aw ak e , a w o k e , o r a w ak e d , a w ak e d , o r a wok e .
C le a v e , c l e av e d , o r c l a v e , c le a v e d .
( to ad h e r e to) ,
Cle av e , c l ov e , o r c le ft , c le ft , o r c l o v e n
,
( to s p l it ) ,
C l o th e , c l o th e d , o r c l a d , c lo th e d , o r c l a d ,
D ar e , d are d , or d ur s t , d are d , or d urs t .
H a n g, h u n g, or h a n ge d , h u n g, or h a n ge d ,
H e av e , h e av e d , or hove , he av e d , or ho v e n ,
L ight ,
l igh t e d , or l it , l igh t e d , or l it,
S aw, sa wed , s awe d, or s awn ,
S th e
ee ,
s e e th e d , o r s o d , s e e the d , o r s o d d e n
,
S hi ne, s h o n e , o r s h in e d , s h o n e , o r s hin e d
,
W in d
.
, w in d e d , or woun d, w in d e d , or wo u n d ,
W o rk , w o rk e d , or w r o u gh t , w or k e d , or w r o u gh t ,
D ERIVATION O F V RBS E .
§ 12 L V b er s a re d e r iv e d fr o m j
a d e c t iv e s a n d n o u n s
by ad d in g th e e n d in
g en . S uch ve r b s si
g ifn
y t o m a ke
or to d o th a t w hic h is im p lie d in t h e p r im it iv e T hu s
.
wid en m e a n s t o m a k e w id e ; l e n gth en , t o m ak e lo n g .
Let th e p up il give fur th er e x a m p l es.

Ve b s a r re d e r i v e d fr o m n o un s by a ch a n ge o f a ccen t.
The a c c en t of the ver b com e s on th e fi n al s
yl l a b le .
N o u n s, ob j ect ’
,
'
c e m e nt
'
s ur v e ,
y tr a n s p or t
’
,
’
c o n s o r t.
o bj e c t t r a n s p or t
’ ’ '
c e m e n t,
’
Ve r b s,
,
s ur v e
y , ,
c o n s or t .
Le t th e p u p il add to th is l is t, wh ic h con ta in s 1 50 wor d s .
V er bs ar e d e r iv e d fr o m n o un s by c h a n g in g a n o n -s o
n a n t c o n s on an t in t o t h e c o rr e s po n d in g so n a n t.
No u n . life , b r e a th , c l o th , g r ie f, gl a ss , u se.
Ve r b . l iv e , b r e ath e ,
c l o th e ,
g r ie v e,
gl az e ,
u s e.
Ve b r s ar e d e r iv e d fr o m L a t in r o ots by a d d in g fy ,
s ign ifyin g t o m a ke . T hu s , a mp l ify m e an s to m ak e
a mp le g l o r
ify t o m a k e g lo r i o u s cer t f
iy t o m a k e c er
ta in .
Th e e n d in
g i z e w it h G re e k a n d L a ti n r o ot s has s om e
t im e s t h e s am e m e a n in g ; as, r e a li e , z to m ak e r e al ;
A n
gl ic i ze ,
to m ak e E n
gl ish, or t o giv e an E n
gl is h fo r m
or a c c e nt.
A fe w s Won g in tran sitiv e v erb s form w ea k

Wa n sitive v er bs by a c ha n
g e of v o w el ; as, lie ,
la y ; fall , fell ; rise , r a is e ; d rin k, d r e n ch .
RE C API T UL AT I N O OF TH E V E RB .
§ 12 2 . The Ver b ha s two con ju g a t i o n s ,

the w eak d th e str o n g ; t wo s im le t e n s e s
an p ,
the p r e se n t an d the p a st ; two s u b s t a n

t i v e s , th e i n fi n i t i v e d the g e r u n d ; t wo an
a dje c t i v e for m s , the i m p e r fe c t a n d the p e r
re c t p a r t i c i p l e s ; t wo v o i c e s , t he a c t i v e
and th e p a s si ve .
I t ha s a lso an E m p h a t i c form , an d a Pro
gr e s s i v e for m , an d fo rm s wh ic h d e n o te the P er
1 24
4
ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
s on an d num ber of th e su bj ect . I t has al so a n
ob solesc e n t S u bj u n c t i v e m od e. I n fo rm
bs r e gul a r ir r e gu l a r ; c o m p l e te ,
‘
v er ar e or
d e fe c t i v e , or r e d u n dan t I n r e sp ect t o c om
.
l e m e n t , t he a re t r a n s i ti v e or i n tr a n si ti v e .
p y
The C o m p ou n d for m s are m ade u
p of t he
v erb s b e
,
h a ve , d o , m ay
,
can , m u st , sh a l l
an d w i l l , with their in finitiv e an d a dj ective

c om
p l e m en t s .
LE SS ON XXVI .
TH E P RONOUN .
§ 12 3 . A Pr o n o u n is a wor d u sed in p lac e

of a su b sta n tiv e ,
which a d mits on l
y a dj e ctiv e
m od ifier s , an d ca n s ta n d in an
y r el a t ion in
which a n o un c a n s t a n d .
Adj ec tive s a r e s om e tim es u s ed in p la ce o f n ou n s , b ut do n ot

a dm i t th e m od ifi e r s o f n o un s .
The su b sta n tive fo r which th e p r on o un s t a n d s

is
,
c a lle d the a n t e c e d e n t o f the p ron ou n It .
m ay b e a n ou n , a
p hr a se, l
a c a u se, o r a s en ten ce.
An teceden t m ea n s going befor e, b ut th e s ub s tan tive fo r w h ich a

p r on o un s ta n d s o ften com es after i t, o r is u n k n o w n W h e n we .
a sk
“
Wh o d id it ? we u se a p r o n o u n fo r a n u n k n o wn n oun .
Pr on o un s a re d iv id e d in to thr ee cla s se s , P er
so n a l
,
R e l a tiv e an d I n t e r r o ga t i v e .
P er son a l p r on o un s a re thos e which in d icate

Th e s ec on d for m s of p o s s e s sive a r e u s e d wh e n
th e th e
n am e d e n o tin g th e t hin g p o s s e s s e d is O m itt e d a s,
you rs is b e tt e r th a n m in e . Mi n e and thin e w e r e fo r

m e r ly use d fo r eu p h o n y b e fo re a w or d b egin n in g with a
vo we l ; as, m in e e ye s C o m p ar e the u se of a n and a.
In such a p hr a s e as, A b r o th e r of m in e, m in e see m s to b e
us e d in s t e a d of me .
I ts is of r e c e n t in t r o d u c tion . I t does n ot a pp e ar in
th e c o m m o n v e r s io n of the B ibl e p ub lish e d in 1 6 1 1 .
H is w a s em p l o ye d in it s p la c e ; a s, th e a l ta r and h is
ve s s e l s .
It st a n d s as th e su bj e c t of th e v e rb be follo we d b y a
su b s ta n tive o f e ith e r g e nder or n um ber
; a s I t i s t h ey ;
,
I t is th e Fr e n ch It was she .
It o ft e n s ta n d s as the su bj e c t of a ver b wh o s e re al
su bj e c t is a s e n te n c e , a n in fi n it iv e , or a claus e fo llo win g

th e v er b . I t is t h e n r ed u n d a n t, o r unn ec e ss ar
y t o th e
c o n s tr u c t io n , a nd m a y be o m itt e d b y t r a n s p o s in g th e
s e n te n c e .
I t is l ight th in g to
’
no vi o la te o n e s c ons c ien ce.
I t is n o t s tr an
g e th a t he is a s h a m ed o
f his co n d u c t.
I t is d iffi c u lt to h ea r h im d is tin c tly .
B y t r a n s p o s in g t h e s e s e nten c e s, it m ay b e o m itt e d ;
a s, to h ea r h im d is tin c tly is d iflic ult .
I t is s o m e t im e s u sed in d e fi n ite ly ; as , It r a in s ; it
th u n d e r s .
C O MP OUN D PE RS ON AL P RON O UN S .
§ 12 6 . Myself ,
thys elf, him s elf; hers elf, itself,
o urs elf, oursel v e s , o u rs elf, o u r se l v es , a n d th e m
y y
s el v e s , a r e call e
d C o m p o u n d Pe r s o n a l Pro
n ou n s. They a r e u s ed in t wo s en ses .
COMMON SCHOOL C OURSE . 127
To m ak e emp ha tic a p r e c edin g sub stan t iv e

1 .
which they m o dify ; a s , The kin g hi m self ; I m y
2 . After a tr a n s itive v er b to d e n o te th a t th e
a ct oni t er m in at e s u
p on t he su bj ect ; a s, I ha v e
hurt m yself T ha t chil d will kill itself . They
ar e then s a id t o b e u se d r e lea iv el
f y .
Reflect m ean s tu r n ba ck ; th e p r on o un tu rn s b ack o ur th ough t to

th e j
s u b ect.
Rar ely a c om p ou n d p e r s o n al p r o n o un is u s e d al on e a s
th e su bj e ct of a s e n te n c e ; a s, Thy s elf s h all s e e the a c t.
LESS ON X XVII .
RELATIVE AN D I N TE RRO G ATI VE P RONOUN S .
§ T h
12 7e
p ron ou n s , w h o
.
,
w h i c h ,
w h a t ,
t h a t , a n d a s , b esid e s s up p lying the p lac e of a

su b sta ntive p erfo rm the office of a
,
co n n ectiv e ,
a n d j oin a n a dj e c tiv e cl a u se t o t he su b st a n tiv e

which it m o difie s . When so u se d t he y ar e
ca lle d R e l a t i v e P r o n ou n s .
Who ,
which, an d wha t, wh en u se d in as king a
u estio n , a r e ca lle d I n t e r r o g a t i v e Pr on oun s
q .
Th e c hie f d iffe r e n c e b e t we e n th e p ro n oun s is in th e

p o s itio n of t h e a n t e c e d e n t, w h ic h s t a n d s b e fo re th e p r o
n oun in c a se of th e r e l a t iv e , an d in c a se of th e in t e r
ro
g a tiv e in th e a n s we r of th e q u e s tio n . Th e r e la t iv e
has u s u a lly a d efin i te a n te c e d e n t ; t h e in t e r r o a tive h as

g
o ft e n a n i n d efi n i te a n t e c e d e n t.
128 E NG LI S H GRAMMAR .
Who is th e o n ly w or d Of e ith e r c la s s whic h is al way s
a p ron oun . It a pplie s onl

y t o p ers on s ,
or t o thin gs p e r
s o n ifie d ; a s, Th e m a n wh o .
W h ic h ,
fo r m e r l y u s e d Of e r s o n s ,
p is n o w u se d onl
y O f
th in g s . I t is p rop e r ly a s p e c ifyi n
g j
a d e ct iv e , an d O fte n
is fo llo w e d b y a n o u n I n th e e xp r e s sm n O u r F a th e r
.
”
wh ic h a r t in h e a v e n w e h a v e t h e Ol d u s e Of th e p r o
n oun . M o d e rn u se re quir e s w h o a r t “
W he n e v e r in .
”
q u e stio s which is n u s e d Of p e r s o n s a n o u n is a l wa s im
y ,
p lie d a fte r it ; a s wh ic h (m a n ) w a s it ? ,
T ha t al s o a s p e c ifyin g a dj e c tiv e m ay
, ,
r e fe r e ith e r to
p e r s on s o r th ings ; a s Th e m e n tha t , o r, Th e w o r d s
th a t .
12 8. Wh a t a s a r elative is n e ver us e d wh e n the

, ,
a n t e c e d e n t is e xp r e s s e d b e fo r e it I t is O ft e n in d e fi n it e . .
I t c a a l w a y s b e tr e a t e d a s a s p e c ify in g a dj c tive
n It e .
O fte n s ta n d s a t the b e gi n n i n g o f a q u e s tio n whic h is the

Obj e c t Of a v e r b a n d s h o ul d th e n b e c all e d a n in terr oga
,
t iv e .
Ex .
—
H e g a v e m e w h a t m on e y h e b a d . Wha t is a
s p e c ifyi g n j
a d e c tiv e .
T e ll m e wh a t y o u s a w . W ha t is in t e rr oga tiv e an d
in d e fi n it e I t m ay m e a n . wh a t p er son s , wh a t s ig h ts ,
w h a t g ood s , o r a n y t hin g el s e Th e n o u n thin gs m a y b e .
u s e d a ft e r it The c l a u s e w ha t y ou s a w is t he Obj e c t o f
.
te l l, an d is c all e d a n in d ir ec t qu e s tio n .
This is wh a t I w a n te d . The c l a u se wh a t I w a n ted is

t he c om p le m e n t Of is . Th e in d e fi n ite a n t ec e d e n t of
w h a t is Wh a t is th e Obj e c t Of wa n ted ; o r if
o m it t e d . ,
it b e c alle d a s p ec ifyin g a dj ec tiv e it m o d ifi e s a n o m it t e d

'
n ou If a
n. a n t e c e d e n t is e xp e s s e d w h a t is c h a n e d
n r
g ,
t o w h i ch th e in d e fi n it e fo r m to th e d e fi n ite .
S om e tim e s th e a n te c e d en t wha t is e xp r e s s ed in the

130 ENGL IS H GRAM MA R .
w o uld b e in d e fi n ite , an d a d e fi n ite r el a t iv e w oul d b e

u se d a s, An y on e wh o com es , e t c .
Wha t is s o m e tim e s a n a d v e r b in th e p s e n s e Of
; a r tly
wh a t w ith r u n n in g, a n d w h a t w ith s h o u tin g , m

as, y
b r eat h was Sp e n t .
P RONOMINAL AD J ECTI VE S .
§ 1 3 1 . C e r ta in s p e c ifyin g a dj e ct iv e s ar e s o O fte n u s e d
with o u t a n ou n foll o w in g t h e m , t h a t th e y a r e s o m e tim e s
c a lle d p Wh a t w hich a d th a t a e e x a m p le s
ro n ou n s. ,
n r .
T h e y a e n ot s tr ic tly p r o n o u s b u t m ay b e c a lle d P r o
r n ,
n o m i n a l a d j e c t iv e s T h e ir u m b e r is n o t fix e d b e
. n
,
c a u s e t h e c l a s s ifi c a tio n d e p e n d s p in c ip ally u p o n the r
f e qu e n c y O f t h e ir u s e
r This a n d th a t ( pl ur a l; th es e
.
an d th os e ) a r e c a lle d D e m o n s t r a t iv e s . They h a v e th e
sam e r oo t as th e, b u t a r e m o r e em p h a tic . This r e fe r s
to th e n e are r ; th a t t o t h e m o re r e m o te .
E a ch , ever y , ei th er , n ei th er a n d o ther ar e c alle d D is

tr ib u t i v e s .
E a ch is u se d Of a n
y n um b er t a ke n on e by on e ; a s,
E ac h o f y o u s h a ll have a S h are .
E ver y is m o r e em p ha tic th a n e a c h , a n d is u s e d Of an
y
num be r m o r e th a n t w o .
E i th er , n ei th er a n d o th er a r e u s e d Of o n e o f t wo . Th e
e n d in g e r is c om p a r a tiv e ,
an d the y s ho uld n ot be use d
Of m o r e th a n t wo . I n s te a d Of s a yin g , E ith er Of the

th r e e , s a y, An y f
on e o th e th r ee .
Al l ,
a n o th er , bo th f ew f o r m er
, , ,
la tter , m a n y , m u ch ,
n o n e, o n e, ow n , s a m e, s ever a l, an d s u ch ar e e n e r a ll
g y
cl a s s e d as p r o n om i n al j
a d e c tiv e s . On e a d m it s a c om
pl e t e d e c le n s io n , an d m ig h t b e c a lle d an in d e fi n it e
p e r
so n al p ron oun . B o th a pp lie s t o t w o t a k e n t o g e th e r .
§ 13 2 . E a ch o th er an d on e a n o th er are c a ll e d
Recip r oca ls . E a ch o th er is use d w h e n t wo ar e s p ok e n

of ; o n e a n o ther is u s e d Of a n
y n um b e r l a r ge r th a n t wo .
The y a d m it Of d e c le n s io n , and ad d t h e d ec le n s io n end
in g s t o th e l a s t w or d .
T he y we r eb e atin g e a c h oth e r ,
m e a n s , Th e y ea ch ( Of
th e t w o ) w e r e b e a ti g th e o th er
n .
L ittl e c h ild r e n , lo ve o n e a n o th er ; th a t is , d o y ou ea ch
on e lo v e a n o ther , a n y o th er , o r , a ll th e o ther s .
LESS ON XXVIII .
TH E AD J E C TI V E
§ 13 3 The Ad je c t i v e is a wor d which m odi

.
fies Or lim it s a sub s tan tiv e b y n am in g so m e qu ality

or att ri u te ;b b y p oi n ti
orn
g o u t whi ch ,
or h o w
m a n y ar e m e a n t I t c an form a p art Of the
.
r e dic a te , b u t ca n n e v er b e a su bj ect
p .
T h er e are kin d s Of a dj ectiv es

thre e .
1 . D e s c r i p t i v e A dj ect iv e s or Nam es ,
Of
Q u alitie s .
p 2 . Sp e c ify i n g A dj ectives , which p oin t o ut
which ar e mea n t .
3 . Num er al A dj ectiv es , which d en ote N u m

b er .
D e s c r ip tiv e j
a d e c tiv e s a r e d iv id e d in t o V a r i a b l e and
I n v a r ia b l e . Va r ia b le j
a d e c tiv e s n a m e q u al itie s w hic h
va r y in d e gr e e ; a s , s o u r , c os tly , l a rge , sma ll . I uv a ri
a b le a dj e c tiv e s n a m e q u a litie s w hic h c an n ot be v a rie d
in d e gr e e ; a s , g o ld en , s q u a r e, tr ia n g u la r .
P r op er a dj e c t ive s a r e d e rive d fr o m p rop e r n ou n s , a n d

ar e c om m e n c e d with a ca p ital l e tte r ; a s W

ebs teria n
in t e ll e c t, S o c r a tic m e t h o d . A fte r lon g a n d fr e q u e n t u s e

j
s u c h a d e c tiv e s m ay b ecom e c om m on ; as m a r tia l, s te n
tor ia n .
Ma t e r ia l j
a d e c tiv e s d e n o te the m a t erial Of whic h
any thin g is m a d e ; s o m e tim e s th a t whic h it resem b le s .
T he y are d e r ive d fr o m n oun s by a ddin g e n as g o ld en,
fi a a en , l ea d en , br a z en , (fr o m br a s s . N o tic e th e c on
s on a n t c h a n ge . ) A n o un is O ft e n use d in s t e a d Of a
m a t e r ial j
a d e c tiv e ; as ir on c h a in s , s tee l b o lt s ,
s il ver
c or d .
§ 13 4 . S p e c i f yi n g dj ect iv es in clude
a a , a n,
and the, the r on omin al a dj e c tiv e s, a n d fe w

p a
others .
Num er a l a dj ectives are Of three kin d s .
1 . C a r di n a l s , which a re u se d in c ou n tin
g,
an d a n s w er the q u estion . H o w m an y ? as , on e,
tweh e, twen ty .
2 . O r d i n a l s , whi ch d en ote which one in

or der , e ith er in time or in p la ce ; as
fi st, fifth ,
n in th.
3 M u l t i p l i c a t i v e s , which den ote the n um

