ENERGETICS – the study of energy changes during both physical and chemical reactions.

The energy content of a system is called the enthalpy, H

Chemical reactions often involve a change in the enthalpy of the system; in other words, the enthalpy of the
products (Hp) is different to the enthalpy of the reactants (Hr); the changes in energy are usually in the form of
heat and this result in the reactants and products having different energy levels (enthalpy).

Consequently, two types of reaction, based on energy changes, may occur:

o Exothermic reaction: when a chemical reaction releases heat, causing an increase in temperature.
Examples:
 Burning fuels
 Neutralization reactions between acids and bases
 Reactions between reactive metals and acids
 Dissolving certain substances in water e.g. sodium hydroxide and sulphuric acid

o Endothermic reaction: when a chemical reaction absorbs heat, causing a decrease in temperature.
Examples:
 Decomposition of compounds when heated e.g. calcium carbonate decomposes into calcium
oxide and carbon dioxide when heated
 Photosynthesis
 Dissolving certain salts in water e.g. ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and potassium nitrate (KNO3)

As stated in the “RATES OF REACTIONS” handout, chemical reactions involve breaking old bonds and
making new bonds. The breakage of bonds requires energy (endothermic) while the formation of bonds releases
energy (exothermic).

Whether the overall reaction is endothermic or exothermic depends on which process involves more energy –
breakage or making of new bonds.

Enthalpy change (∆H) can therefore be represented in two ways:

1. ∆H = Hp – Hr

2. ∆H = energy absorbed to break bonds – energy released to form bonds

Note: for reversible reactions, if the forward reaction is exothermic, then the reverse reaction is endothermic
and vice versa.

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ENERGY PROFILE DIAGRAMS

The energy change of reactions may be illustrated via an energy profile diagram which shows the relative
energy levels of reactants and products, ∆H and activation energy of the reaction.

Net energy Net energy

released(-∆H) absorbed(+∆H)

Notice that the enthalpy change of an exothermic reaction is shown as negative (the negative sign represents
loss of energy); the enthalpy change of an endothermic reaction is shown as positive (the positive sign
represents gain of energy).

The energy profile diagram below illustrates what happens to the activation energy of a chemical reaction
when an enzyme is added to the reaction. As you can see from the relative positions of the reactants and
products, this particular reaction is exothermic.

Note: when drawing the energy profile diagram of a specific reaction, the following information MUST be
included:

o The formulae of the reactants

o The formulae of the products
o Arrows to indicate the activation energy
o The value of the enthalpy change (∆H)

2
CALCULATING ENERGY CHANGES FROM EXPERIMENTAL DATA

It is not possible to know the actual enthalpy of reactants or products. It is however possible to measure energy
changes in the lab by measuring the changes in heat, known as heat of reaction.

Two forms of heat of reaction are considered here:

o Heat of neutralization: the heat change when 1 mole of water is formed in a neutralization reaction

o Heat of solution: the heat change when 1 mole of solute is completely dissolved in excess solvent

To determine heat of reaction, the following equation for heat change is used: q = mc∆T

o q = heat change
o m = total mass of solution
o c = specific heat capacity of solution
o ∆T = change in temperature of solution

Assumptions used in the equation are:

o The density of a dilute aqueous