.
b er t a ken together or t he n um b er of p a rt s whic h

,
m ake up the whol e ; a s , twofold, fow fold, single,
On e b y o ne , t wo b y t wo , e tc . , ar e c all e d d is tr ibu ti ve
n u m e r al s .
A ver b al j
a d ec t iv e 95 ) is d e r iv e d fr o m a ver b by
in fl e c tio n , a n d a d m its v e r b al m odifiers .
BY D IMINUTION .
le ss ra p id ,
le as t ra
p id .
IRREGULAR C OMP ARI S ON .
G ood b e tte r ,
B ad,
E v il , w or s e , w or s t .
I ll ,
M uch
m or e , m o st
M an y
.
N e ar, n e are r , n e a r e s t, o r n e xt .
L a te , lat er , or l atte r , l a te s t , or la s t .
Old , Old e r ,
o r e l d e r, O ld e s t ,
o r e ld e s t.
Far, fa r th e r , or furth e r , fa r t h e s t, or fur th e s t .
L ittle ,
le s s , le a st .
Mu ch d e n o te s qu an tity ,
is S in gu l a r ; m a n y d e n ot e s
a nd
num b er ,
an d Is p lu r al . L a ter a n d la tes t ar e us e d o nly
Of t im e ; la tter and la s t o f e ith e r t im e , or p la c e . E ld er
a n d e ld es t a r e n o w u s e d o n ly O f p e r s on s .
S p e c ifyi g n u m e r a l a d m a t e ial a dj e c tiv e s a re in v a

n , ,
n r
r ia b l e All n o un s u s e d a s a dj e c t iv e s a e in v a ia b le
. r r
,
t h o u gh s o m e m a y b e m o difi e d b y a d v e b s r .
Th e a dj e c tiv e s j u ior s e n io r m aj o m in o r in t e rior

n , ,
r
, , ,
e x t e io r p r io r p o s t e r io r a n t e r io r a d s u p e r io r a r e L a tin
r , , , ,
n
c o m p a a t iv e s r .
S o m a dj e c tiv e s t ak e m os t a s a s up e lativ e e n d ing

e r
,
in s t e a d Of p r e fix in g it a s a n a d v e r b ; a s f o r em os t hin d , ,
m os t .
§ 13 7 . In a n al
y z in
g a s e n te n c e the d e gr e e Of an
j
a d e c tiv e n e e d n o t b e m e n tio n e d , u n le s s it is e xp r e s s e d
b y the e n d in T h e m o d ifi c a t io n b a d ve r bs d o es n ot
g .
y
d iffe r fr o m a n y o th e r m o d ifi c a tio n .
Th e j
a d e c t iv e o f w h at e v e r c l a s s u s u a lly s t a n d s b e fo re
it s n oun. E x c ep t w h e n it is m o d ifi e d b y a n a dju n c t
fo llo win g ; a s, an a g r e e a b l e m a n ; a m a n a r e e a ble in
g
m ann e r .
S o m e a d e c t iv e s , j m o s tly
p ou n d s Of a c a n b e u s e d c om ,
O n ly i th e p r ed ic a te ; a s a sle e p alive a w a k e
n , , ,
.
S m e a dj e c tiv e s wh ic h a e r e a lly in v a ia b le a r e c o m
o r r
p a e d b y w a y Of e m p h a s i s o b e c a u s e w e d o o t u e
r ,
r n s
w o d s in th e ir ewa c t m e a i g
r W e s a y t he h o u e is n n .
,
s
ful le r th a n u sua l to -
ni
g h t ,
m e a n in
g m or e n ea r l
y f u ll .
B u t, O f c o ur s e , if it w e r e full it c o ul d n o t b e m o r e th a n
full . S O we sa
y th a t o n e b a ll is r o u n d er th a n a n o th e r ;
t h a t is , it c o m e s n e ar er to a gl o b ul ar s h a p e .
§ I 3 S . Th e s p e c ifyi n
g j
a d e c tiv e s an or a , a n d th e
ar e O fte n c a lle d a r t ic le s .
An is t h e s am e as o n e, an d a ny is c l o s e l y allie d in
m e a n in g . B e for e a c on s on an t sou n d n is d r o pp e d fo r
eu ph on y . AS an is s in
gul a r , it c a n o n ly be u se d b e fo re
a n o un in t h e S in gul a r. Th e h a s th e s am e r o ot a s th is
an d th a t. I t is u se d w ith n o u n s Of e ith e r n u m b er .
An in ge n e r al s t a t e m e n t s , in d e fi n it ely ; th e O f
is u se d
s o m e thin g d e fi n it e l y k n o wn ; a s , s a w a m a n in d e fi n it e )
( I
p a s s in g I n a m om e n t s a w th e m a n ( d e fi n ite ) t u r n
. I
b a ck ,
etc.
O fte n a n an dp rin c ip ally in e m p h a s is

th e d iffe r .
An h o n e s t m a n s t h e o b l e s t w o rk o f G o d
’
n .
Th e h o n e s t m a n s t h e n o b l e s t w o r k Of G o d
’
.
I n th e e xp r e s s io n s th e m o r e th e b e tte r th e , ,
is an
a d v e rb .
C e r t a in n u m e r a ls , a s h u n d r ed , th ou s a n d , a re u se d as
c olle c t iv e n o un s in t h e s in g u l a r , a n d a d m it th e a r tic le
an ; a s, a tho u s a n d (of
) m en .
In such e xp re s s io n s as m a ny a tim e, th e p hr a s e m a n y
a has a d is trib u tiv e for c e , a n d c a n a r ee

g with a S in gul ar
n o un .
LE SS ON XX IX .
TH E A D VERB .
§ 13 9 . The Ad v e r b is a wor d whos e offic e is

t o m o d ify ver bs ,
a dj e c tiv es an d oth er a d v e rb s .
It r a r el
y m o d ifies r e o s itio n s
p p ,
an d fr e q uen tly
se r v e s a s a c on n e c tiv e .
I ts n am e m eans a d d ed to a v er b, a n d it s ta n d s in t h e
sam e r e la t io n b th a t th e a dj e c tiv e d o e s t o t h e
t o t he ver
n o un ; s o t h a t a ll m o d ifi e r s o f t h e v e r b a r e s o m e t im e s
c a lle d c o lle c t iv e ly a d v e b ia l m o d ifi e r s
, ,
r .
A fe w a d ve b s a d m it th e i fl e c tio n Of c o m p a r i s o n
r n ,
a n d a e c o m p a r e d lik e
r a dj e c tiv e s ; as s o on s oo e r , ,
n
,
s o o n e s t.
Th e fo llo w in g a d ver bs a re ir re gul a r in c om p ar is o n

W e ll b e t te r b e s t ;
, ,
ill, m u c h an d litt l e , w h o s e a d v e b ia l r
fo r m s a re th e s a m e a s t h e j
a d e c t iv e fo r m s a lr e a d y g iv en
136 ) fa r , fa r th e r , fa r t h e s t ; fo r th , fur th e r , fu r th e s t .
A b
d v e r s a r e d e r iv e d fr o m n o u n s , a d e c tiv e s , p r o j
n o uns a n d p e p o s itio n s
r .
Ma ny wo r d s a r e e it h e r j
a d e c t iv e s or a d ve r bs a c c ord
in g t o t h e c o n n e c t io n . T he y are O ft e n in te r c h a n g e d in
p o et r
y , e ith e r fo r rh
y m e or fo r m e t e r .
D E CTIV
A J E S. AD VE RBS .
Mu ch g o ld , Mu ch w o r s e ,
Th e f a r th er Sid e ,
T he y w e n t f a r ther .
Th e s ti l l h o ur , H e fa r e d s til l b e tte r .
14 0 . Many a dve r bs are d e r iv e d fr o m d e s c r ip t iv e

j
a d e c t iv e s by a dd in g ly ; as, b r a v e ly ,
e a rn e s t ly , k n ow
p o u n d a p r on o u n. Th er eof w a s fo r m e rly used as th e

p o s s e s s iv e O f i t as, G z a a and t he v illa g e s t h e r e
of . Wh er eof w a s use d in s t e a d Of o
f wha t or o f w h ic h ;
a s, Th e co u n tr y wh e r e o f y e s p ak e Th er eof a n d wh er e .
of ar e j
a d ec ti ve m o d ifier s O f s u b s t a n t iv e s , a n d m a y b e
c alle d j
a d e c tiv e s , o r s e p a r a t e d i t o th e p e p o s ition r n an d
it s s u b s e q ue n t, c a l lin g the fi r st p ar t a p r o n o u n .
§ 1 4 2 . The p r m crp al r ela tion s d en ote d b y

a d v er b s a re , m a n n e r t i m e p l a ce d i rec
, , ,
tio n d e gr e e , and n um b er . B e sid e s t he s e

‘
t h er e are m o dal a dv er bs which m od ify the

a sser t on i ; an d a d v er b ia l c o n n e c ti v e s .
Ad v b er s Of M ann er an sw e r th e q u e s tio n H ow ? a s,
W e ll , b ly s killfu lly
no
, .
A d v e r b s Of P l a c e a re su b d iv id e d in t o t h o s e
-
of
1 . P l a c e in w hic h ; a s h er e y o n d er , h er ea bo u ts , , .
2 . P l a c e f r om w h ic h ; a s then ce a w a y , f o r th , ,
.
3 . P l a c e to wh ic h ; a s h o m ew a r d , a s h or e, th ither
, .
Ad v b er s Of T im e in c l u d e t h o s e w h ic h d e n o t e
1 . T im e p re s e n t ; a s n o w to d a y y et n o w a , ,
-
, ,
-
2 . T im e p a s t ; a s a lr ea dy y es ter d a y f o r m er ly
, , , .
3 . T im e fu t ur e ; a s to m o r r ow her eafter h en cefo r th

,
-
, , .
4 . T im e in ge n e r a l ; a s a lwa y s f o r ever a y e , , , .
5 . T im e r e p e a t e d ; a s of ten o n ce thr ice u s u a lly , , , , .
Adv b f D g er s O e re e ar e d iv id e d in t o
1 Ad v b
. f bu er s o a n d a nc e or e xc es s ; as, g r ea t ly, to
u ll l tog e th er
ta lly , f y ,
a .
2 . Adv b er s Of e q u a lity or s ufli c ie n c

y; a s, e n o ug h ,
r ecis el s o , a s , even u i te.

p y , q ,
3 . A d ver bs o f d e fi c ie n c
y; a s, less , h a r d ly , s c a r cely ,
a r tl
p y .
COMMON SCHOOL C OURSE . 139
Ad v b er s of nu m b er m ay b e r e fe rr e d t o Tim e r ep ea ted
and P la ce in o r d er .
M o d al a d ve r bs m o d ify t h e a s s e rt io n , a n d m ay b e
1 . E m p h atic ; a s , v er i ly , cer ta in ly , i n d eed .
2 . Affi m tiv r a e ; a s, es
y , ( Ob s o le t e
y ea ) , w h ic h m o difi e s
e ith e r a p i
r e c e d ng v e r b ,
o r a s e n te n c e fo llo w in g .
3 . N e
g a t iv e ; a s, n o ( u se d in m o d ifyin g lik e ye s ) , n o t,
n ow i s e, n a .
y
4 . D o ub tful ; as , p er h ap s , p oss ibly , p er c h a n ce.
Adv bi er al c o n n e c t iv e s a re a dv e r b s w h ic h c o n n ect a
c la u s e to a s e n te n c e . T h e y a r e ge n e r a lly d e r iv e d fr o m
the r e la t iv e pro n o un
; as, why , w h er efor e , w h en . T he y
m o d ify th e v e rb Of th e c la u s e . O c c a s io n a l ly t h e y h a v e
a n a n t e c e d e n t a d ve r b in th e p rin c ip a l c l au s e a s,
T h en Sh all w e k n o w , when C hr is t s h a ll c o m e . Oft e n

th e a n te c e d e n t is a n ou n a s , at th e tim e wh e n ( at wh ic h)
k in g s g o o ut . t o wa r.
§ 14 3 . Th e a d v er b an d th e p r e p o s ition ar e c lo s e ly
r el a t e d , a nd p r e p os itio n
a W ith o u t a s u b s e q u e n t is
u s u all an a d ve r b
y .
I t is t he usa
g e of th e l a n gu a ge th at th e s u bj e c t shoul d
s ta n d b e fo r e the p re d ic a t e . We n o t ic e d in § 1 2 5 th a t
w he n a s e n te n c e is th e s ubj e c t
O fte n p r e c e d e s the ,
it
v e b SO t h a t it m a y
r ,
o t s t a n d w it h o u t a a pp a e t s u b
n n r n
e c t T h e a d v e b th er e is u s e d in t h e s a m e w a
r b f
j .
y e o re
t h e v e r b be ; a s Th er e w e r e m a n y , Th er e is n o d o u b t . .
Ther e will b e a S h o we r T his s o un d s le s s a b r up t tha n

.
,
A Sh o we r w ill b e N O d o ub t is ,
.
W o rd s used fo r s o u n d , a n d n o t a ffe c t in
g t h e s e ns e are
c a ll e d E xp l e t i v e s . T h er e a s u se d a b o ve is a g o o d ex
am ple . I t is s a id t o b e u s e d exp letively , a nd h as no
m o d ifyin g p o we r .
LESS ON XXX .
TH E PREPOSITION .
§ 14 4 . A Pr ep o sitio n i s a wor d whose Office

is to c o n n e c t a s ub s t a n t v e
'
i with a wor d w hic h is

m od ifie d b y t he p r ep osition a n d th e foll o win g
s ub s ta n tiv e in a m a n n er d en ot e d b y t he
p p
re
osit ion .
The wo r d p r ep os ition m e a n s p l a ced befor e, b e c a u s e

t h e p r e p o s itio n s t a n d s b e fo r e th e s u b s t a n t ive The s ub .
s t a n t iv e wh ic h fo ll o w s is c all e d t h e su b se q u e n t Of t h e
p r e p o s itio n . Th e p r ep o s itio n and its su b s e q ue n t are
t o g e t he r c a ll e d an a d ju n ct. The p r e p osition is c a lle d
t he b a se Of t he ad u j nc t .
Ap d a s a s ub s e q ue n t Of a p r e p o s itio n
'
r on o u n u s e h as
th e j
o b ec tive fo r m .
To t he lis t Of p re p o s ition s g iv e n in 3 4, th e follo wing

m ay b e a dd e d
a b o a rd ,
a th wa r t, er e , t h r o u gh o u t,
a m id s t , b e s id e s , o ut , u n d e rn e a t h ,
a m o n g s t, b e twix t ,
r ou nd , u n to , within .
S om e Of th e a b o ve are onl
y d iff e r e n t for m s O f t h e
p r e p o sition s giv e n b efor e . All p r e p o s itio n s a r e Of a x on S

o ri in
g .
§ 1 4 5 . The follo win g are p r e p os ition s le s s fre

q ue n tly use d. T ho s e in ita lic s a re b o rr o we d fr o m fo r
ei l a n g u ag e s , an d n o t full r e c o n iz e d a s d
g n are y g g o o
E n
gl ish
A (a s a -fish in g ) , a b a ft ,
a d o wn , a fo r e , a sl a n t , a s tr id e ,
d e s p it e , in s id e , m a ug r e , m in u s , o ut s id e , p er , p lu s, sa ns,
ve rs u s , via .
S o m e t im e s th e p r e p o sitio n is in c o r p o r a te d with th e
v er b in m ea n in g , b u t n ot by p o s itio n a s, T he y wen t by
th e h o us e. B y is j oi ne d to th e v er b in se nse ; n ot t o th e
n o un. C om p ar e , The y w e n t by w a ter , wh e r e by is a
p r e p o s it io n .
H e br o u g h t up a fa m ily ; H e is w e ll sp o k en of; He
g a ve up h is s it u a tio n , a r e ot h e r e x a m ple s Of a p rep o s i
t io n p o u n d e d with a v e rb
c om .
T wo p r e p o s it io n s a r e s o m e t im e s u s e d w ith o n e su b
s e qu e t ; nas O ur a c q u a i t a c e w i th a n d m a s t e y of
,
n n r
E glis h B e tte O ur a c qu a in t an c e with E nglis h a n d

n . r,
o ur m a s t e ry Of it .
Th e su b s e q ue n t Of a p r e p o s ition m ay b e an e n tir e
cla u s e ; as,
E r e the b lu e he ave n s we re s tr e tc h e d a b roa d .
Till th e w o rk wa s fi nishe d .
LESS ON XXX I .
TH E CONJ U N C TION AN D T H E E X C LAMATION .
§ 1 4 8 . The C o n ju n c t i o n is that p a rt Of
ee ch wh os e Offic e is t o co n n e c t w o r d s,
s
p
p h r a se s, c la u se s
,
an d sen ten c e s.
The C o nj u n c tion fo r m s no
p a rt of th e sen
t e n ce in whic h it d s a n d ha s n o m o d ifyin g
s ta n ,
p o we r . I t s m e a n in g d e ter min es t he r e la tion in

which th e t er m s c o n n e c te d s ta n d t o e a c h o t her .
Ad ve r b a d e la tiv e p o o u s m a y c o n e c t c l a u s s
s n r r n n n e
to s e n te n c e s , but d o n ot c on nec t wo rd s , nor in d e p e n d

e n t s e n te n c e s .
W or d s c on n ected by j
c o n u n c t io n s a r e u s u a ll
y Of th e
C OMMON SCHOOL COURSE . 1 43
sam e p a rt Of s p e e ch ,
an d in th e s a m e r e l a tio n in th e s en
te n c e ; a s, S a m u el o r Ro b er t will come a n d h e lp y o u .
1 4 9 . Th e fo ll o win g lis t s c o n t a in th e c o m m o n c on
1 . P ur e j
c o n un c tio n s , o r w o rd s u s e d o nl
y to c o n n e c t.
Alth o u gh
,
a nd, b e c a us e ,
if, l e s t , n e v e r th el e s s , n or , or,
t h a n , t h o u gh , u n le s s , wh e r e a s , wh e th e r .
2 . C o nj u n c tio n s or p r p o s itio n s B ut
e .
,
fo r , S in c e .
3 . C o nj u n c tio n s , or a d ve b s Als o a s
r .
, ,
e ve n , t h e n , y e t.
4 . C o nj un c tio n s , j
o r a d e c t iv e s . B o th ,
r
e it h e , n e it h e r ,
th a t x
C o nj u n c tio n s a re cla s si fied in t o
1 . C o -o r d i n a t e , w hic h c on n e ct w o r d s in t h e sa m e
r e l a t io n , o r s e n t e n c e s in t he sa m e fo r m ; as,
Ar t is l o n g, and tim e is fl e e t in g .
2 . Su b -o r d in a t e , wh ic h c o n n e c t a c la u se to a p r in c i
p al s e n te n c e , m a k in g t h e s e n te n c e com p le x ; as, T his
w o rk will b e d o n e , if y o u will d o yo ur p art .
§ 1 5 0 . Th e fo llo win g are th e p i

r nci p al m e a n in gs
e xp r es s ed by j
c o n u n c tio n s
1 . Ad d i t i o n ; a s, The b li nd and d u m b bo th Sp a ke
a n d s a w. C o nj u n c t io n s c o n n e c tin g t e r m s in t h e sam e
'
r e la t io n , a n d to be c o n s id e r e d t oget he r, a r e c a ll e d Cop u
l a t ive .
2 . Sep a ra t io n ; a s, T ak e one or the o t h e r. E ith er

y ou a re m is t a k e n , or I a m . T he s e j
c o n u n c t io n s i m lyp
a c h o ic e b e t we e n t wo , a n d a r e c a lle d D isj u n c t iv e .
3 . Op p o s i t io n , or Co n tr a st
; as, H e is r ic h , but
e c o n o m ic a l ; H e w a s d e fe a t e d , y e t h e
p e r s e v e r e d .
4 . C a u s e ; a s , Th e w a ll fe ll, beca u s e t h e s t r e a m und er
m in e d it . T his d e pe nd e n t c la u s e is c a lle d a Ca u s a l
c la us e .
5 . C o n c l u sio n ; a s, H e i s in n o c e n t , ther efo r e h e is

c on fide n t. Th en is o ft e n u s e d in s t e a d Of t he r e fo r e .
6 . P u r p o se ; as, He came th a t h e m ig h t r e c e ive his

c o m m is s io n . I n s te a d O f a c l a u s e wit h th a t, an I n fi n itive
is O fte n used ; as, He c am e to r e c e iv e .
7 . C o n d it io n If y o u wis h, y o u c a n h a v e it
a s, .
8 . C o n c e ss i o n ; a s ,
Th o ug h h e sl a y m e , y et Will I
t ru s t in h im .
9 . Co mp a r iso n ; as, H e le a rn s fa ster tha n I . H e is

a s s tr o n g a s a lio n .
C o m p a r is o n d iffe r e n c e is d e n ote d b y tha n ; c om

of
p ar is o n Of e qu alit y b y a s As O fte n c o n n e c ts a n o un t o
.
a n o th e r n o un wh ic h m o d ifi e s it ; a s, He sent h im as
am b a s s a d or .
§ 1 5 L C o nj u n c tio n s are O fte n use d c or r el a tively ;

th a t is , if j
o n e c o n u n c tio n is u sed fi rs t m e m b e r
in th e Of
t wo te rm s c o n n e c te d , t he o th e r is e m p l o y e d in t h e
s e c on d . Th e p rin c ip al c o rr e l a t ive s a r e b o th an d ,
e ith e r or , w h e th e r or , n e ith e r n or , if
t h e n , th o u gh e t o r s till.
y ,
I f th e fir s t of o n e Of th e s e p a irs is used in th e fi rs t
m e m b e r, it s c o r r ela tive m u st b e use d in t he s e c o n d .
“
l Veith er th e on e or th e o th e r
”
is n o t c o rr e c t , b e c a us e
n eith er q u ir e s th e c o r ela t ive n or Th e fi rs t Of th e
re r .
co e l a t iv e s is O ft e n o m it te d
rr .
W h e t wo c o n n e c tiv e s c o m e t oge th e r th e re is u s u ally

n ,
a t s p o s it io n o r a n e llip s is o f s o m e c l a u s e
ra n , .
An d if it b e t r u e , wh y d o y o u fe a r
An d wh y d o yo u fe a r , if it b e tr u e
I n the fi rs t Of th e a b ov e , th e t wo j
c o n un c tio n s a n d
and if come t o g e th e r . B y t r a n s p o s in g th e senten c e,
th ey a re se pa rate d b o ught in th e ir p r o p e r o r d e r a n d
and r ,
c o nn e c tin g th e c o m p l e x s e n t n c e to So m e p ec e d i g s e n
e r n
A S e n t e n c e is t he c om p l e te ex
p i
r e ss on Of
a th ou ght b y m e a n s Of w or d s .
The ex
p r e s s ion Of a th ou ght in v ol ves , at l east ,
thr ee thin gs .
1 . S om e su bj ect Of th ou ght .
2 . S o m e ide a which is c o n n ecte d with the

su bj e ct .
3 . S om e w or d which exp r ess es th e con n ection
of the fir st a n d s e con d id e a s .
T hu s if On e h a s t he id e a of g l a s s ,
a n d c on n e c ts w ith
it in h is m in d t h e id e a Of b r ittl e n e s s ,
he e xp r es ses th e
c o n n e c tio n of th e t w o Id e as by a w o r d whic h a s s e r ts ;
as, gl a s s is b r it tle .
Th e se con d id ea m ay ta k e a n a sser tive for m ,

or t wo id ea s m a y b e ex
p r ess e d in on e w or d a s,
t r ees gr ow .
Th e fir s t id e a is t h a t Of tr ees , th e s e c o n d , Of
g r o w th ,
and th e w o r d g r o w a s s e r ts th e s e c o n d id e a Of th e fi r s t.
A s e n t e n c e m u s t c o n t a in t w o w o r d s .
§ 15 4 . The Su b je c t o f a sen t e n ce is tha t Of
which s o m et hin
g is a s s ert e d .
The Pr e d i c a t e Of a se n te n c e is t hat w hich

is a sser t e d Of t he su bj ect .
The E l e m en ts Of a s e n te n c e a re th e su bj ect
and the p r e d ic a te .
The s ubj ect of a se n t e n c e is a su b sta n tiv e ,
e ith e r with or w ithou t m od ifie rs The p r e d icate

.
is a v er b e ithe r m o d ifie d or u n m o d ifie d .

C O MM ON S C HO OL COURSE . 1 47
A thou ght m ay b e ex
p r es s e d as a d ecla ra tion
of t he belief ,
or the p urp ose of t he s ea k er a s a
p ,
u estio n , as c om m a n d ex cla m a t io n .
q a ,
or as an
The w or d a sser t
p is
y u se d to ex r es s an on e of
these for m s of com m un ica tin g th ou ght .
There a r e fou r kin d s of se n t en c e s ; D e c l a r a

tiv e , I n t e r r o ga t i v e , I m p e r a tiv e
,
and Ex
c la m a tor y .
( S ee
§ 58 ,
A d ecla r a tive s en t en ce i s call e d a Pr o p o s i
tio n A g e n e r a l p r op o sition ha s n o lim it,
.
or m odifica t ion ; a s , Fire b urn s Iron is he a vy . .
A l i m i t e d p r op osition is r estricte d t o bou n d s

d efin e d by lim itin g wor d s ; a s, This fir e b u rn s
Th e affir m at io n of th e l a s t s e n te n c e is r e s tr ic t e d to
on e s p e c ifi ed fir e , an d bu r ns is m o d ifi e d b y an a d ver b
of m a n ner .
15 5 . An y wor d w hich lim it s t he a

pp li ca tion ,
ex p l a i n s th e m ea n in g, or c om
p l et es the s e n s e of
a n ot h e r w o rd , is s ai d to m od if y tha t wor d .
My N e wfo u n dla n d d o g l ik e s t o s w im .
T h is lim it e d ; it is m a d e o f b u t o n e d o g ,
a s s e r tio n is
a n d t h e w o r d d og h a s t wo m o d i e rs , o n e t ell in g w h a t fi
k in d O f d o g , a n d t he o th e r t o wh o m t he d o g e lo n g s b .
L ik es h a s a m o d ifi e r com p le ti n
g it s m e a n in , t e l lin
g g
W h a t t h e d o g lik e s .
The S i m p l e s u bj e c t is t he s ub sta n tiv e with

o u t m o d ifie rs ; t he S im p le p r e d ica te is t he v e rb
witho u t m od ifiers .
The L o gi c a l subj ect a n d p r ed ica t e a re the

s im l e s ubj ect a n d p r e d ica te with t heir r es
p ect
p
iv e m od ifiers .
The ho n est m a n who fou n d the p ur se r e s t or e d

it with ou t d ela y t o the own er .
Th e s im p le su bj e c t of th e a b o ve is m a n , t he s im p le
p re d ic a t e is The l o g ic a l s ubj e c t is the h o n es t
r es tor ed .
m a n w h o f o u n d the p u r s e th e l o g ic a l p r e d ic a t e is
r es to r ed i t w i th o u t d e la y to th e o w n er .
A Si m p l e ha s sub ect j
§ 15 6 . s en t en ce on e
a n d on e p d ica tere .
A co m p ou n d s en t en ce is m a de u p of sim p le
s e n t en ces com bin e d I t c a n b e s ep a ra t e d in t o
.
s im p l e s e n t en c e s .
E ither th e su bj ect or the p r ed ic a t e , or b oth,

m ay b e m a de com d; J o hn an d J a m es
p ou n a s,
r ea d an d wr it e .
A Cl a u s e co n t a in s t he elem en ts Of a s en t en ce ,
b ut d o es n o t m a ke co m
p l ete se n s e . I t is a l wa
y s
u s ed a s a m o d ifie r .
A Co m p l e x sen t e n c e c on ta in s a cla u s e a s a
m od ifier ; a s, T he y a ls o s er v e who on ly sta n d
a n d wa it .
A s e n te n c e m ay b e b o th c om pou n d a n d c om p le x . A
c om p le x s e n te n c e m ay c o n t a in s e v e r a l c l a u s e s , e ith e r in
th e su bj e c t or in t h e p r e d ic a t e .
An I n d ep en d en t sen t en c e m a k es sen se by
its elf ; a d ep en d en t se n t e n ce is t he s a m e as a
The a pp o sitive u s u a ll y s t a n d s a ft e r th e w o r d wh ic h it
m o difi e s , an d is in t h e s a m e ca s e 92 ) as th e m o di fie d
w or d . O fte n e qu iv a le n t i
I t is n m e a n in g t o an a dj ec tive
c la u s e
; as N a p ol e o t,
h e fi rst n, em pe ro r
; or, N p ol
a e on
wh o w a s fi s t e m p e o r r r .
Th e d iffe r e n t w o r d s wh ic h m a k e p u a C o m p le x n oun
m ay b e re
g pp o s itiv e s
a rd e d as a p os se s ,
a n d w h e n th e
s iv e r el a tio n is t o b e e xp e s s e d b y a n o u n m o d ifi e d b y
r
a n a pp o s it iv e th e e x e d t o t he l a s t w o rd ; a s
’
s is a ,
nn
,
Ki g Ric h a r d s c r o w n ; A lle n th e b o o k s e lle s s t o e

n
’
r
’
r .
T he a pp o s it iv e is s o m e t im e s c o n n e c t e d with th e n o u n
by th e c o j u n c tio n a s ; a s I g a v e h im a b all a s h is
n ,
bir th d a y p r es en t .
I
n s t e a d O f a n o u n in a pp o s itio n , an j
ad unc t w ith th e
p r e p o s itio n c an s o m e tim e s be em p l o ye d ; as, th e c ity
B o s to n ,
or, the c ity o f B o s to n .
Th e wh o le is O ft e n
m o d ifi e d b y it s p a r ts in a pp o s itio n
w ith it ; a s , T h e y w e n t in h a s te ; s om e to t h e fi e ld , s om e
t o th e g a r d e n , s o m e t o th e fo r e s t .
A n o un is s o m e t im e s in a pp o s itio n w ith a s e n te n c e or
s o m e th in
g i m l i p
e d in it ; a s , I m u s t t ell t h e wh o l e t r u th
a p a in ful d u ty Th e t r u th th a t a ll m en a r e cr ea ted
.
equ a l is s e lf- e vid e n t .
Th e p r on ou n i t is O fte n pp o s itio n w ith a c l a u s e

in a ,
s e n te n c e , o r ph rase fo ll o win g th e v e b o f whic h i t is th e

r
su bj e c t I t is g a ood th in g to g i ve th a n ks .
A su b s ta n tive u s e d in a pp o s ition to t wo or m o re
n o un s m u s t b e in th e p l ur a l ; a s, H e le n a n d M a ry , p p i ls
u
in the s a m e s c h o ol .
§ l58 . A n ou n or
p r on ou n in the Pos ses s iv e
C a s e lim its the n o un d en otin g the thin g p o s
s ess e d ; as, his b ook . Ma ry s ’
sla t e Achill es
.
’
C O MMO N S C HOOL COURSE . 151
Adj ectiv es Of all kin d s in cl u din g

,
i
a rt cl e s ,
p r on om in a l , v er b al d escrip tiv e
, ,
s
p e cif in ,
y g an d
n um er a l a dj e ctiv es ,
m o dify n o un s .
An a dj ectiv e m a y b e th e c om
p l em en t Of a
v er b ,
an d is then sa i d to f
r e er t o the su bj e ct ,
b ut
d oes n ot m odify or lim it it .
Th e gr a s s is gr e e n . Th e gr a s s g r ows gre e n , looks

r e e n , beco m es r e en
g g .
Gr een , in th e ab ov e is a qu ality or attr ib u t e of gr a s s

, ,
b ut in e ach c ase th e q u ality is a ss er ted a n d th e s u bj e c t ,
is n ot m o d ifi e d .
Ap art c i ip le s t a n d in
g in an a b ri d ge d p ro p os it io n 52,
§ 1 75 ) m a y b e s a id to f
r e er t o th e n ou n w hic h w o ul d b e
the su bj e c t of th e c la u s e , if it w e r e n o t e lli p tic al .
A dj e c tiv e s wh i p
i m ly th e s in g u la r id e a , l ik e a n ,
ch o n e,
ea ch , ei th er , sh o u l d b e u s e d o n ly w ith n o u n s in th e s n i
g u la r n um be r ; t h o s e w h ic h ar e pl ur al in m e a n in g , lik e
bo th , th es e, m a n y , Sh o ul d be u s e d o n ly w ith n o un s in th e
p lu ra l num be r.
Th e j
a d e c tiv e p r op e ly st a d s b e fo r e th e n ou n whic h
r n
it m o d ifi e s . Th e p r o o u n d o e s n ot a d m it t h e a dj e c t iv e
n
b e fo re it .
Th e p e c ify in g a dj e c tiv e the s ta d s b efor e d e s c ip tiv e

s n r
a n d n u m e a l a dj e c tiv e s m o d ify i g th e n o u n ;
r as th e n ,
w h it e h o u s e ; t h e t w o S c ip io s B ut a ll a n d bo th t a k e .
th e a ft e r th e m ; a s a ll th e g old ; b o t h t h e m e n
,
.
§ l59 y . The g on l
y a dj un c t which en e ra ll
m od ifie s th e n o un is that which is in tr od u ce d b y

the p rep o sition of; a s , t he r o of of the hou s e .
Th e j
a d un c t w ith f is ge n e r a lly e q uiv a le n t t o th e
‘
p os s e s s ive c a se , an d is g r a d u all
y d is p lac in
g t h e p o sses
s iv e . W ith fe w e x c e p tio n s ,
th e p o s s e s s iv e for m is
lim ite d t o p r on ou ns , t o p r op er n a m es , a nd n am e s of
l iv in g th in g s .
B y th e a bb i i
re v a t on o f p rep o sition s ,
a n a d un c tj O fte n
s ta n d s in s uc h c lo s e r e l a t io n to a n o un , th a t it is s a id
t o m o d ify it , w h e n s tr ic tl y it m o d ifi e s a n o m itte d w o rd .
T hu s ,
in t h e p hr a s e ,
Th e m a n in th e m o o n ,
”
th e ad
ju n ot i n th e m o on is r e all
y an a bb r e via tio n Of th e c la u s e
th a t is i n th e m oon , a n d m o d ifi e s t h e o m itte d v e r b . B ut
s p e ak i c o n c is e l i t m a y b e s a id t o m o d ify m a n b e
n
g y
-
, ,
c au s e it is a p a r t o f a c la u s e wh ic h m o d ifi e s m a n .
§ 1 6 0 . C la u se s m o d ifyin g n ou n s a r e en er a ll
g y
in tr o d u ce d b y a r ela tiv e p r on ou n , a n d a r e ca ll e d
r el a tiv e Cl a u s es . T hey are o ft en
u iv a l en t to an a dj ective eith er d escrip tiv e or

e
q ,
i
sp e cif
y gn T h u s,
y on der m a n , m ea n s , t he m an
.
who sta n ds yon der ; th e honest m a n , m ea n s, t he

m a n w ho is honest .
Rel a tiv e c l au s e s h av e t w o d is t in c t u s e s. Th e firs t is

t o m o d ify b y w a y O f r e s t ric tio n , o r d e s c r ip tio n . I n t his
s en s e th e y are th e e q uiv ale n ts of j
a d e c t iv e s . The
s e c on d is t o a dd s om e fa c t w h ic h m ight b e e xp r e s s e d
by an in d e p en d ent s e n te n c e .
Th e y wh o a re tr u ly wis e b egin h e av e n h e r e .
Th e cl a u s e lim it s th e su bj e c t .
J a ck s o n ,
wh o w a s a lw a y s i mp etu ou s , Sp r an g up in a
ra e
g .
Th e c l au s e d oe s n ot l im it , b u t adds a fa c t . Altho ugh

r e fe r s t o J a cks o n , it i r e a ll
e s a r e a s o n wh
it
y g v
y he
sp r a n J k p i
u
g p a c .s o n S ran
g pu n a ra e,
g f o r h e wa s
a l w a s im p e t u o u s , w o u l d e xp r e s s n e a rl t h m id
y y e s a e ea .
An a pp o s it iv e O fte n e xp r e s s e s the id e a of s uc h a c la us e.
154 EN GLISH GRAMMAR .
LE SS ON XXX IV .
MODIFIERS O F TH E PRONO U N AD J ECTIVE A D VERB

, ,
AN D
PREPOSITION .
1 6 1 . The Pr o n o u n a d m its thr e e c a ss es o f

l
m o d ifiers , the Ap p o s itiv e
,
t he Ad j u n c t , an d
th e Cl a u s e .
Th e a pp o s itiv e is v er y c o m m on w ith th e p r o n o un s of
th e fi r st and s e c on d p e rs o n ; a s, I Paul b e s e e ch y o u.
We Con s u ls a r e r e m is s . Y ou r ic h m en kn o w n o th in g
o f our b ur d e s n . Y o u r og u e I Y ou idle f e llo w
Th e a dj u c tn is r a re l
y used w ith t h e p r o n oun ;
T he y of th e c ity wh o o f y o u a ll 9 .
Th e cla u s al m od i fi c a tio n of the p r o n o un d iffe r s in

n o thin
g fr o m th e n oun m odi fi c a tio n
T h e A d je c t i v e m a b e m o d ifie d b
§ 16 2 .
y y
a n A d v e r b , a n d b y a n Ad ju n c t , in cl ud in g th e
in fin itiv e , an d by a n oun u se d in an a d ve rb ial

r el a tio n .
Adv b er s m o dify in g j
a d e c t iv e s a r e
g e n e r all
y Of d eg r ee,
o r Of em
p h a s is ; a s , s o m ewh a t, r a th er , ex cess ively . Ve r
b al j
a d e c t iv e s a re m od i fied by a d ve r bs o f n e a rly e v e r y
c la s s .
Th e v a r ie t y j
Of a d u n c t s a d m itt e d b y th e j
a d e c t iv e is
v e ry g r e a t. Th e j ver b
m aal
y b d m o fi
a d e c tiv e
d i e d b y
a y p r e p o s it io
n w ith it s s u b s e q u e t
n D es c r ip t iv e a d n .
j e c t iv e s a e m o s
r t f e q u e t l y m r
o d ifi e d b n
y a dj u n c ts w h o s e
b a s e s a e of in to a d f o r a s e a g e r f o p r a is e ; d e
r , ,
n ,
r
s ir o s o
n
f g g;
o i u s e fu
n l to t h e fi e l d s s t o n
g i n p u p o s e r r .
§ 16 3 . Th e in fi n itive m o d ifyin g an j
a d e c tiv e is a
tr u e a d u n c t,
i w ith th e p re p o s itio n to as its b ase . I t is
th e e q uiv ale nt of t he Ge run d as m ay b e s ee n
b e lo w :
G o o d to ea t, o r , g ood
f o r ea ti n g .
Ap t to tea ch o r a p t i n tea c hin g

, , .
F a ir to see o r , fa ir to the s eein g o r to the s ig h t.

‘
, , ,
A xin ous to lea r n , o r, an x io u s f or lea r n in g .
C o m p e te n t to in s tr u c t, o r,
f or in s tr u c tin g .
T his c o n s t r u c t io n is fu r th e r e xpl a in e d u n d er th e h e a d
of t he I n fi n i t iv e ,
The p e p ositio n p o p e r
r r to u se a ft e r th e j
a d ec t iv e
s h o uld be c ar e fu ll y n o t e d ; as, a
g re e a b le to d e lighte d
'
w ith d ifie r e n t fr o m lik e to .
§ 16 4 . Adj ectiv es d en otin g ti m e

,
m e a su r e ,
d i sta n ce an d va lu e ar e m odifie d b y a n ou n
u se d a d ver b ia lly ; a s
Th e b o ok is w o r th a d o l la r (V a l u e ) .
H e is s ix t e e n y ea r s ol d ( T im e
) . .
The w all is fo u r f eet thic k .

(M e a s ure
)
Ha rr si b u rg is fiv e m i les a w a y.
(D is tan c e
)
N o tic in g o th e r l a n gu a ge s whic h d e n o te r e l a t io n by
e n d in g , w e fi n d th a t n o un s us e d a d ve r b ia lly h a v e th e
o b ective
j fo r m . B ut in pa
i g , it is e n o ugh t o s a y th a t
rs n
th e j
a d e c tiv e is m o d ifi e d b y t h e n o u n e xp r e s s in g v a lu e ,
tim e , e tc .
Th e j
a d e c t ive s like, n ea r , a n d op
p os i te a d m it a s ub
s t a n t iv e m o d ifi e r ; a s , l ik e m e n e a r th e w a ll opp o s ite
th e h ou s e This m o d ifi c a tio n is a n a bb r ev iate d
. a dj u n c t .
T he p re p o s itio n to is O ft e n e xp e s s e d b e fo e the n ou n r r .
Th e a dj e c tiv e m a y b e s a id t o b e m o d ifi e d b y th e n o u n
u s e d a d ve b ia ll y o r b y a n a dj un c t w ith t h e p re p o s itio n
r ,
o m itte d .
§ 16 5 . The Ad v e r b
m a
y b e m o d ified b y
o ther a d v er b s , ch iefl b th os e d e n otin m h

y y g e p a
sis a n d degr ee ; a n d b y a dj u n cts ; a s , v er y wisely ,
m ost kin dly ,

wher e in the w or ld, n ev er in m y
The P r e p o s iti o n is n ea r ly r ela te d t o th e

a d verb a n d th erefo r e
,
s o m e tim e s a d m its an
oin close
a d v er b a s a m o d ifier ; a s
ju st a b ou t
g g , ,
b e sid e him .
The C o n ju n c t i o n an d the E xc l a m a ti o n
n either m odify , n or a r e m o difie d .
LESS ON X XXV .
MO D IFIERS OF TH E VERB .
§ 1 6 6 . The Verb a d m its four cla sses Of m odi

fie r s ; the O b je c t , th e Ad ju n c t , t he Ad v e r b ,
a n d th e C l a u s e .
The O bj ect is t he su b sta n tive com

p l e m en t Of
a v e rb which d oe s n ot a dm it an a dj ectiv e co m
p le m en t . 1 00 , S u ch v er b s a r e ca lle d
Wa n si tive, an d the c om
p l e m en t is c alle d t he
D i r e c t O b je c t , an d li m its the v erb to a s n i gle
thin g .
The d ir e c t Obj e c t ,
if a p e rs o n al n am e
,
an swe rs the
q u e s tio n whom 9
. if th e n am e Of a thin g , th e q ue s tio n
wh a t ?
A n oun u se d as Obj e c t h a s the gen e r al for m . The
C ar e m u s t b e tak e n n ot to c o n s id e r a ll j
a d u n c ts with
to or f or a s in d ir e c t Obj e c t s . T his Obj e c t is u s u a ll
yp er
s on a l
He s o ld his w h e a t f o r c a sh. F or ca s h is n ot a n in d i
rec t Obj e c t ,
b u t t he nam e of th e b uye r p re c e d e d b y to
w o u ld b e .
§ 16 8 . S om e v er bs w h ic h d o n ot a d m it the d ir e c t
Obj c t e ,
a d m it t h e in d ir e c t ; a s, T h is is f o r m e It seem s
s tr a n g e to m e .
In t he c o m p ou n d s m eth in ks an d m es eem s , t h e m e is an
in d ir e c t Obj e ct ,
and th e su bj e c t Of t he v e r b is a fo ll o w
in g s e n te n c e o r c l a u s e .
M e thin k s I se e a fa ir and l o v e ly c h il d .
t o m e th a t I F u s e of i t,
It seem s s ee, e t c .
( o r t he see
Th e se c on d fo r m is th e c om m on pr os e u s e. S h ak s
pea re wr o te , “
W he n it th i n ks best u n to
y o u r r o a l s e l f.
y
”
A m o d e rn wr it e r w o uld s a y , Whe n it s eem s be st .

”
W o e w or th th e d a y W oe is m e I f y o u p le a s e .
Th e a b ov e a re e x a m pl e s of t he in d ir e c t o bj e c t Wo r th .
is an o b s ole t e d e fe c tiv e v e b i t h e r n sen s e of be . Y o u is

n ot t h e s u bj e c t o f t h e v e b b u t t h e r ,
in d ir e c t o bj e c t ; and
the c la us e w as on c e w r itt e n , I f it y o u p l e a s e .
W he n a s e nte n c e c o n t a in in g a d ir e c t a n d an in d ire c t
Obj e c t is p u t i t o the p a s s iv e fo m t he d i e c t Obj e c t
n r ,
r
b e c o m e s t h e s ubj e c t a d t he i d i e c t Obj e c t is r e t a in e d ;
,
n n r
as ,T he y g a v e m e a book ( a c tiv e for m ) ; A b o ok w as

g iv e m n e
( p a s s iv e fo m
) r .
1 6 9 . Th e in fi n itiv e , e ith e r w ith or w itho u t a p re
p o s itio n, is use d a s th e d ir e c t Obj e c t o f a ver b; as, T hey

can g o . H e m igh t lea r n Le t u s t ry to lea r n. B oys .
e xp ect to bec om e m en W h e n d o yo u b e gin to p la n t ?

.
I d ar e n ot
go .
V bs er
g if
siy inn
g to a p p o in t , to c a l l ,
to c h o ose ,
to
n a m e, a n d to m a ke, a d m it t w o o bj e c t s , o n e o f w h ic h is
d ir e c t, and th e o th e r is a c om p le m e t n Of th e id e a ex !
p r e s se d b y the v er b an d the fi s t Obj e c t

r as,
The y c a lle d th e c it y Clevela n d .
T he y m a d e Ric h a r d th e ir l ea d er .
Th e fi rst Obj e c t e xp re s se s t h at u p on w h ic h th e a c tio n
is e x e rte d ; th e s e c on d e xp re ss e s the r es u l t o f th e ac t io n .
W he n -
s e n te n c e s of this k in d a s s u m e t h e pa s s iv e fo r m ,
th e fi rst Obj e c t b e c o m e s th e su bj e c t , and th e s e c on d
r e m a in s a s a p a r t o f th e p re d ic a t e , an d ha s no m o d ify in g
p o wer ; as, Ric h a r d w a s m a d e lea d er .
The b s a s k a d tea ch t ak e p r o p e rly a d ir e c t a d

v er n n
an in d i e c t Obj e c t b ut a s th e p e p o s i tio
r ,
is s e l d o m e xr n
p r e s s e d b e fo r e th e i d i e c t Obj e c t o f th e s e v e b s it is
n r r ,
s o m e tim e s s a id t h a t the y t ak e t wo d i e c t Obj e c t s r .
E ith e r Obj e c t is u s e d a s a s u bj e c t i the p a s s iv e fo m n r ,
a n d t h e o th e r Obj e c t i s r e t a i e d a ft e r th e v e b
n r .
T h e y a sk e d m e a q u e s tio n A qu e s tio n w a s a s k e d .
m e ; o r I w a s a sk e d a qu e s t io n
,
.
We t a u gh t h im gr a m m a r H e w a s t a ug ht g r a m m a r ;
.
or, G r a m m ar wa s t a ugh t h im .
Th r in ci a l d iffer e n c e s b e t we en t h e
§ l 7 0 . e
p p
a ct iv e a n d t he p a ss iv e fo r m s a r e t hese The .
i
a ct v e form giv e s p r om in en c e t o t he su bject ; the
a s s iv e fo r m m a k e s p ro m in en t the fa c t o f co mp le
p
tion . The a ctive for m of a tr a n sitiv e v er b re
q u ir es co m p le m en t s ; the p a ssiv e , e x ce
p t w ith
the v er bs given a b o v e , d oe s n o t .
The c o m l e m en t o f a v er b m a y b e a s en ten c e,
p
a cl a u se , o r a p h ra s e ; as in the follo w in g :
1 60 E NGLISH GRAMMAR .
”
H is o n ly an s wer You m u st do itwa s , .
We hear d tha t you ha d been ill .
Without ra ising his hea d , he said , To the
§ l7l. An a brid ge d cl a u se is som e tim e s u s e d

the com l e m en t of v e rb ; ch iefl wit h
as p a
y
ver b s d en o tin g thought a n d sen sa tion .
An a bridge d cl a use wh e n use d a s a c om ,

.
l e m e n t or Obj ect o m its the con n ec tin w or d

p , g ,
c ha n es
g th e s ubj ec t if a
p r o n ou n
,
t o t h e ,
ob ective or m a n d cha n e s th e a s ser tive form o f

j f g,
the v e r b t o t he infin itive or s om etim es t o t he , , ,
e un d.
g r
OB J ECT CLAUSES UNABRIDGED .
I b e li eve th a t s he is tr u thf u l .
T he y k n e w th a t h e w a s an I ta lia n .
S h e fe l t th a t th es e w o r ds w er e tr u e .
All m e n w is h e d th a t th e wor k s h o u ld go on .
T he y h e a r d h im tha t h e s a ng.
( T his e xp r e s sion is
Ob s ole te ) .
OB J ECT CLAUSES A B RIDGE D .
Ib e l ie v e her to be tr u thf u l.
T he y k n e w h im to be an I ta lia n .
S he fe lt th es e w o r ds to be tr u e .
All m e n w is h e d the wor k to g o o n .
Th e y h e a r d h im s in g , o r , T h e y h e a r d him s in gin
g.
I n m an y c om m o n xp e re s s io n s th e full fo r m h a s b e
c om e o b s o le t e ,
and th e a b r id
g e d is th e o nl
y p ro p e r fo r m ;
a s, The y m a d e him tr em ble . I saw h im d o it . H ea r
M an y j
a d un c t s , lik e m o d al a dver bs ,
m o d ify th e w h ol e
a s s e rt io n ; a s, Of c o u r s e, h e w ill go . I Vith o u t a d o u bt,
h e w ill suc c e e d .
An j
a d un c t O fte n m o d ifi e s
it s m o d ifi e r s ;
a v er b an d
a s in t h e s e n t e n c e ,
“
I n th e b e gin n in g , G o d c r e a t e d t h e
h e a v e n s a n d th e e a r t h
”
Th e a dj u n c t i n the beg in n i n g
.
m o d ifi e s n ot s im p ly th e v e r b c r ea ted , b u t the v er b and
its Obj e c t . God cr ea ted th e h ea ven s and th e ea r th in th e

b egi nn n i g .
§ l73 . 3 . The A d v e r b is ge n era lly u se d a s

a m o d ifie r o f t he v e r b All m o d ifiers of a v er b
.
a r e calle d b y the gen er al n a m e a dv er bia l .
Th e a dv er b is O fte n e q u iv a le nt to an j
a d un c t ; as,
sp eed i ly , fo r w ith sp eed ; emp h a ti ca lly , fo r w i th emp ha

s is s oo n , fo r in a s h o r t tim e
; .
A n o un m ay b e u se d as an a dv e r b ia l m o d ifi e r of a
v er b .
( C o m p are T his m o d ifi c a t io n is used w ith
in t r a n s it iv e ver b s t o e xp r e s s t im e , q u a n t i t y , d ir e c t io n
and va lue. y He r e m a in e d a ea r . Th e fi e ld m e a su re s
fi v e a cr es W e a r e go ing ho m e
. . H e h a s go n e ea s t.
T his h app e n e d l a s t w eek Fl o u r . c o s ts n in e d o lla r s a
ba r r el .
_
T h is h o r s e w e igh s t w e l ve h u n d r e d p o u n d s .
T his a dve r b fi
ia l m o d i e r o r igin a lly h a d t h e e c t ive Obj
fo r m , and a n o un so us e d m ay b e c a l le d a n a d v e r b ia l
o bj e c tiv e .
It m ay b e ask e d , wh y n o t c a ll a n o u n u s e d a d v e r b ia lly
a n a d ver b ? W h y n o t c a ll a n o u n u s e d in a pp o s itio n a n
a djec tive Th e p r in c ip a l re a son is t h a t a w o r d is c la s s e d
a c c o r d in t o it s g en er a l u s e , a n d w h e n i ts c l a s s - n a m e is
g
o nc e fix e d , it is w e ll, w h e n it s u s e in t h e s e n t e n c e u ts p
it i n t o a n o t he r c la s s , to rec o
g i
nz e i n t he n a m e a pp lie d
t o it , b o th it s g en er a l u s e , a n d it s sp ec ia l u s e . W hen
we sa
y
“
An a d e c tive u s e d
j as a n o un ,
”
we reco
g iz e
n
COMMON SCHO OL C OURSE . 1 63
th e gen er a l u se Of th e wo r d as an j
a d e c t iv e , a n d its
s
p ecia l u s e a s a n o u n .
§ l74. m o d ifi e r s ve r b s
'
C l a u se s u sed as Of ar e
p ri nc ip a lly Of th e fo llo win g Cla s s e s

1 . Tem p ora l, or s uc h as d e n o t e t im e . Th e y are
u s u ally in t r o d u c e d b y an a d v er b of t im e ; a s, H e w ill
hear us wh en w e p r a y . S o m e tim e s a p e p o s it io
r n in tr o
d u c e s th e c la u s e ; as , C h a r le s w a it e d ti l l h e h e a r d th e
b ell .
2 . C a u sa l , or s u ch as e xp r e ss the r e a s on of s o m e
a ss e r tio n . T he y ar e
g e n e r ally in t r o d u c e d b y th e c a u s al
j
c o n u n c t io n s beca us e and f or ; a s, He d oe s it, bec a u s e
he c a n n ot h el p it .
3 . I n fe r e n t ia l , whic h d e n o t e a c on c l u s io n fr o m a
p r e v io u s s e n te n c e ; a s, I b e lie v e d , th er efor e ha ve I
s p ok e n. Th en a n d n o w a r e s o m e ti m e s u se d in in fe r e n
t ia l c l a us e s ; a s, T e ll
m e ,
th en , w h a t y o u m e a n to d o .
lw we a re s a tis fi e d t h a t th is is a n a b s u r d ity .
4 . C o n d it io n a l , o r s uc h a s d e n o t e d o ub t, or su pp o si
t io n ; If i t wer e s o, it w a s a g i f ul t
r e vo u s
a If w e . a re
to d o i t, y ou m u st le t us k n o w to m o r r o w -
If . and
w heth er ar e m o s t fr e q ue n tly use d in c o n d it io n al c la us e s.
C o n d itio n a l c la u s e s g e n e r a ll
y m o d ify a p r op os i tio n
r a th e r th a n a v e r b .
5 . Con c e s s iv e , o r s u c h a s a d m it s o m e thi n g, w hile an
Opp o sit e , o r c o n tr a s t e d s t a te m e n t is m a d e ; a s , Tho u gh
y o u opp os e m e, I
w ill go o n . The c o n c e s s iv e c la u s e is
s o m e tim e s a n p
im e r a t ive who s e ve r b
is fo llo we d b y t h e
j
c o n u n c tio n th a t ; a s, G r a n t t h a t t his s to r
y is tr u e , w h a t
d o e s it p ro ve Y et a n d s ti l l a r e fr e qu e yn tl u se d in t h e
p r in c ip a l s e n te n c e as c o r re l a t iv e s to th o ug h in t h e c on
c e s s iv e c l a u s e .
6 . F in a l , or th o s e wh ich e xp re s s p urp os e ; a s, I t is
m y in t e n tio n th a t o r d er be m a in ta in ed . Th a t an d les t
m o s t ge n e r a lly in tr o d uc e fi al c la u s e s Th e infi n itive
n .
is v e r y o fte n e m p l o y e d t o e xp e s s p u p o s e r r .
I n c o n d itio n a l c o n c e s s iv e a n d fi n al c l a us e s th e s ub
'
, ,
j u c tiv e m o d e 1 1 3 ) is s till e m pl oye d p a r tic ul arly t he

n
for m s of th e v er b be .
17 5 . Te m p o r al an d c a u s al c l au s e s ar e o fte n
a b r id g e d b y d r o p pin g th e c o n n e c t iv e , a n d c h a n in
g g t h e
a s s e r t iv e fo r m of the v er b t o th e p a r tic ip l e ; a s, H a vin g

n is h ed h is w o rk ;
fi i h ed his w o r k , fo r w h en h e h a d
n s
fi
Cr oss in g th e r i ver , or , h a vin g cr ossed th e r ive r , fo r ,
wh en h e h a d cr os s ed th e r iv e r .
In s uc h c o n t r a c tio n s a s th e a b ov e ,
th e su bj e c t Of th e
cl a u s e is t h e s am e a s t h a t o f t he l e a d in g s e n te n c e . Th e
p artic iple is th e n s a id to f
r e er to the su bj e c t ,
an d an
a s s e r tio n is imp l ied , b ut n o t d ir e c tly m a d e .
W he n t h e s u bj e c t Of th e c l a u s e is n o t th e sam e a s th a t
of th e l e a d in g s e n te n c e , t h e c o n n e c t iv e is o m itt e d , a n d
th e su bj e c t r e m a in s , w ith a p a r tic ip le in s te a d Of t he
a s s e r t iv e for m ; a s ,
Wh en th e w a r w a s o ver , th e p r is on e r s w ere r el e a s e d .
Th e wa r bein g o ver , th e p r is o n e r s we r e r e le a s e d .
Th e n o un in such c la u s e s is s a id to b e a b so l u te , or
use d w ith o ut gr a m m a tic al r e l a t io n W h e n a p r on o u n .
is t h e s ubj e c t Of s u c h a c l a u s e it r e t a in s t he fo r m o f the
su bj e c t ; as, H e h a vin g been e lec ted , th e o pp o s ition wa s
d im in is h e d , in s t e a d of wh en h e w a s elec ted .
An in d e p e n d e n t m e m b e r of a c o m p o un d s e n te n c e is
s o m e ti m e s s hor te n e d in to a p art ic ip ia l c l a us e ; as, Ta k
in g a l a mp ,
he o p en ed t h e d o o r , in s t e a d o f, He to ok a
la mp a nd o pe ne d th e d o o r . Ta k in g r e fe r s to he .
Ik ne w th a t h e w a s a s o l d ier . I kn ew o
f h is bein g a
s o ld ier , o r , o f h is h a vin g been a s o ld ier .

6 . As th e su bj e c t Of a n i n fi n i t iv e in an a bb re via te d
Obj e c t c lau s e A p ro n o un so used h a s th e oh
j e c t iv e fo r m .
7 .
-
AS a p a rt p r e d ic a te witho u t a y g a m m a tic a l
of a ,
n r
r e l a tio n . T his s ub s t a n tiv e c om p le m e n t is e m pl oye d

o n ly a fte r i tra n s itiv e v e rb s a n d e s p e c ia lly a fte r t he
n ,
ver b be .
Ex .
— H e wa s a s a il or . T h ey b e c am e m er ch a n ts . He
fe ll a v ic tim . I w a lk a q u een . H e d ie d a m a r ty r . It
is I . I t is we .
A n ou n p le m e n t of a n i tr a n s itive
u se d as th e c om n
v e r b h a s th e g e n e r a l fo r m a nd a p r o n o u n s o u s e d h a s ,
th e o m i a t iv e o r s u bj e c t fo r m
n n I n a a lyz in g s a y th t
,
. n ,
a
th e s u b s t a n tiv e is a p a r t o f th e a s s e rt io n o r p e d ic a te ,
r .
8 T his s a m e c o s t u c t io is u s e d in a b r id g e d p r e p o s i
. n r n
t io s b o th a ft e r t h e in fi it iv e a n d t h e p a r tic ip le ; a s To
n ,
n
,
be a Ro m a n w a s g re a te r th a n a k in g . H is bein g a
c r ip p le p r e v e n te p la c e Th e s ubj e c t
d h is Ob ta in i n
g th e .
in e ithe r o f t he s e s e n t e n c e s is t h e a b id g e d c l a u s e r .
R o m a n a n d c r ipp le a r e a p a t o f t h e im p lie d p r e d ic a te r .
A n o u n s o u s e d is O fte c a lle d th e p r e dic a te No m in a n
t iv e b e c a u s e it h a s t h e
,
o m i a t ive or g e e a l fo r m n n
,
n r .
T his fo m o f th e a b id ge d c l a u s e m a y b e th e s u b s e qu e t
r r n
O f a p e p o s itio n ; as
r Th e a t r o c io u s c rim e o f bein g a ,
y o u ng man .
W he n in an a b r id g e d bj e c to c la u s e , th e in fi n itiv e to
be is use d w it h a s u bj e c t b e fo re it, a p ron ou n wh ic h
fo r m s p ar t of th e p r e d ic a t e h a s th e o b ec t i ve
j f or m a s,
I b e lie v e i t t o b e h im . Y ou k n e w it to b e m e .
8 . As a b so l u te , w ith a pa rt c i
i p l e, in an a b r id ge d
c la u s e. T his use imp l ies t h e j
s ub e c t r e l a t io n , and a
su b s ta i
n t ve s o u s e d h a s th e s ub e c t j fo r m .
9 . As a b so l u t e , in d ir e c t a d d re s s , wh e n t h e n o un ha s
n o r e l a t io n to t h e s e n te n c e , a n d h a s th e g e n e r a l fo r m .
CO MMON SC HOOL COURSE . 167
10 . As an a d ve r b , m o d ifyin g j
a d e c t iv e s and ver bs
d e n o tin g T im e Q u a n tity , , D ir e c t io n a nd V alue 1 65 ,
1 7 7 . Th e a dj e c t i v e ha s t wo distin ct Offic es .
1 . T O m od ify or lim it n o un s .
2 . T 0 form a
p re d ica te with in tr an sitiv e v erb s .
Th e a dj e c t v e i w h e n m o d ifyin g or l im itin g a n o un
g e n e r a ll
y st a n d s b efo r e th e n oun. I t m ay b e a p art of
the p r e d ic a te wh e n p o o un
a r n ,
a n in fi n it iv e , or an
y
su b st an tiv e p h ra s e is e m p l o y e d a s t he s u bj e c t I t is .
the n s a id to r e er f to th e s u bj e c t .
Nu m e r a ls and a fe w p o o m i a l a dj e c tiv e s c o t a in
r n n n
th e id e a Of n u m b e r , a n d m ust b e use d w it h n oun s w hic h

c or r e s po n d t o th e m In num b er . N o un s w h ic h h a v e t h e
s am e b o th u m b e s m a v b e m o d ifi e d b y S i gul a r
fo r m in n r n
o r b y p l u al a dj e t iv e s ; a
r on e p a i ;c thr ee p a i F ive s, r r.
o k e Of o x e n I n th e e xp e s s io n th is ten y ea rs th is is r
y .
,
sin
g ula b e c a us e o n e
r,
p er i o d i s im p lie d .
§ l78 . Th e V b er h as e n d in gs in th e sec on d an d
th ir d p e s o s S i g u l a r o f t h e p e s e t t e s e a d i t he
r n n r n n ,
n n
s e c o d S i g ul a r O f t h e p a s t t e s e t o S h o w t h e p e s o
n n n ,
r n
a d
n um be
n o f t h e s u bj e c t
r I th e s e fo m s t h e v e b is . n r ,
r
s a id t o a g ee with it s s u bj e c t a d t h e s i g u l a
r f ms ,
n n r or
s h ul d
o e ve n b e u d w it h a p l u a l s u bj e c t
r se o a p lu a l r ,
n r r
fo m w ith a S i g u la s u bj e c t O b s e v e t h a t a w o d m a y
r n r . r r
b e Si ul a
n in fo m r b u t plu al i id a a d th a t a c o l
r r n e n
g , ,
l e c t iv e o u (g8 6 ) m a y t a k e a v b i e ith e f m
n n er n r or .
T w o t im e s t w o a re fo u r . T wo t im e s t wo is fo u r .
B o th fo r m s a re u s e d . Th e Si n
g ul a r fo r m is p r e fe r a bl e.
G o old - B r o wn
’
(F or a full d iscuss ion O f th is e x p r e s s io n , se e s

G r am m a r o f G ra m m a r s ; p p 58 7 .
Up w a r ds f
o a m i ll io n b us h els h a ve b een r e c e iv e d .
Over a th ou s a n d d o lla r s h a ve be e n c o lle c t e d .

S om e use th e Sib in th e ab ov e an d c on sid e r

n
g ul a r v e r ,
th e l o gic al s u bj e c t a s a n e xp r e s s io n fo r a s u m o r a -
qua n t ity .B u s h e ls is th e s u bj e c t o f th e fi r s t s e n te n c e ,
and m i ll io n is t h e s u b s e qu e n t o f of B u s h els up wa r ds .
of a m i llion is t h e ord e r of t he s en s e.
§ l 7 9 . Th e v er b p r ope rly st an d s a ft e r its su bj ect .
E x pt i I
ce n n te r r o
g a tiv e an d Im p e r a tiv e s e n te n c e s , a n d
w h e n th e s e n te n c e is t r a n s p o s e d fo r em p h a s is , or fo r
m e te r ; a s , As k y ou wh y ? H a ve we c h a n ge d ? D id
y o u kn o w B r ea k w e o ur w a tc h u
p . G o th o u . Gr ea t
i s D ia n a Of th e Eph e s ia n s ! P a r ched wa s t he gr a s s ,
an d blig h ted w a s t h e c o r n .
E x c ep t al s o c on d itio n a l cl au s e s , wh e n th e j
c o n u n c tion
is o m it t e d
; W e r e it SO in s te a d o f
a s,
if i t w er e s o , .
W h e n th e s u bj e c t is p r o p e rly a c la u s e s t a n d ing a fte r

th e v e r b i t O fte n s t a n d s b e fo r e th e v er b a s a n a pp a r e n t
,
s ubj e c t .
Th e v e r b s la ck n eed a n d wa n t a r e s o m e tim e s u s e d in
,
th e s im p le fo r m in s t e a d o f th e c o m p o un d ; a s T h e r e ,
n eed s no e v id e n c e , in s t e a d of no evi d en ce is n eed ed .
T he r e l a c ked n ot m en of d a r i n g , in s t e a d Of w er e n ot
la ck i n g . N eed o ft e n o m it s the e n d in
g Of th e t h ir d p e r
s on Si n
g ul a r ; a s, He nee d n ot
g o .
Th e a c tiv e fo r m is s o m e t im e s u se d in s t e a d Of t he
p a s s iv e ; a s,W he a t s ells r e a d ily ,

in s te a d O f is s o ld . No
one is to bla m e (t o b e b l a m e d ) .
§ 18 0 . W h,
en t h e s u bj e c t is c o m p ou n d a n d the ,
s u b s t a n t iv e s c o m p o s in it a r e c o n n e c te d b o r o r n or
g y , ,
t h e v e r b a g r e e s w ith th e n ea r er s u bj e c t in p e r s o n a n d
n u m b e r ; a s Y o u o r I a m m is t a k e n B e tt e r Y o u a r e
, ( .
,
m is t a k e n , or I am .
) N e ith e r th e c it iz e n s , n o r the c it
y
p l ea s es h im .
u s e d a fte r the gre a t m a o r ity j of ve r bs ,

an d c am e in tim e
to b e r e a r d e d a s t h e t r u e in
g fi n itiv e fo r m . The p r e p o si
t io n was r e t a in e d a ft e r it s m e a n in g h ad e n t ir e l y d is a p
p e a re d . An d eve n w h e n t h e in fi itiv e is u s
n e d as su bj e c t ,
w e fi n d to , th e p r e p o s itio n a pp o p ia t e t o
r r t h e in d ir ec t
o b ec t, s t a n d in g
j b e for e it .
§ 18 2 . The in fi n it iv e , t he n , as it no w e x is ts in o ur
l a n g ua g e , com es fr o m t hr e e s ou rc e s.
1 . Fr o m a n Ol d n o m in a t iv e and Obj e c tiv e fo r m in an ,
w h ic h n ever had p r e p o s itio n b e fo e it T his i fi n itiv e

a r . n
is used a s th e d i e c t o bj e c t o f a v e b a d s o m e t im s in
r r
,
n e
th e p r e d ic a t e of a a b id e d c l a u s e ;
n
g r a s d o
g o m a
y ,
s en d le t u s s ee.
2 . Fr o m th e Ol d in d ir e c t o bj e c t fo r m a fte r th e p r e p
, ,
o s itio n to . I n m an y c a se s, t h e p e p o s it io n s t ill t a k e s
r
th e in fi n itive as a s u bs e
q u en t g as, o od to ea t, t h a t. is ,
f or ea tin g a ho us e to le t, th a t is , f or le ttin g ; g l a d to
h ea r , th a t is , a t he a r in g ; t o o l a te to see h i m .
3 . Fr o m t he fo r m p re c e d e d b y to , fr o m a m ist ak e n
n o tio n th at the p e p o s it io n
r is a p a r t o f t h e fo r m In .
th i s s e s e to h a s o m e a i g T h is fo
n ,
n n n . r m is u se d as a
s u bj e c t a s a d i e c t o bj e c t a d a s p a r t
,
r ,
n of a d ic a t e ; p re
a s, to h ea r is to o be
y to er r is h u m a n , to f org ive d iv in e .
T his fo r m is e ve n use d as th e su b s e q ue nt o f a n o the r
p p o s itio ;
re n as a bo u t t o g o . N o thin
g s h o u ld e ve r
s ta d b e t w e e
n n th e p r e p o s itio n to and th e fo llo w in g in fi n i
t iv e . To th o r o u g h ly co m p r eh en d is in c o r r e c t . Th e
a d ve r b s h o u l d s t a n d a ft e r th e v e r b .
§ 18 3 . Th e follo win g a re th e p r in c ip a l u s es of th e
in fi itiv
n e.
1 . To e xp re s s p u r p o se ; a s, Do n ot s to p to p la y ,
th a t is , fo r t h e p u poser of pl a in
y g . I fl ee u n to the e to
COMMON SCHOOL COURSE .
h i de m e th a t is , fo r th e p ur p o se of h id in g . I am g o in
g
to Q uin c y to bu y g r a in .
2 . To e xp r e s s c a u se
; as , I am gl a d to k n o w it . We
are p a in e d to h ea r Of his c o n d uc t .
3 . As an a d je c t iv e m o d ifi e r , or in the s e n se of th e
im p e rfe c t p ar tic ip l e ; a s, in t h e t im e to c om e t h a t is ,
com in g tim e . O ur kin gs to be t ha t is , f u tu r e k in gs .
4 . Aft e r a s, to e xp re s s r e s u lt . S o gr e a t as to s u rp a ss
h im s e lf ; th a t is , gr e a t a s t h e s u r a s s in g o f h im s e lf p .
W ho is SO wis e a s to kn ow t h e s e t h in gs 2 T h a t is , W h o
‘
is so W i s e as t h e k n o win g th e s e t hin g s wo uld p r o ve h im

to b e ? ( To s u rp a ss and to kn ow a r e t h e su bj e c t s of
o m it t e d v e r b ) s. Re m e m b e r th e c o m m a n d m e n ts to do
them . H e is to o O ld to be ca u g h t .
5. As an a dju n ct, in a
g r e a t v a r ie t
y of m e an in gs . It
is o ft e n e qu iv ale nt to a r e l a t iv e c l a us e , o r to a d e s c r ip
t iv e j
a d e c tiv e a s , a n e ve nt to be d ep lor ed , or a d ep lo r
a ble e v e n t. A c h a r a c te r to a d m ir e th a t is , wh ich
s h ou l d be a d m ir ed , o r , a n a d m ir a b le c h a r a c te r
6 . I t is us e d in pl ac e of th e p a r t ic ip le in a b rid ge d
c l a u s e s , r e fe r r in g t o t he su bj e c t ; as, To r etu r n to o ur
a bj e c t , th a t is , r etu r n i n g to o ur su bj e c t . To tel l t he
t r ut h , I d id it . Tellin g t he t r u th , I d id it . E ve r
y c om
m on -
se nse m a n ha s , so to sp ea k , a s t e r e o s c o p ic v is io n .
Th e ph rase so pto s ea k m ean s sp ea k in g th u s , and th e

im p lie d su bj e c t is in d e fi n ite on e m ight s p e ak th u s .
Th e G e run d a nd th e I fi n n it ive re p re se nt th e a c t io n
of th e v e r b in a g e n e ra l s e n se , w ith o u t any d is tin c tio n

of V o ic e . H e nc e , in t he ph ra s e s , a h o u s e to let, t he
p ic t ur e w h ic h is p a in ting , t he r e is n o n e c e s s it
y fo r u s in
g
a p a s s iv e fo m r .
§ 18 4 . The Im p e r fe c t P a r tic ip l e in S x a on h a d t he
e n d in g a n d, wh ic h d is t in g u is h e d it fro m the G e r u n d ;
b ut b o th e n din gs in t im e b ec am e in g . Th e v er b al fo r m
e n d in g in in g h a s t hre e d is tin c t u s e s , w h ic h m a y n o w b e
d is tin g uis h e d b y t hr e e d is tin c t n a m e s .
1 I t s t a n d s b e fo r e a n o u n a s a m o d ifi e r ; a s , a thr es h
.
in g m a c hin e , r u n n in g w a t e r, a s ta n d in g a r m y. I t is
th e n c al l e d a Ver b a l Ad je c t iv e .
2. I t is u sed as a S ub s t a n tiv e , e ith e r as a su bj e c t ,

a
c om ple m e n t ,
or an j
a d unc tm o d ifi e r ; a s , Y o u r wr itin g
l o ok s w e l l . L e av e wr in g in g o f y o u r h a n d s a m d o in g . I
w h a t y o u t o ld m e t o d o My b r o t h e r is g o in g a h u n tin g
.
-
.
I s a w h im r u n n in g , th a t is , in t h e a c t o f r un n in
g T h e .
w a t e r is bo il in g ( n ot bein g bo iled ) . I t is th e n c alle d a
G erun d .
3 . I t is u se d t o im p ly A s s e rtio n i ab ridge d c l a u s e s
,
n
,
e ith e r w ith a n o un a b s o l ut e i t h e s a m e c l a u s e o r r e fe r
n ,
r in
g t o th e s u ect bj o r o bj e c t o f th e p i c ip a l s e n t e n c e r n ,
or t o s o m e in d e n ite w o r d fi . I t is t he n c a lle d a P a r ti
c ip le .
E X AMPLES .
1 . W ith a su b sta n t ve ai bs o lu te .
T h is h a v in g been d o n e, t h e y r e tu r n e d in t r iu m p h .
T he e ne m
y h a v i n
g r ece i ved r e i n fo r c e m e n t s , th e s ie g e
Was r a is e d .
N o t w ith s t a n d in g his ggl e s , h e wa s

s tr u o u n d fa s t b .
H is m is s io n h a vin g been f u lfilled , h e r e tu rn e d to

C a rt ha ge .
2 . Re fe r r in g t o the su bj e c t or o bj e c t of th e p i
r nc ip a l
s e n te n c e.
N o un s en d in g ( which end
) in et a r e g e n e r a ll
y D im in
u t iv e s .
H a vin g a l ittl e l e is u r e , Iw r it e t o y o u.
F in din g t h a t th e en e m y we r e givin g w a y, h e or d e r e d
a c h a rg e .
1 74
‘
ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
LE SS ON XXX IX .
TRAN S P OS I TI ON . ANALYSIS .
18 6 . The p ro p er ord er of word s in E n glish

ha s b een a l r e a dy in dica t e d , b u t a b rief re vie w is
giv en .
The s ub ect a n d
j its m od ifiers s tan d fir st in the
s e n t en ce , th e v er b n ext , a n d t he co mp lem en ts of
t he v er b l a st . The in dire ct Obj ect witho ut a
p re
p osition
p r ec e d es t he dire ct .
D esc rip tiv e , d efin itiv e , a n d n u m er a l a dj ectiv es

.
st a n d b efore the n oun E xcep t wh en them s elv es .
m o difie d b y a n a dj un ct w hich s tan d s afte r the m .
The a dj u n c t gen era lly sta n d s a fte r the wor d

which it m o d ifie s .
The a p p os itiv e sta n d s a ft e r the n ou n whi ch it

m odifie s ; th e p os sessiv e b efor e .
A d ve rb s m odifyin g adj ec tives p rec ed e them .
Adj ectiv e clau ses s ta n d dir e ctly a fte r the n o un s

which t h ey m o d ify .
C on dition al t em p o ral a n d c on ces siv e cl au ses

, ,
s ta n d b efor e th e p rincip a l sen t en ce Al s o a d .
j u n ots d e n otin g tim e .
The m od a l a d v erb s tan d s b efore t he sen te n ce ,
b e t w e en the v er b and its in fin itiv e c om l

or
p e
m en t a s, T hey g dare no t o . D ou btless he will

s u ccee d Cer ta in ly it is there
. .
The ord er of s ubj e ct a n d p r edica te is re ula rl

g y
in v er te d ih In terr oga tiv e d Im p era ti ve

'
an s en
ten ces .
The or d er of the s en t e n c e is g ch a n e d for em
ha sis , for h o n , for v a r iet , a n d in oe t r

p eu
p y y p
for rhym e and m e tr e .
§ 1 8 7 . B e for e a n al
y i z n
g a se n t en c e , it is d e
s ir a b le t o it a rt s in th eir l o ic al d er ,
a rr a n
ge s
p g or
or , to tr a n sp ose w or d s .
E X AMPLE S OF T RAN S P O S I T I ON .
H igh with th e la st lin e d her v oic e a n d thi s s c a le ,
All in a fiery d a w n in g wil d with win d

T hat S hook her to w er the b r ot hers he ar d
’
.
,
Tr a n sp osed H er v oice s caled high with the

la st lin e a n d h er b rothers he ar d this in a fiery
,
d a wn in g a ll wil d with win d tha t S ho ok her

t o wer .
t he c o stly ca n op y o e r him
’
In s et
Bla ze d t he la st d ia m o n d of th e n a m el e ss kin g .
Tr a n sp a c d . The la st dia m on d of the n am e
kin g blaz ed in t he c o stl

’
l ess y ca n o
py s et o er
hi m .
MODELS F OR ANALY SIS .
A comp Me an al y s is s h oul d e m b ra ce e v er y giv e i tswo rd , an d

r el a t io n s t o o th e r w o r d s a n d t o th e s e n te n ce Wr itten a n a ly s es
.
o f s e n te n ce s s h o uld b e r eq u ir e d O fte n T h ey s e r ve a s c o m p os i
.
x
tion , p un c t u a tio n a n d s p e llin g e e r c is e s , a n d a r e t oo im p o r ta n t
t o b e o m it ted P u p il s s h o uld b e ta ugh t to a b b r e v ia te th e ir w o rk ,
.
s o a s t o s a ve t im e i n w r itin g a n d c o r re c tin g Wr itte n a n al y se s

.
x
m ay b e e c h an ged b y th e p up il s in cla s s ; o n e p u p il m a y r e ad ,
an d th e r es t m ay th e p u p il s
c r iticis e a n d c o r re c t e r r o rs . Wh en
a r e r eason a b ly fa m il iar w ith a n al y s is , t h e s im p l e r m od ifi ca t io n s
m a y e ith e r b e o m itted or b riefl y in d ica ted , a n d th e a t ten tion
d ir ec ted to ob sc u r e r p oin ts .
§ 1 88 . S o ciet y h a s al m o st al wa
y s b egun in
in e q u ality , d its ten d en cy is to war d s u al it
an e
q y .
Th e a b o ve is a com p o u nd d e c l a r a tiv e s e n te n c e , c o n
s is t in g of t wo p pro
o s it io ns, c o n n e c te d b y th e j
c o n un c
t io n a n d . fi r s t s ubj e c t; it is u n m o d ifi e d ;
S oc iety is th e
h a s beg u n is th e s im p l e p r e d ic a te ; h a s a lm os t a lwa y s
beg u n i n i n eq u a lity is t h e l o g 1e a l p r e d ic a t e H a s begu n .
is m o d ifi e d b y t h e t e m p o r al a d v e r b a lw a y s a n d b y th e ,
a dj u c t i n i eq u a li ty
n d e n o tin g p la ce w her e
n ,
Alwa ys .
is m o d ifi e d b y t h e r e s t ic tiv e a d v e r b a lm os t Th e r .
s e c o n d s ubj e c t is ten d en c i s to w a d s e u l i t is th e
y r
q a y
p e d ic a te The s ubj e c t is m o d ifi e d b y th e p o s s e s s ive
r .
i ts .I s is th e s im p le p r e d ic a te it r e q u ir e s a c o m p le m e t ,
n
,
w hic h is t he a dj u c t to wa r d s eq u a lity n Th e p r e s e n t .
t en s e d e n o te s a g e n e r al t u th The a dj u c t fo rm s a r . n
p a t Of t h e p e d ic a t e a d d o e s n o t m o d ify a n y thin g
r r ,
n .
18 9 ,
P ARSING OR V ERBAL ANALYSIS OF THE SAM E .
S o ciety , c o m m on n o un , 3 rd s in
g ul a r , s u bj . of th e sen
te n c e.
H a s, v er b p
,
r e s e n t, 3 rd s in
gul a r , w e ak c on j .
, d rop s v
b e fo r e th e e n d in g 3, t ake n w ith it s c om p le m e n t beg u n

fo r m s p r e s p e rfe c t t e n s e
. .
A lm os t a n a d v e b o f d eg r e e m o d ifi e s a lwa ys
,
r
, .
Alw a y s a a d v e r b o f t im e r e p e a t e d m o d ifi e s beg u n
,
n
, .
B eg u n p a s t p a r t o f s t on g ve r b beg in a dj c o m p le
,
. r
, .
m ent of ha s .
p e p o s itio n b a s e of th e a dj u c t
I n, a r ,
n .
I nequ a lity a b s tr a c t n o un s ub s e q u e n t o f in
, , , and with
it m o d ifi e s begu n .
1 78 EN GLIS H GRAMMAR .
m d o liti cia n .
S elfi sh, d e sc . ad j .
,
fr o m n . se
lf ,
i o p .
Tim e -
ser vin g , com p . d e sc . a dj , m a d e
. u
p of n. tim e,
an d ver b al ad j . s er vin g , m o d p o li ti c ia n
. .
P o li tic ia n , c om m . n . , p a rt of p r e d .
Th e s e n te n c e is c om p ou n d a n d c om p le x ; e a ch o f th e
t wo m e m b er s c o n t a in in g an a b r id g e d c l a u se a s an ob
j e c t.
1 9 1. A figu r ed v er b al a n a ly s is , s im p ly p oin tin g

o ut th e p a r ts of s peech ,
is c o n v e n ie n t fo r b r ie f w r itte n
e x e r c is e s ; as in th e fo ll o win g e x a m p le . Th e n u m b e r s
a b o v e th e w o r d s in d ic a t e t h e p ar t s of s p eech as n um
b er ed in 6 .
4 1 6 4 1 1 2 5 6 4 1
Th e to wer o f ol d S a in t N ich ola s s o a r ed u p wa r d t o th e sk ies,
4 4 4 1 6 1 1 4 1 6 1
Lik e som e h u ge p iec e of N a tu r e
’
s m ak e , th e gr o wth o f c en tur e s . i
Rel a tio n s w o r d s m a y al s o b e fi g ur e d t o th e
of e
y e by
a n y m e t h o d w hic h th e t e a c h e r m a y c h o o s e t o a d op t .
Th e b e s t w a y o f fix in g th e d iffe re n t r e la tio n s of n o un s,
d iffe r e n t Offi c e s Of the in fi nitiv e e tc is to r e q uire th e ,

.
,
p up il s to c o m p o s e o r s e l e c t e x a m p le s o f w h a t e v e
,
is t o r
b e il lu s tr ate d a d t o p e s e t th e m i
,
n w r iti g fo r th e
r n n n
c r it ic is m O f th e t e a c h e r and the c la s s . Thu s the te a c her

m ay re qui re as th e le s s o n of th e d a y, t h a t e a ch of th e
ten c o n s t r u c t io n s o f th e n o un a n d p ro n o un 1 7 6) s h a ll
b e ill u s tr a t e d b y t w o e x a m p l e s , e ith e r com p os e d b y t he

p up ils , o r s el e c te d fr o m s o m e a u th o r .
I t is n ot r ecom m en d ed , a tth is s ta ge, to r e q u ir e o f th e p up il th e

r e a s on o f e ve r y a s ser tion T im e is r ea l ly fr it te r ed a wa y w h e n a
.
p p w h o p oss es s es or d in a r y in t el l igen c e , a n d h a s b ee n s tudy in g

u i l
l a n g u age fo r y ea rs , is r eq uired to tell th e r ea s on w h y h e ca ll s t h e
m ost fa m ilia r n a m e a n o u n T h is m in u te c o m m o n p l a c e a n a ly s is
.
-
b el on gs t o t h e el em e n ta r y w o r k , a n d is t h en in p la c e, a n d i m
p or ta n t Th e t ea c h er S h o u ld n o w a im to p r es en t t o th e p up il th e
.
p o m ts wh ich in vol ve m ost d iffi c ul ty .

COMMON S C HO OL COURSE . 1 79
§ l 92 . A fe w p a s s a ge s a re g iv en with ques tion s

d e v elo p in g th e m o s t im p o t a r nt p o in t s .
I s om e tim es h ol d it half a s n i
To p u t in w or d s th e gri ef I fe el .
F o r w h a t d o e s it s ta n d ? O f wh a t p ar t of s p ee ch is
h a lf ? W h at v er b c o rr e s po n d s to h a lf, and h o w is it
fo r m e d C o n s t r u c t io n of h alf and of s in ?
C o n s tr u c tio n of to p u t ? D o e s to h a v e a su b s e q ue nt ,
or
is it used w it h o u t m e a n in g ? W o uld in or in to b e u se d
in p ro s e in this p a s s a ge Illu s tra t e th e ir u s e by e x am

pl s a
e n d d e t e r m in e wh e n i n s h o ul d be u se d , a n d wh e n
i n to . W ha t is o m it t e d a ft e r g r i e f ? Ve b r c orr e s p on d
ing t o g r ief ? Is f ee l t r a n s itiv e , or in t r a n s itiv e ?
GO ! le a v e m e , p ries t ; m y soul w oul d b e

Alon e with the con soler , Dea th :
”
Fa r dd er tha n th in e w ill
‘
sa e es see
y
T his cru m b lin g cla y yie l d u
p it s b r ea th .
Ho w m a ny s e n te n c e s b o v e H o w m a n y im
in t h e a
p e a tive s e n t e c e s ?
r n P ri ip a l p a r t s o f g o ? o f lea ve ?
nc
C o n s tr uc tio n o f p r ies t ? W hy is wo u ld u se d in th e p a st
t e n s e w h e n t h e s p e a k e r is c o n t e m p l a ti g s o m e thin g in n
t h e fu tu e ? r D o e s a lo n e e v e r s t a n d b e fo r e a
n ou ? n C o n s t u c tio n o f D ea th
r W hy c o m m e n c e d w ith
a c a p it a l ? Wh e is thin e u s e d in s te a d o f thy ? W hy
n
is th in e e m p l o y e d in s te a d o f y ou r s ? W h at d o e s thin e
lim it ? Obj e c t Of wi ll ? O bj e c t o f s ee I s s ee a n a s s e r
t iv e o r a n in fi n itiv e fo r m ?
,
C o n s tr uc tion o f c la y ? Of
y i eld ? O f w h a t p a r t o f s p e e c h is u
p ? W h a t v e r b
c o r r e s p o n d s t o br ea th
LESS ON X L .
FIGURES O F SPEECH .
19 3 . A F i gu r e of Sp e e c h is an in te n
tic h a l d ep a rtur e fro m th e or din a ry fo rm ord er , ,
con str u ct io n , o r m ea n in g of wor d s Figur es of .
S p eech are in t e n d e d t o giv e em p h a sis , c le a rn es s ,
v a rie t or b ea u t y
y, .
T he y are d ivid e d in t o Figur es o f O rt h o

g ra h
p y,
of E tym ol o g y , of Syn ta x , a n d o f Rhet or ic .
§ 19 4 . A figur e of O r thogra p hy Is an in ten

t ion al m is sp ellin g of a w or d .
Ar c h a i s m is th e s p e llin g of a wo r d a ft e r
'
th e ol d fo r m ,
or th e u s e of a n Ob s o le te fo r m in s t e a d Of t h e m o d e rn
a s, ky ng e fo r k in g ; k a up h é fo r c o ffe e ; sp a k e fo r Sp ok e ;
s tr o o k fo r s tr u c k Fo r m a n y. e x a m p le s in a m o d e rn
p oem ,
s ee J e a n I n ge l o w s ’
H igh T id e on th e C o as t of
Li n c o l n s h ir e .
”
M i m e s i s is t he m im ic k in g o f an in c o rr e c t p r on un c ia
t io n b y fa ls e s p e llin g ; as,
Ha ns S z
c h n it e r ha t a v los hi ed e,
p
Von of de n ewes t k in t .
§ 1 9 5 . Figur e s of E tym ology a re c ha n ges in

th e or din a ry form s of
wor d s b y a d di tion s , o m is
s ion s , a n d b y s e p a r a tio n o f p a rt s
!
Ap h ae r e s i s is th e o m is s io n of one or m o r e l e tte rs at
th e b e gi n n in
g of a wor d ; a s,
’
g a ins t for a g a ins t
;
’
g a n
fo r beg a n tis fo r i t is
’
.
E l l i p s i s is th e o m is s io n o f w or d s e s s e n tial t o th e s tr u c
tur e of th e s e n te n c e . I t is m o r e c om m on in Sp e e c h th a n
in wr itin g , as t h e l o ok s an d e s t ur e s o f the s p e a k e r s up
g
l
p y th e -
p la c e o f o m it t e d wo r d s . “ l o r d s o m it t e d a r e s a id
to b e un d er s to o d . An y m em b er of th e s e nte n c e m ay b e
o m it t e d , e ve n t he v e r
‘
b; a s, I ll ( g o ) h e n c e t o
’
L ond on.
My fa t h e r is wis e r t h a n I (um ) .
Th e e lli p s is of th e in fi n it iv e a n d pa r tic ip l e of be is fr e
q uent ; a s, T h is (b e in g) d o n e , th e y r e t ur n e d . I c o n s id e r
h im (to b e ) an h o n e st m a n .
I t is in e l e g a n t t o e n d a s e n te n c e w ith t h e p e p o s iti
r on
to , re qu irin g an in fi n it iv e b s e que t ;
su n a s, H e d id not
e sc a pe , b ut h e t r ie d to . E ith er e xp r e s s th e in fi n itiv e , or
c h a n ge th e o r d e r.
P l e o n a sm is t h e use of s u p e fluo us
r wo rd s ; a s , Joh n
he s a id th a t h e
w o ul d go . I k n o w th ee w h o t h o u a r t .
The e m p h a t ic r e p e t itio n o f a w o r d is a k in d of p le o n a s m .
An a pp o s itio n m ay b e a p le o n as m . A s e r ie s o f n o u n s in
th e s a m e c o n n e c t io n a r e o ft e n sum m e d u i n on e word ;
p
a s, F a t he r ,
m o th e r , c hild r e n , s e r v a n ts , a ll we r e s we p t t o
r u in in a m om ent .
S y l l e p s i s is t h e u se o f a word a c c o r din
g t o th e s ens e,
a n d n o t a c c o r d in h or m of s om e w o r d t o wh ic h
g t o t e f
it r e fe r s .
P hilip w e nt d o wn to S am a ria and p r e ac he d C hris t

u nto th em .
Th em w o u ld b e i t, w e r e it n ot fo r t h e fi gu a tive u s e
r
of S a m a r ia fo r t h e p e o p le Of S a m a r ia . Th e p r o n o u n is
u s e d a c c o r d in t o th e s e n s e , n ot t h e fo r m . Th e use of
g
a p lu ra l fo r m b w ith a c o lle c tiv e n o u n in the
Of the v e r
S i gula is a kin d o f s ylle p s is
n r .
E n a l l a g e is t h e u s e O f o e p a t o f Sp c h fo r a n o t h e r
n r ee ,
o r o f o e fo r m fn a th e Th e u s e O f th e p l u a l y o u
or no r. r
fo r t h e s i g u la r th o u is a c o m m o
n e x a m p l e ; a l s o o f we n
fo r I . In p o e tr y ,
th e A dj e c t iv e and th e Adv b er a re
O fte n in t e r c h a n ge d . Th e u s e of a p ro n o u n fo r a ve r b is
u nder th e sam e fi g ur e ; as,
W ho m tho u es t th o u , S c ot ?
I f t h o u th ou es t him som e th r ic e , it s h a ll n o t be a m is s .
H y p e r b a t o n , o r T r a n sp o sit i o n , is a chan
g e in t h e
u s u al o r d e r o f w o r d s .
“ ”
Do th e y c al l v ir tu e th e r e fo r g e tful n e s s ? fo r , D o
th e y th e r e c a ll fo rg e tfuln e s s v ir tu e ?
Wa n d er t h e wid e w o rl d o ver ,
”
fo r , w a n d e r o ve r th e
wid e w o rl d
“
§ 19 7 . Figur es of Rhetoric, l
a so c a ll e d
Tr o p e s, are dev iation s fr om the or d in ary m ea n
in g of w or d s .
A S im il e is a dir e c t c om p ar is o o f n t wo o bj e c ts ,
by
w ay Of e x pla n a tio n , or of e m b e llis h m e n t. I t is g e n e r
i
a lln t r o d u c e d b y like, a s , o r s o , w ith a c o r r e l a t iv e in
y
th e s e c o n d m e m b e r o f t h e c o m p a r is o n . The in tr o d u c
t o r y w o r d is o ft e n o m it t e d .
Lik e as a fa th e r p itie th h is c hild r e n , so t he L OR D

p itie th the m th a t fe a r H im .
Th e is d yin g l ik e
s un a c l o ve n k in g
In h is o wn b lo o d .
Su n set is b ur i g l ik e th e
n n s e al of Go d
Up o n t h e c lo s e o f d a y .
A Me ta p h o r is a co m p a ris on im p l ie d , b u t n ot ex
p re ss ed ; as, G o d is a r ock . H is name is a tower of
s t r e n g th .
Ag re at c ity l yin g in it s s m o k e ,
A mo n s ter s le e p in g in it s o w n t hic k b r e a th .
A Al l e g o r y is s to r d e s i n e d t o il lu s t r a t e s om e
n a y g
m o r al tr u th , c o n t a in in g a c o n t in u e d m e t a p h o r .
18 t ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
B un y a n
’
s P ilgr im ’
s
‘
P r o gr e s s is th e b e st e x a m pl e of
a n a lle g o r y c a rr ie d th r o ug h an e n t ir e w ork . M an y of
the S c ri p t u re p a a b le s r a re m e ta ph or s . S om e fa b le s a re
m e t a p ho r s .
Me to n y m y is a su b stitu tio n o f o n e n am e fo r a n o th e r
r e la te d n am e ; as th e n a m e o f a n a u th o r for h is w o rk s ;
an e ffe c t fo r a c a us e ; th e c o n t a in e r fo r t h e t hin g c o n
t a in e d ; th e Si
g n fo r t h e thin gg si ni fie d ; a plac e fo r it s
in h a b it a n t s ; t h e m a t e r ia l fo r t h e th in g m a d e of it ; a s ,
W e a r e r e a d in g S h a kesp ea r e . G r a y h a ir s d e s e rv e
r e sp e c t H e d r a n k t h e c up t o
. it s d r e g s . He c a rr ie d
a wa y t h e p a lm . H ear m e, Rom e . H e d r e w his s teel .
S yn ec d o ch e is t h e p u tt in g Of a pa rt fo r a wh o l e , or
a w h o le fo r a pa rt ; as, a sa il fo r a s hi p; a r oo f fo r a
house a w in ter fo r a ; b r
yee
a d
a rfo r fo od .
Hy p erb o le is e x t r a v a g a n t m e t a p h o r o r a com p a ris o n

b e yo n d a ll r e a s o n a b le lim it s . Co ld as Gr een la n d fo r a
s e v e rew in t e r d a y ; lig h t a s d a y , fo r a c le a r m o o n l ig ht
n igh t ; w a v e s m o u n ta in h ig h ; a wf u l , fo r v e ry ; s le n
p
x
d id , fo r g o o d o r e c e ll e n t, a r e c o m m o n e a m le s o f x p
h y p e r b o le .
Ap o st r o p h e is a t u r n in g a s id e fr o m th e o r d e r o f n ar
r a t io n to g
a d d re s s s o m e r e al o r i m a gin a r y c h ar a c te r ; as
in th e
“
F a ll W a r s a w t h e a ut h o r
of
”
turn s a wa
y fro m
h is n a r r a t iv e with t his a p o s tr o p h e ,
O ri
g h t e o us H e av e n ! ere Fr e e d o m fo u n d a
g rave
W h e re sl e pt th e s w o r d , o m n i o t e n t t o s a v e p
P e r so n ifi c a t i o n is the re
g p r e s e n tin an I n a i m a te
n
o bj e c t ,
or a b r ut e as e n d o we d w ith h u m a n a t tr ib u te s
;
as,
“
L zy a wir e !
”
e x c la im e d the d ia l p la te , h o ld in g
-
u
p
it s h a n d s .
“
I f yo u a r e s a tis fie d ,
”
re p lie d t he m o n k ey ,
J u s tic e is n o t.
”
I ro n y is a p l a yful o r s a r c a s tic s t a t e m e n t o f s o m e th in
g
in t e n d e d t o b e t a k e n in a s e n se e x a c tly opp o s ite ; as o n e
t r a n s itive ; giv e s e m p h a sI S t o tr a n s itive v e rb s ; a n d is

s o m e t im e s exp le tiv e .
E x 1 B e c lo u d b e d im
. . 2 B e thi k b e lie
, 3 Be . . n , . .
d e c k b e p a is e
,
4 B eg i d b lo v e d
r . . r ,
e .
M i s s ig ifi e s wr o n g i ll o r is s im p ly n e g a tiv e Mis
n , , .
t a ke m is S h a p e
n, m is tr u s t
-
n, .
U n d e n o t e s e g a tio n I t is u s e d w ith m a y a dj e c tiv e s

n . n
a n d v e b s a d a l w a y s b e f r e p a t ic ip l e s w hic h a d m it a
r ,
n o r
ne
g a tiv e fo r m . Un kin d , u n m a n , u n k n o w in g , u n wep t .
W ith ( G erm an w id e r ) d e n o te s a g a in s t, f r om ; a s,
w i ths ta n d , w i th h o l d , w i th d r a w . It has no c o n n e c tio n
w ith t h e p r e p o s itio n of t he sam e Sp ellin g .
LATIN PREFI X ES .
1 9 9 . A, a b , o r b
y ; a s a ver t,
a s m e an s f r o m , a wa
t u r n a w a y ; a bd u c t, l e a d a w a y ; a bs tr a ct, d r a w a w a y .
Ad ( c h a n g in g d in t o c , f, l, n , p , a n d s b e fo re t ho s e
c o n s o n a n ts res p e c tiv e ly ) m e a n s to or a t; a s, a dd u ce,
b r in
g t o ; a c c ed e, y ie l d t o ; a
fi w ,
f a s te n t o
; a lly, b in d
to ; a n n ex , t ie t o a
; pp os i ti o n , p u tt in
g t o ; a s s u m e, t a k e
to ; a ttr a c t, d r a w t o .
An t e m ean s b e for e ; a s, a n ted ilu vi a n , b e fo re th e

d e lug e .
C ir c u m m e an s a r ou n d bo u t ; c ir c u m a cen t,
or a as,
j
l y in g a b ou t .
Com ( co , co !, co n , c o r
) m e a n s wi th or tog eth er ; a s,
c o m m in g le co -
p a r tn er ; c o l lo q u y , t a lk in g t o g e th e r ;
j
c on o in c o r r el a tive.
C o n tr a ; con tr o (F r en c h co un te r ) m ea n s a g a in s t ;
a s , co u n ter a c t.
D e m e a n s fr om or d own ; a s, d ep a r t, d es cen d .
D is o r ( ii im p lie s se p a r a tion ; a s, d isjoin , d iver t, turn

a s id e .
E or ex ( e f ) m e a n s ou t ; a s,
e ecjt,
c a s t o ut ; exp el
d r iv e o ut ; ef a ce ,
r ub o ut .
E xt r a m ean s o ver , bey on d ; a s, e xtr aor d in a ry .
In (il , im , i r ) w ith v e r bs ,
m e a n s in , in to , or up o n
;
wit h n oun s or j
a d e c tiv e s it is u s u all
y ne
g a t iv e ; as in
d en t, i l lu m in e, im m erse, ir r a d ia te i nju s tice, i m m or a l,
I n te r m e an s between o r a m on g
; a s, i n ter m iw, in ter
medd le .
oh (
c c, o f, o) p dg m e an s
a in s t o r to
; a s o b tr u d e , ,
p u sh a gain s t ; o cc u r r u n a g a in s t ; of er b r in g t o ; Op p os e
, ,
ut a g a in s t.
p
P er m e a n s th r ou gh or by; a s, p er m ea te, fl o w t hr o ugh ;
er c h a n ce, p er hap s .
p
m e an s u t a ft e r .
P o st p a
f ;
ter as, os tp on e,
p
P r e m e a n s b e fo r e ; p r em ed ita te, p r efi x .
P r o m e a n s f or , f o r th , f or w a r d ; a s , p r o con s u l; p r o
os e, p u t fo rt h ; p r op el, t o p u s h fo r w a r d
p .
R e m e a n s ba ck o r a g a in ; a s , r eca l l, r e es ta blis h -
.
S c m e an s a w a y o r a s id e a s , s ed u ce, le a d a wa s eced e,
y;
With d r a w .
Semi ( G r e ek h e m i , F re n c h d em i ) m e a n s h a lf ; a s,
'
Sub ( s u c , s u f, su g , su p , su s
) m e an s u n d er ; as , su b
t er r a n ea n s u c c or , lit e r ally r u n n in g u n d er ; suf er , la b or

u nder ; s u gg es t,
p ut u n d e r ; s up
p os i tio n ,
p l ac ing u nd er ;
s u sp ec t, l o o k u n d e r .
S u p e r is th e o pp o s it e o f su b ; a s, s up er hu m a n , s up er
n a tu r a l .
T r a n s m e an s o ver , a cr oss , bey o n d , or thr o ug h ; as,
tr a n sfer , ; tr a n wor t, c a r r y a c r o s s ; tr a ns g r es s ,
c a rr y o v e r
go b e o n d ; tra n s lu cen t, s h in in g th r o ugh

y .
GREEK PREFI X E S .
§ 2 00. W or d s w hic h c o n tain ch h a r d , p h ,

or
y
e xc ep t at t h e b e gin n in g o r e n d a r e u s u ally ,
o f Gr e ek
o r ig in ; a s, m o n a r ch , p hy s io, s y n on y m .
A or a n h a s a n e gat iv e fo r c e ; a s , a cep h a lou s , h e a d

le ss ; a n a r chy , with o u t r ul e .
A n ti m e an s a
g a in s t ; s
a , a n i
t s la v e r
-
y .
Ap o or a ph (L a tin ab
) m ean s f r om , or a wa y ; as ,
ap o s tr op he, t u rn in g awa
y ap h oer es is , t a k in g awa
y .
D i a m e a n s thr o u g h ; as, d ia m eter , m e a s ur e t h r o u gh .
E p i o r e p h m e a n s up on ; a s , ep i tap h , u p on a to m b .
L p
H y p e r ( a t in s u e r ) m e a n s a bo ve, o ver ; a s , hyp er
c r i ti c a l , o v e r c r itic a l ; hyp er bo l e, o v e r s h o o tin g

-
.
H yp o
(L ati n sub
) m eans u n d er ; as, hyp o th es is , p t
u
tin g u n d e r .
Me ta m eans o ver , bey on d; a s, m eta m orp hose, chan
g e
o v e r.
P eri m eans a r ou n d ; as, p er im e ter , m e a s ur e ar o un d.
S yn , sy l , sy m
(L a t in c o m ) m e a n s w i th , or toge ther ;
a s, s y lla ble, t a k in g t og e th e r ; s m
y p h o y
n , s o u n d in
g
t o ge t h e r ; s
y n ta x, p utti n
g t o e th e r.
g
FREN C H P REFI X ES .
A m e an s to ; a s , a d ieu , to G o d ; a la r m (a l ’
ar m e
) , to
c a ll to ar m s .
D e or d ’
m e an s of or f r om
; a s, d eliver , fr e e fr o m ;
D
.
’
e tr o i t, o f th e s tr a it.
E n or c m is th e L a ti n in ; su r is th e L atin s up er .
ENGLISH SUFFI X ES .
2 0 1 . D o m , in a n o un , in d ic a t e s th e qu a li ty , s ta te,
c on d i ti o n , o r u r is d i c ti o n o f th e p r im itiv e r eedom ,
j ; a s
f
m a r ty r d om , wi sd om , d u ked om , Chr is ten d om .
P RO S O D Y
LE SS ON XLII
‘
§ 2 03 . Pr o s o d y tr ea ts of Ac c e n t , V e r si
fi c a ti o n an d Pu n c t u a t i o n .
Ac c e n t is a s t r e s s o f v oic e la id u
p on c erta in
ll a ble s for eu h on y , fo r oin tin ou t th e em

s
y p p g
h a tic id ea , a n d t o distin uish d if f r e n t u s e s of
p g e
th e sam e w or d .
If al l s
y ll b
a le s w e r e p
r o n o u n c e d w ith th e sam e fo rc e ,
the m o n o t o n y w o ul d b e in to l e r a l e Th e b ul a r
‘
re s uc
.
g
c e s s io n o f a c c e n t s d is tin gu is h e s ve r s e fr o m p r o se ; as ,
“
An d th e s he e n
'
of th e ir s p e ars '
w a s l ik e s t a rs
'
on th e
In c om p o un d wo r d s t h e accent is on th e fi rst p art ,
b e c a u s e th e em p h atic d is tin c tio n is in th e fi r s t ; a s
s te a m b o a t Th e b
'
i s d ist in g u is he d fr o m
'
,
ro w boat . ver
the n oun b y thr o wm g t h e ac c ent fo r wa r d p

( ga e
A ccent fo r eu p ho n
y i s c o m m o n in p ro s e , e ve n wh e n a
s e n te n c e is m a d e u
p o f m o n o s ll a b l e s
y a s, G iv e
'
m e th e
b o ok fi
E v e ry w o rd of m or e tha n one s lla b le h a s a n a c c e n t.
y
P o ly s yllab le s m a y h a v e t wo or m or e a c c e n ts ; a s, e x
'
-
p o
’ ’ ' ’
si -
tio n , u n - in - te l li g i b il - i-ty.
- - -
§ 2 04. E m ph a si s is tha t v a r ia t ion of t o n e,

of for m , or of
p o s ition in t he s e n ten c e , b y which
sp ecia l a tten tio n is c a ll e d to an
y w o rd .
COMMON SCHOOL C OURSE . 1 91
I t is ge n e r ally e xp r e s s e d b y c o n t r a st ; a l o u d e r t o n e
is c o n tr a s te d w ith t he o r d in a r v l e v e l o f th e v o ic e ; in
lou d p a s s a ge s ,
it is o ft e n e xp r e ssed b y d r op p in g th e
v o ic e ; and
g e n e r a ll
y an em p h a t ic w o r d is fo llowe d b y a
p ause ,
to c o n tr a s t a s o u n d w ith s ile n c e .
R h y t h m is a re
g ul ar s u c c essio n of a cc e n t s .
V e r s e is m a d e up of se n t en c e s rh
yt hm ic a ll
y
a rr an
g e d .
Rh ym e is a corr e s
p on d en c e of t wo w or d s in
fin al s ou n d with
—
a diffe ren ce in in itial sou n ds ; as
p l a in , m a in Atla n tic giga n tic ,

un for tu n a te,
Im
p or tu n a te. It u su a l l
y o cc u r s at t he en d of
v er se s .
205. A V e r s e is a S in
gl e lin e in r hyt hm i c
or d er .
Po e t r y isthe lan gu a ge of str on g im a gin a tion .
I t is a no bler t e r m t ha n v er se. The m ul tip lica

tion t a ble can b e p ut in to v er s e , b ut n ot in to
p o e tr
y d. Po etry
oe s n ot n e c e ss aril
y im l
p y rh m e
y
o r r h thm ,b u t ge n er a lly in cl u d es r hy th m
y .
Un rhym e d p o etry is ca lle d b l a n k v e r s e .
A C a n t o is a p rin cip al div is ion of a lon g

oem .
p
A S t a n z a is a re
g ul a r d ivision of a
p oe m ,
m a de of a u n ifor m n u m ber o f v er s e s , r e d e a te
p u
p
in r e u la r de r I t is o ft e n e r r o n eo u sl ca lle d
g or .
y
a 0 8 7R
t 96 0
2 05 . A F o o t is a co m b in a tion of a n ac
l 92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR .
ce n te d s llab le with on e or m or e u n a ccen t e d

y
sylla bles . The follo win g a re the fo ur fee t m o st
u se in E n glish v e r s e :
d
1 The T r o c h e e ;
. an a c ce nte d s
yll a b le fol
lo win g a n u n acc en t e d; as,
S a il
'
of s at
’
in , m a s t
’
of c e
'
d ar .
2 . The I a m b u s ; a n a ccen te d sylla b le follow

in g a n a c c en t e d; a s,
“
Thy s h o r e s
’
a re em
’
p ir e s c h a n ge d In a ll
’
s av e th e e
The ia m b u s is th e m o s t c om m o n fo o t in E n
gl ish v e rs e.
M o st of th e l o n ge r p o em s of M ilton P op e , , Y o u n g,
C a m pb e ll, and b le d ia m b ic lin e s
B yr o n are in t e n -
s yll a .
S c o tt u s e d m o s tly the e igh t s yll ab le d ia m b ic lin e -

.
3 The D a c t y l is a fo ot c o m p os e d of a n ao
. .
ce n te d s l la ble fo ll o w e d b y t w o u n a c ce n te d ; a s
y ,
th e A c a d ia l a n d o n t h e s h o r e s o f t he b a s in o f
’ ’ ' ’
I
’
n n ,
Mi n a s ’
.
”
( Th e l a s t fo o t is a tr o c h e e .
)
4 . The An a p d a ct yl r e v erse d ; two e st is the
u n a c ce n t e d Sylla bles follo we d b y a n a ccen t e d ; a s ,
A d h is o h o t s w e r e gle a m in g in p ur p le a n d '
’ '
n c r
Th e fo ll o w i g li e s m a y h e lp t o fix th e fe e t i m e m o ry
n n n .
Th e Sp o d ee whic h a c c e n t s e v e ry s yll a b le is r a r e ly
n , ,
fo u n d in E n
g lish ve r s e . F o r lo n g a n d s hor t, u n d e rs t a n d
a c c en ted a n d u n a c cen ted .
T ro c he e ’
tr i ps ’
fr o m l o n g t o
’
Sho rt '
;
Fr o m l o n g t o l o n g, in s ol e m n s o r t ,
Sl w Sp d
o
'
on
’
ee
’
s t a lk s
’
,
s tr o n g
'
fo o t
'
, y t
e ill a b le
E v t om ’
er o c
p weit
'
h D ua c t y l t r is l l a l e
y ;
’ ’
b
I m bi m
a
'
cs
’ ’
a r c h fr o m S h o r t t o l o n g ;
W ith a le a p
’
and a b ou n
’
d th e s wift A n a
'
p e s ts th ro n
g
I t is s o m e tim e s used aft e r th e a d d r es s of a l e tt e r
(p . 73) in s t e a d Of th e s e m i- c ol o n .
I t is a ls o u s e d w he n a s e n te n c e is a dd e d to a p r e vio u s
s en te n c e a s a n ill u s tr a t io n , w ith o u t a c o n n e c t in g w o rd ;
a s, N o w r it e r c an e xp e c t a l wa y s to wr it e hi s b e s t : go od
H om e r s o m e tim e s d r o ws e s .
Th e S e m i -c o l o n IS used b et we e n s e n te n c e s wh ic h
a re in d e p e n d e n t in m e a n in g , an d y e t s t a n d c o n n e c te d ;
whic h are in s im il a r r e l a t io n to s o m e o th e r s e n t e n c e , o r .
h a v e th e sam e fo r m , p a r tic ul a rl
y w h e n t he s e n te n c e s a r e
d i v id e d b y t h e c o m m a ; a s ,
W e m u st n o t t ak e this fo r th e in ve n tio n of fa n c y ; th e
fa c t is c on fi rm e d b y a d ozen e
y e - w it n e s s e s
,
Ih a v e o ft e n w is h e d th a t I c o ul d c o n c e n tr a t e m y m in d
u po n onep u p o s e ; t h a t I c o u l d d i e c t t h e e e gy o f m y
r r n r
l ife t o o e p u s u it ; th a t I c o u ld c o n q u e r m y h a b it o f
n r
d r e a m n a b o ut th e fut u e a d c o u l d w o r k in t he p r e s
r n
e n t tim e a s m y o ly c e t ai o pp o r t u it
n r n n
y .
A p r o fe s s e d C a t holic h e im p is o e d the p op e ; th e
,
r n
o rph a o f S t L o u is h e b e c a m e t h e a d o p t e d c hil d o f t h e
n .
,
Re p u b lic ; i th e n a m e o f B r u tu s h e g r a s p e d w ith o ut
n ,
sh a m e , a nd wo r e w ith o u t r e m o rs e , th e d ia d e m of t he
C ae s a r s .
§ 2 1 0 . The C o m m a 18 u se d to se p a r a te wo rd s ,
ph r a s e s , s e n te n c e s a n d c la use s w hic h s ta n d c lo s e l
y con
n e c te d , a n d a r e in th e s a m e r e l a t io n a s, I n t his s e n te n c e ,
Wo r ds p hr a s es s en ten ces a n d
, , c l a u s es a r e a ll in t he Oh
j c e t r e la tio n to s ep a a te a r ,
n d are se p a ra te d b y th e
c om m a .
W he n o nl y t wo t e r m s a r e u s e d , a n d a c o - o r d in a t e c o n
ju n c tio n is e xp ressed b e t we e n th e m , Or b e t we e n t he las t

tw o of a s e r ie s , no com m a is n ee d e d , as in th e a b o ve ,
or a s, H e is wis e and br a ve . T h e y l a ug h e d a n d s h o ute d .

If on e of two S i m l la r te r m s h as a m o difie r wh ic h
s ta n ds a fte r it wh ic h d o e s n ot m o d ify th e o ther , a
c om m a m us t b e u se d b et we e n ; as, He came in gr e a t
h a s te , and w a s gr e a tly fr igh t e n e d H e wo rk s . ha rd , a n d
e a rn s o o d w a es I f a n o r d in a r n n e c t iv e is o m it
g g .
y c o
ted, a comm a p lac e ; a s H is life is d ark d e s o

t a k e s it s , ,
l ate . W h e n w or d s a r e j o i e d in p airs b y c o j u n c tio n s

n n
,
a c o m m a s e p ar a t e s t h e p a ir s ; a s H e m a b e p r in c e o r
y ,
p e a s a n t fo o l or p hil o so p h e r r ic h or p o or b ut he sh al l
, , ,
h ave a s h e lt e r .
N ou ns a b s olute by a dd r e s s a re f
s e t of by c o m m as
a s,
“
Ro m a n s , frie n d s , c o u n t ry m e n , le n d m e y o ur e a r s .
An pp o s itiv e s ta n d i g aft e r it s
a n n o u n , w ith a n
y m o d i
fie r e x c e p t t h e a r ti c le is g e n e r ally s e t off b y th e c o m m a ;
,
as, Fr a n klin t he A m er ic a n p hilo s o p her

,
Ro m e th e .
,
m is tr e s s of th e w o rl d .
An b ridge d p a r tic ip ial cla u s e is s e t o ff b y the c o m m a ;

a
a s H a v in g fo u n d o ur f ie n d we s e t o ut fo r h o m e
,
r ,
Ale x .
a nder ,
h a v in g c o n qu e r e d th e w or ld w e p t fo r m o r e ,
w or l d s t o c o n q u e r .
A lo n g s ubj e c t c o n ta in in g a c l au s e a s m o d ifi er is gen
e r a lly s e p a ra t e d fr o m th e p e d ic a t e b y a c o m m a ; as
r ,
W ellin gto wh o d efe a te d N ap ole on at W a te rloo wa s

n, ,
b or n in 1 7 6 9 .
A dj u n ct s m o d ifying the p re d ic ate a re s e t o ff b y the

c o m m a wh e n t he y p r e c e d e t he s ubj e c t A s ho t a d . r
u n c t o f tim e is s o m e t im e s e x c e p te d
j .
E x I n 1 8 5 3 in th e villa ge of B a rton a s ingul ar

.
—
, ,
h e n o m e o n w a s Ob s e r v e d I I w in t e r we S lid e a n d I
p n .
sk a t e .
W he n a word is r e p e a te d fo r em p h a s is a c om m a ,
s e p a r a t e s th e r e p e a te d w o r d fr o m th e p r e c e d in g ; a s ,
N o w, no w is th e t im e
. . Y es, y e s .
A m od al a d ver b ,
j
a d u nc t , o r c la u se , is ge n e r a lly se p a '
r a te d b y th e c om m a ; as , C e r t a in ly, I will d o it w ith

p le a s u r e. Of c our s e , th is m a d e tr o u l e . b I f y o u wish ,
it c an b e m ove d .
A c a r eful th e p u n c tua tion e m p l oy ed b y g oo d w r ite rs

stu d y o f
is r eco m m e n d ed a s t h e b est gu id e fo r c o m m on u se . Au th o r ities
d iffe r w id el y , p a r tic ul ar ly i n th e r ul es for t h e u s e o f th e c o m m a .
C lo se c o n n ec tion in s en s e for b id s a n y p oin t A l o n g se n ten ce .
d oes n o t r eq u ir e a p o in t w ith in it S im p ly b ec a use it is l on g .
Rea d in g p auses a r e n o s u re gu id e . Th e sen se a l on e deter m in es .
2 11 . The I n t e r r o g a t i o n P o i n t the s em i-c o lon
in ver ted ) is p lac e d a ft e r e v e r y d ir e c t que s tion . A d ir ec t

q ue s tio n m eans one whic h re qu ir e s an a n s wer. I f th e
qu e s tio n is q u ot e d with th e fo r m of t he v e r b ch an e
g ,d it
is in d ir e c t, and d oe s n ot re q uir e th e in t e rr og a tio n p oin t .
Ex . He s a id , W ill y o u v e n tu r e (D ire c t
)
He a sk e d m e if I w o ul d v e n tu r e.
( I n d ir e c t.
)
Th e E x c l a m a t i o n P o in t s ta n d s a ft e r th e ex
a ft e r m o st x cla m ation s ;
'
c la m a to r y s e n ten c e , and e a s,
Al as! wh a t folly ! P s h a w ! h o w a b s ur d !
Th e Ap o s t r o p h e d e n o t e s the o m is s ion of a le tte r ;
’
a s, e e r fo r e v e r.
Q uo t a t io n P o in ts are u se d t o in c l o s e a p a s s a ge
t ak e n fr o m Sp e a k e r ; a s S olo m on h a th
a n o t h e r a u th o r o r
,
w e ll s a id H e th a t h a t e th s u e ty s hip is s ure
,
”
r .
S i n g l e q u o t a tio n p o in t s a r e u s e d wh e n a q u o ta tio n
s t a n d s in a q u o ta t io n ; a s ,
W h at h a s te ha st th o u ? Rid e s oftly ! t ak e thy b r e ath

W h at b i g st th o u h e r e ? H e a n s wer e d W a r a n d
r n
,
‘
’
d e a th .
Th e H y p h e n is used b e twe e n th e p art s of a c om
p ou n d w o r d ; a s , ant -
hill , red -
h o t, will -
O
’-
th e -WI s p .
7
I t is use d at th e e nd of th e lin e wh e n a p a rt of th e
w or d is c a r r ie d ov e r t o th e follo win g lin e ; as, p are n
the s is . Th e s
yll a le b s h o uld n e v e r b e d ivid e d .
APPENDIX .
U SE OF CAPITALS .
2 12 . 1 . C a p it al l e t t e r s Sh o u l d be u se d at th e b e
g inn i ng of e a c h in d e p en d e n t s e n te n c e .
2 . At t he b e gin n in
g of e ac h p r op e r n oun a nd ad e c j
t iv e . Co m m on n ou n s p e r s o ifi e d
n are in c l u d e d , a n d a ll
a pp e lla tio n s of th e D e ity, wh e t he r n o u n o r a d e c t iv e . j

3 . At t h e b e gin n i g o f e a c h n o u a dj e c tiv e
n n, or v er b
in a t itle ; a s o f a b o o k o o f a s o c ie t y ,
r .
4 . E v e ry lin e in p o e t y s h ould c o m m e n c e r w ith a
ca p it al .
5 . Th e p r o n ou n I a nd th e e x c l a m a tio n 0 ar e a l wa y s
in ca p it a l
6 . A qu o ta tio n
d ir e c t c om m en c es w ith a ca p ital .
7 . P e r s o n al p o o u s r n n of th e s e c on d a n d thi d p e
r rs o n s
r e fe r r in g to th e Alm igh ty ar e s o m e ti m e s c om m e nc e d
w ith a ca p it a l . T his us age is g a in in g fa v o r , b u t is n ot
u n iv e rs a l.
8 . C a p ital s a r e s o m e t im e s u s e d a t th e b e
g in n in
g of a n
em p h a tic w o r d , in s t e a d of p u tting th e wh o le w o r d in t o
it a lic s .
9 . H e a d in g s o f c h a p te r s ,
r u n n in
g t itl e s of b o ok s ,
a nd
th e p r in c i p al d iv is io n s of b o ok s a r e p r in t e d w h o lly in
ca p itals . In a d v e r tis e m e n ts p o s t s a
,
er nd o th e r m a tt e r
d e s ig n e d t o a ttr a c t s p e c ial a tt e n t io n , c a p ita ls a re fr e e ly
us ed .
R ULES F OR SPELLING .
2 13 . I . F in al f, l , a n d s ar e d o u b le d in m on o s yl
p ifi,
'
l a b le s w he n d e d b y a v
rece o w e l ; a s ,
s t b a ll , p a s s .
E x c ep t if, c l e f, o f, a s , g a s , h a s , h is , is , p u s , th is , th u s ,
us, wa , y s e s ,
a n d th e t h ir d s in
g u l a r o f v e r b s w h ic h e n d
in s ile n t C .
II .Oth e r fi n a l c o n s o n a n t s r e m a i n S in
gl e x c e p t . E
eb b , ad d, odd, eg
g, in n ,
err , b urr b utt b uzz
, , ,
fuzz .
III . A, h ,
i, j, k , q ,
u, v, W , x an d y ar e n e ve r
d o ub l e d .
Q i s a l w a y s fo l l o w e d b y 11 .
IV . M on os yll a b le s a n d w o r d s a c c e n te d on th e
s
yl l b
a le , w hic h e n d in a s in gl e c o n s o n a n t r ec ed ed p
s in gl e v o w e l , d o u b l e t h e fi n a l c o n s o n a n t o n c e iv
in g a n e n d in g w h ic h co m m en c es w ith a vo wel ; a b ud
d in g, ru bb e d w itt e n c o m m itte e
,
r ,
.
Th e d o u b l e d c o n s o n a n t i d ic a te s n th e s h or t 8
the prec edig n v o w e l. T hu s h op p in g is d is tin g s he d
fro m h op in g b y t h e d o u b l e d c o n s o n a n t .
U s a ge v a r ie s in r e g a r d t o w o r d s e n din g in cl,
fe w o th e r s W e b s te r follo ws th e ab ov e r ule
. .
c e s te r d o u b l e s t h e 1 ; a s in tr a vel ler .
V . F in a l e m u t e is d r o pp e d b e for e an e n d in g
c o m m en c es w ith a v o wel ; as, fo r c (e ) ib l e . E xc e p

c an d g to p r e s e rv e t h e s o ft s o u n d , s in ein
g g a n d dy ein g
t o d is tin gu is h t h e m fr o m s in g in g a n d dy in g , and w or d s
e n d in g in cc an d oe ; a s , a g r eea ble, s ho ein g .
VI E . m ute fi n al is r e t a in e d b e fo re an e n d in
g w h ic h
b e gin s w ith a c o n s o n an t ; a s, ca r e u l. f E x c e p t d uly,
t r u ly , a w ful , w h o lly, j u d gm e n t ,
a b r id g m e n t ,
a c k n o wl
e d gm e n t.
VII . F in al y p re c e d e d by a c on son a n t b ec om e s 1 on
r e c e iv in g e n d in w h i h m m n c e s with le tter
an
g c c o e an y
e x c ep t i as, m err im en t, p i tiless , p ity ing .

2 02 E N LI H G S GRAMMAR .
1 . P a tr o n y m ic s ; or n am e s d e r iv e d fr o m th e n am e
’
of a fa th e r , or a n c e s to r . E n g l is h p a tr o n y m ic s en d in
s on , an d e v ery fa m ilia r r st fi n a m e or n c i k -
n am e h a s it s
c o rr e s p o n d in g p
a t r o n m ic
y .
Ex .
— Ad a m son , D a v id s o n , J o h n s o n , P e t e r s o n , J a c k s o n ,
W ils o n W ill ia m s o n ,
D ic k s o n or D ix o n Ric h a r d s o n ,
A n d e rson A n dr e w
’
s so n.
F itz , a c orru p t io n of th e F r e n c h fi ls s o n is u s e d a s
:
, a
p re xfi p t o
y m
in ics ; a r n a s, F itz J a m e s F itz M a u ric e, .
S c o tc h p at o y m ic s r n h a v e th e p r e fix Ma c o r Me; a s ,
Mc C le lla n M a c gr e g o r ,
. Th e I is h p e fix is 0 s a id t o
r r ,
m e a n gr a n ds on Th e W e ls h e . p r fix th e p r e p o s itio n ap ,
m e a n in g of , t o t h e n a m e o f t h e fa t h e r , an d a
p, c o n tr a c t
in g w ith t h e fo llo win g n am e , i s e v e r a l p a t ro n m

g v es us
y
ic s c o m m e n c in g w ith P; a s, P o w e ll ,
fo r ap H owel l ;
P r ic e , fo r ap R ice .
2 . Su rn a m es o f O cc up a t io n . M an y of t hes e a re
d e r iv e d fr o m ver bs , an d e n d in er .
Ex .
-
B a k e 1 B r e we r C o op e r F o wl e r CI O c k e r or Pot
i
, , ,
t er , M il le 1 , Je 1 11 e 1
(t ha t —
LS T J e i n e r) , M a s o n S m ith (fro m
,
“
s m ite ) and it s com po u n ds .
S o m e n am es of t his c la s s e nd in m a n ; as, S e a m an,
W ater m a n .
F e m in in e s u rn a m e s o f o c c u p a t io n w e r e fo r m e d in s ter
;
a s, B a x t e r z B a k e s te r , B r e w s t e r S p in s te r , ,
and W eb s t e r ,
t he fe m in in e Ve b b e r W e a v e r
of V z .
O b s ol e te p r o fe s s io n s
g iv e us s uch n a m es as A rr o w
s m itt le t c h e r , B o wy e r L o r im e r ( b r id le
,
-
m a k e r ), L a ti
m er (L a tin e r , th a t is , i n terp r eter

; o ne wh o can
’
t a lk
L a t in . )
T it l e s
O ffi c i a l D uk e , E a r l Kn igh t S q u ire s ,
‘
3 . .
, ,
B is h o p , D e a n P a r s o n s C l a r s ,
le r k S e x t o n S a xto n , , ,
z
P r ie s t B a ile y B a iliff P o p e
,
z S o m e o f th e s e n a m e s ,
, .
s u c h a s Kin a n d Pop e m a h b i i k
g , y a v e e e n
g v en a s n c
n am es .
A PPEN D I X . 20 3 ‘
4 . Su rn a m es o f L o c a l i t y , d e r iv e d fro m p lac e of
r e s id e n c e . H a r d ly a v il la g e in E glnan d or N orm an d
y
w h ic h h a s n ot o ri
g in a te d so m e s u r n am e . B e s id e s th e s e ,
th er e are n a m es o f k ind T l o c al itie s
wo m e n o f e ve r
y .
o f t h e s a m e o c c u p a t io n a n d fi r s t n a m e , w o uld r e a d il b e
y
d is t in gu is h e d a s J a m e s fr o m th e h ill, a n d J a m e s fr o m
t he d al e , n a t u r a ll
y b e c om i n
g J a m e s H ill and J am e s
D a le .
Ex .
— M e ad o w s F o r d P a r k , , ,
B r id g e z B r igg s , B a nks ,
F ie ld a nd W o od ,
w it h t h e ir n um e r o u s com pou n ds ;
T o w n e r W e ll e r W e l lm a n
, ,
.
5 . Na m e s d e r iv e d fr o m P e r so n a l Q u a l itie s, or
P e c u l ia r i t i e s . Ex Bl . a c k, B r o w n W hit e L ittle L on g
, , , ,
S nel l ( q u ic k) A m t
,
r s ron
g, H a r d y D o o lit tle T o og o o d
, , ,
Ro y , Re e d and Ro ss z Re d .
6 . N a t io n a l Na m e s . E n
g lis h, E gl n and, Fre n ch ,
I r is h , I re la n d , S c o tt , D ane or D e n is , S wit ze r, G e rm a n ,
D utc h e r, W a le s W a llis W al s h W e lc h F la n d e r s, ,
G a el o r G ale .
7 . Na m es o f E m b l e m s , d e r iv e d fr o m c o a ts o f a r m s .
Most of th e a n im a ls fa m ili ar t o our a n c e s to r s ha ve
g iv e n us s u rn a mes ; a s , of q u a d r up e d s ,
we h a ve B uc k ,
D oe, Hi n d, H ar t, St a
gg L y L m
,
b on , a ,
Kid d , H o
gg ,
W o lfe . Of bi d s r ,
H e ron ,H wk R b i a ,
o n, J a y , P ig e o n ,
N ighti g n al e , W r en . Of fi h P S s es, a rr, a lm o n , C h ubb ,
H i ge rr n .
From o th e r fa m ilia r o bj e c ts l ik e ly t o be us e d as
em ble m s ,
w e h a ve S un , Mo o n S ta rr , ,
Ro c k , Ro s e , O a k e s ,
S w rd s S p
o ,
e a r.
T h e re a r e o t h e r s o u rc e s , b u t th e a b o ve ar e th e p r in c i
p al .W h en th e p u p ils ar e o f d iffe r e n t n at ona l i it ie s , it is

o ft e n in t e r e s tin g t o t r a c e t he c o rr e s po n d in
g n am e s
t h r o u gh d iffe r e n t l a n g u a g e s T h u s S c h n e id e r Ta ylo r
.
,
z
,
Mulle r Mille r z
,
Z ie gl e r z Tyl e r Mc G o wa n = C a r p e n ter
, .
SYNONYMS .
2 15 . A S y n o n ym is a w ord e qu iv a le n t in m e an
in g t o s o m e o t he r w or d .
W o r d s p r e c is e ly e q uiv a le n t a r e c a l le d ex a c t s n o n m s.
y y
The s e a re un c om m o n in an
y l an ua e
g g W h e n a wo r d
.
is o n c e a gr e e d u p o a s th e n s i n o f a n id e a , a n o th e r w o r d
g
is n ot n e ede d t o e xp r e s t h e s sam e id e a . S till ,
in t a k in g
in t o o ur l a n gu a g e w o r d s fr o m d iffe r e n t s o ur c e s , w e h a ve
a fe w e x ac t s
y non
y m s . H yp o th es is fr om th e G re e k,
and su
pp o s i ti o n fro m th e L a t in l a n gu age a re e x a m p le s .
B u t in yp o et
fo r r h m e a n d fo r m e t e r , a n d in a ll w r itin
r
y g
fo r v a r ie ty o f e xp r e s s io n , it is c o n v e n ie n t t o h a v e t e r m s
o f d iffe r e n t s o u n d , d iffe r e n t a c c e n t , a n d o f d iffe r e n t
l e n g th . T hu s f a lchion
, ,
br a n d ,
bla d e, g la ive, s a ber ,
s c im eta r , a r e m s o f s wor d; e t th e s e n a m e s a r e
y s non
y y
n o t e x a c tl e q u iv a le n t
y .
A fa l c h io n is a c ro o k e d s wor d
( fa lx z s ic k l e ) , a sa ber
is a h or s e m a n
’
s s w o r d , c ur v e d at th e p oin t ,
a bla d e is a
pa rt
p ut fo r th e W h o l e , e tc .
M uc h of th e e a s e a n d g rac e of c o m p o s itio n d epends

u pon th e w r it e r
’
s a b ility to e xp r e s s an id e a in t e r m s
'
w hic h a re e xac t ,
an d
y e t n ot too c om m on- pla c e . Ev en
a fa m ilia r t r u th m a y s e e m fr e s h and in t e r e s ting wh e n

e xp r e s s e d in b e t t e r w o r d s t h a n u s u a l. I t is e x c elle n t
p r a c t ic e t o a tt e m pt to re p ro d u c e the id e a s of a
g ood
w rit e r in o ur o w n word s .
Th e m o s t fa m ilia r id e a s h a v e u s u all
y th eg r e a te s t
fo r m s of e xp r e s s io n . T un s t he v e r b s ee h a s t h e fo llo w
in g a pp x im a te
ro s
y n on
y m s
L o ok , v ie w , s u r ve
y ,
e ye , b e ho l d ,
d e s c ry , es py , g a ez,
s t a re , w a tc h, s c a n , s c r u t in i e . z T he r e are o th e r s whic h
the p up il will d o w e ll t o s e a rc h o ut a d c o m p a r e n .
Th e a b o v e m ight b e s e p a r a te d fi r s t in to tr a n s itiv e a n d
a s s e r t, e xp r e s s ,
d is c o u r s e , h a r a n g u e . G iv e t he p r e c is e
m e a n in g of e a c h , ad d as m an y s yn o n
y m s as p o s s ibl e ,
an d wr it e s e n te n c e s w h ic h c o n t a in t he s e ve r al ve bs r
us e d c o r r e c tl y. Al so s ele c t s e n te n c e s fr o m s ta n d a r d
a u th o r s , ill u s t r a t in g t h e p ro
p e r use. Ne w p p s a e r a u th o r
ity is o ft e n o f n o v a l ue .
T he e xac t m e ani
g w o r d s m u s t g e n e r a lly b e
n of s ou
ght
fo r in U na br idg ed D ic t io n a r ie s , w hic h s h o uld b e in

e v e r y Sc h o o l r o o m .
M a ny w o r d s fin d t h e ir y s non
y m s in p hr a s e s ,
or in
c la u s e s , and t he s e a d m it o f e n dl e s s v a r ie ty . T hus a
h is tor ia n m a y b e a w r i ter of his to r y , a h is tor ica l w r iter ,

o n e wh o w r i tes h is to r y , th e a u th o r of a h is to r y .
P up ils m a y wi th p ofi t p i the c ha n i of wo r d s
'
r r ac t c e n
g g
a s the y r e a d , to s e c ure a re ad y u se of s n on m s.
y y I t is
n ot to b e su pp o s e d th a t t h e ir chan
g es willy a l wa s im
p rove up o n th e a u th o r s
’
words, b u t t h e y m a y im p r o v e
t h e ir o w n s t yl e b y the e x e r c is e .
Ap a s s a ge fr o m C ic e r o is giv e n b el o w , a n d th e s am e
p a s s a ge c h a n g e d b y t h e s u b s t it u t io n o f s y n o n m s
y .
“
Had I n ot, b y d e e p ly po n d e r in g t he p re c e p ts of
p h ilo s o p hy a n d th e ,
—
le s s o n s of t he h is t o r ia n and t he
p o e t im b u e d m y m i
,
nd w ith an e a rl
y and an in tim a t e
c o n v ic t io n th a t n o thi n i n life is w o r th of s tr e n u o u s
g y
p ur s uit b ut ho n o r a n d r e n o wn ,
”
e tc .
“
Had I n o t, by c a r e ful m e d it a t io n u po n t h e t e a c h in g s
of p h il o s o p h e r s a d t he i s t uc t io n s o f a u th o rs o f his
,
n n r
t o r y a n d p o e t y e a ly p e r u a d e d m y r e a s o n t o t h e full
r ,
r s
b e lie f th a t n o o bj e c t in e x is t e n c e is d e s e vi g o f v igo r r n
”
o u s e n d e a v o r , u n le s sit b e g lo r y o r fa m e , e t c .
S x
im il a r e e r c is e s c a r e fully r e a r e d a n d s h a r ly c r iti p p p
c iz e d b th e c la s s , a n d b t h t h f l
y y e e a c e r , a re ver
y u s e u .
APPEN D I X . 2 07
E X ERCISE IN SYNONYMS .
D iffe re n c e b etw e e n l o ve an d like ? B e t w e e n i d le a n d

l a zy ? B e t w e e n p l u n g e a n d d iv e ? B e t w e e n g en er o u s
a n d li ber a ?
l B et w e e n ed u c a tion a n d l ea r n in g ? Be
t we e n sp o t a n d b lem is h ? B e tw e e n br in g a n d f etch ?
B ea r a n d ca r r y ? Un d er s ta n d a n d c o mp r eh en d ? To m b
and g r a ve Ch oos e p r efer ?
and Ca la m i ty a n d c a ta s
tr op h e ? Civi l a n d p o li te ? Wom a n ly a n d wo m a n is h ?
Co n s cien tio us a n d s cr up u lo u s ? F r u g a l a n d econ o m ic a l ?
H op e an d exp ec t ? Co u r a g e, br a ver y , f o r t it u d e, h er o
is m H in d er an d deter
2 10 I NDE X .
E u p h on y , 89 . Meton ym y 184
, .
x
E cl a m a t ion s , 50, 145 . llfethin k s , 1 19, 1 58 .
x
E cla m a to ry sen ten c es , 46 . Mod a l ad verb s , 1 3 9 .
x
E p le tives , 1 39 . Mod ify d efin ed , 29 .
Mod ifi er s , 29, 1 47 .
i i
F em n n e en d in gs, 100 . o f n o un s , 149 .
F igures o f s p e e c h , 1 80 . o f p r on ou n s, 1 52 .
p l u r a l o f,
98 . j
o f ad ec tives , 152 .
F oo t d efi n e d , 1 91 . o f ve rb s , 1 56 .
F r en ch p r e fi es, 171 x . Mo de, s u b un c tive, 1 17 , 164

j .
Mul tip l ica tives, 1 32 .
G en de r , 99 .
G er u n d , 104, 1 72 . N o mi n a tive , 1 01 .
G r a m m a r d efi n ed , 85 . N o un s d efi n ed , 27 , 92 .
G r eek p r efi es , 188 x . c las se s o f,

95 .
in fl e c tio n o f, 102 .
H y p e rb a ton , 183 .
p l ur a l , 52 , 97 .
H y p e r b ol e , 1 8 4 .
p os s es sive, 54, 1 02 .
H y p h en , 1 96 . m od ifi ca tio n o f, 149 .
c on s tr uc tion o f, 1 65 .
I a m b us, 1 92 . N um b er, 96 .
I m p er a t ive sen ten c es , 64 .
I m p er fe ct p a r tic ip l e, 1 04, 1 72 . Objec t d e fi n ed, 93 .
I n fi n itive , 6 1 . 1 03 . in d ir ec t, 1 57 .
s y n ta x o f, 1 69 . j
Ob ect c la u ses , ab ridged , 1 60
u s es o f, 1 7 0 . Ob sol e te w o r d s , 93 .
in a b r id ged c la uses, 1 60 . O n om a to p ce ia , 155 .
I n fl ec tio n , 52 , 93 Or d in al n u m e r a l s , 1 3 2 .
I n ter r oga t io n p o m t, 1 96 . Or th ogra p h y , 8 6 .
I n te r r oga tive se n te n c es 54 . . r u l e s o f, 200 .
p r o n o u n s , 45, 1 2 7 .
I r o n y , 1 84 . P a ra d ig m , 1 02 .
I r r eg u l a r v e rb s , 1 07 . P a r agoge, 1 8 1 .
I t, s p ec ia l use s o f, 1 2 6 . P a re n th es is, 197 .
P a rs in g, 149 .
Lab ial s , 8 8 . P a r tic ip le s , 59, 103 .
La n g uage d efi n ed , 8 4 . in a b r id ged c la u se s, 164

La tin p re fi es 1 8 6x . u s es o f 1 7 1 , 1 7 3
, .
Le tt er w r itin g, 7 1 . P a r ts of S p ee c h , 2 6, 92 .
x
s uffi es , 1 8 9 . P a s s ive vo ice, 11 5, 159 .
d a te o f, 72 . P er iod , 1 93 .
a dd r e ss , 73 . P e rson d efi n ed, 43 .
co n c l us io n , 74 . P e rson al p r on o u n s, 43 , 124.
d ir ec tio n , 7 5 . c o m p o u n d , 44, 12 6 .
m od e ls o f 76, 78 , . d ecl en s ion o f, 12 5 .
Letter s d efi n ed , 8 6 . P e r s on ifi ca tio n , 1 84 .
c l as sifi ed , 87, 8 8 . P h o n ic s p e llin g, 8 9 .
Liq u id s , 8 8 . P h rase d efi n ed , 3 7 .
Pleon a sm , 1 8 2 .
Meta p h or , 1 83 . P l ur a l , for m a tion of, 53 .

IN DE X . ll
P oetr y defin ed, 191 . j

S ub ect, 23 , 1 46 .
P os itive degr ee, 61 , 13 3 . j

S ub u n c tive m od e , 1 17 .
l o s s es sion s , 54, 1 02
’
. S ub seq u en t, 140 .
P red ica te, 2 3 , 146 . S ub s ta n tive , 2 7 .
x
P r efi es , An gl o S a on , 1 85 -
x . u fli xe s, E n glish , 188 .
La tin , 1 86 . La tin a n d F r en c h , 18 9 .
G r eek , 188 . S up er la tive d egr e e, 1 3 3 .
F r en ch , 1 88 . u r n a m e s , d e r iva tio n o f, 201

P r ep o s itio n s, 46, 1 40 .
y ll ab les, 8 9 .
l is t of, 47, 1 40 .
y l l e p s is, 182 .
com p ou n d ed with ve rb , 141 yn c 0 p e , 1 8 1 .
P r im itive wor d s , 52, 90 . S y n ecd och e, 184 .
P r ogr ess ive for m o f ver bs , 1 14 . S y n on y m s 204 , .
P r on om in al a d ec tives , 13 0 j . x
S y n ta , 145 .
P r o n ou n s, 42 , 92 , 124 .
class e s o f, 1 24 . T en se , 58 , 1 05 .
d eclen sio n , 125 .

Tha t, wh en p r efe rr ed
r e la tive , 44, 1 2 7 . as r elativ e , 1 53 .
in ter r oga tive , 45 , 127 . T itl e, wh en p l ur al i ed , 99 z .
r ec ip r o ca l, 13 1 . T m esis , 1 8 1 .
P r op os ition , 1 47 . T ran s itive ve r b s , 108 .
P r osody , 1 90 . T ra n s p o s ition , 1 8 3 .
P un c tua tio n , 1 93 . x
e am p l e s o f, 175 .
T r och ee, 1 92 .
Q uota tion p oints , 1 97 . T r op es, 1 97.
Redu n da n t ver b s, 1 22 . Ve rb s 2 7 1 03
, , .
Rela tive p r on o un s, 44, 12 7 . au xil i ary , 1 12 .
Ro ot of a w or d, 91 . 1 61
c a u sa ti ve se n s e ,
Rhy m e 1 7 1 , . j
c o n uga tion , 1 04 .
Rhy th m 191 , . d efec tive, 1 1 1 , 1 18 .
Rule defi ne d 8 5 , . d e r iva tio n , 1 22 .
Rules o f sp ellin g 200 , . em p h a tic for m , 1 14 .
for cap itals, 199 . irr eg ul a r , 1 1 1 .
l is ts o f s tr on g, 1 1 9 .
S em i c ol on , 1 94
-
.
p r in c ip al p a r ts, 1 08 .
S en ten ce d efi n e d, 23 , 146 .
p rogr es s ive fo r m , 1 14 .
cla sses o f, 64, 147 .

p gro r e ss ive p as s i ve , 116 .
a n aly s is o f, 2 5 . r ed u n d a n t, 1 22 .
fo r a n aly s is , 7 0 . voic e , 1 15 .
z
a n a ly ed , 6 7 , 1 76 . Vers e, 1 91 .
S im ile , 1 83 . Vo wel s, 8 7 .
S p ellin g d e fin ed , 89 . Wha t, use of, 128 .
r ule s o f, 200 . Word s , 8 5

S p on d e e , 1 8 1 . Wea k conj ugation , 1 07 .
j
S tr on g c on uga tion , 107 .
C a nnon , G OODMAN DONNE LLE Y , Pa m r s as AND Sr s n s or vr s s s , Ow ow o.

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EN G L I S H G R AMMAR

F OR T H E P R I MAR Y I N T E R M E D IAT E AN D G R AMMAR

CH URCH , G OODMAN Jr DONNE L LE Y , P RI N TE RS AND S TE RE OTY P E RS , C H I CAGO.

TH E p rincip al r e a s on for a d d in g an oth e r Gr a m m ar to

an d p up ils th a n any wh ic h h a s y e t b een t r ie d .

T his v ol u m e p r e s e n ts a m e tho d of t e a c hing Gra m m ar

be r e a d , o r u se d a s ill us tr a tio n s , a n d o th e r s u s e d a s han

in th e m th a t the y h av e b e w ild e re d a n d d is g u s t d the e

b e gin to Stu dy la n gu age j us t a s he r e c eiv e s a n d le ar n s it ,

c hil d s h o ul d ut w or d s t og eth e r c o rr e c tly , and u n d er

t o m ak e p e rfe c t a n d c o n c is e d e ﬁ itio n s o f gr a m m a tic a l n

u p on te r m s w hic h a r e b e yon d th eir c o m p reh e n s ion while ,

m a r the fa c t h a s b e e n p e s e n t e d a n d r e cog iz e d b e for e

fa ith fully p e r fo r m e d t h e gr o u n d p a s s e d o v e r w ill b e p e r

d r y d e t a ils , im p e rfe c tly u n d e r s to o d , s e ld o m or n e ve r

applie d a n d s oon forg otte n S uc h s tud y m ak e s n o m or e

h av e n eve r b e e n w ell ta ugh t the m s e lv e s . S om e have no

l a n whic h e v e n wh e n fo llo w e d b lin dl w ill d l ss

h av e b een s h o r ten e d . B ut k n o win g h o w m a n y w ill o n ly

C o urs e Of G rad e d S c h o o ls , a n d a ll whic h c o uld p r o p e rly

m e d ia te d e v el o p s a p la n fo r t e a c hin g l a n gu age to p up ils

t ain a ll th a t t h e p u p il g e n e r a lly n e e d s. T he r ule s Of

sp ellin g are a l s o r e fe rr e d t o th e App en di x ,

g ram m a r ia n s . Y e t it h a s been deem ed n e c e s s ar

Sp e c ia l a tt e n t io n is in v ite d to th e fo llo w in g p o ints in

Th e s tu d y O f l a g u a g b e gin s w ith t h e p rim a r y s c h o o l

Atte tio n n is als o in v it e d t o th e fo ll o w in g t o p ic s

G d en e r, Case, T r a n s itive V e r b s , C o nj u g a t io n , use O f

P a r tic ip l e , t he r e j e c tio n of Au x ili ar

ha m , M a r sh Ho wlan d G re e n Mullig a n a n d Ric h ar d

Tho ugh o nl y a s in gle n a m e a pp e a r s on th e titl e - p age ,

the id e a of th e b o ok wa s J sur o m e All e n

A M of M o n tic ell o I o wa wh o al s o sh a r e d in its p r e p a r a

tio n thr o u gh the I n te r m e d ia t e p ar t H is o th e r e n ga ge .

m e nt s p r e v e n tin g fur th e r c o o p er a tio n h e is in n o way

SU G GES T I ONS TO T EA CHE RS .

t e a c hin g Th e o un p up il S h o uld ﬁ r s t r e c e ive fr o m

o w n s p e ec h s h o ul d b e a m o d e l fo r his p u p ils The .

M o s t p up il s b rin g to the s c h o ol r oo m b a d h ab its -

r oom . T he s e n am e s , w rit te n or pri nte d on th e boa rd ,

or on th e s l a t e , fur n is h th e ver y b e st Of. s p elli n

m o st p up ils . N am es sh o u ld n eve r b e giv e n b y th e

The n a m es, wh e n ob tain e d ,

an d m a d e fa m ili a r b y p o in tin g o ut the o bj e c t , wh il e

p o in t o f th e k n ife and so t h r o u gh th e lis t . Do not

be s a tis ﬁ ed t ill th e p u p ils c an g o t h r o u gh a ll the n am e s

I f th e tea c h er h a ve no b la ck b oar d , an d th e sc h ool a u th or itie s

c ra y on for se veral week s .

je c t s. Ne xt t o th e p e rc e p tio n of t h e thin g com es th e

Or, of thin g s with o u t life ; le t t h e t e a c h er a sk , W hat

m any a c t io n s a s p o ss ible . T he nl e t t h e m g ro u a c tio n s p

w a lks , tr o ts , p a ces , ca n ters , g a llop s . Le t th e p u p il s te ll

N e ith e r in te r e s t n or p o ﬁ t is s e c ur e d whe n th e p up ils

the cla s s to t e ll s o m e t hin g a b out it , t h u s

T ake in th e same w a y th e fo llo win g

F irs t write th e name o f th e Obj e c t at th e h e a d Of a

s en t e n c e s b e wr itt e n a fte r th e fo llo win g m od el s

The a pple is l a rge .

The Cle a r gla s s is b r it tle .

T ak in g som e fa m iliar t hin g , as a p e n c il ,

w r ite w i th , to m a k e letter s , e tc . , m a y b e m a d e in t o sen

te n c e s a fte r th e fo llo win g m o d e l s

I n quire the u s e s Of the fo llo win g t hin gs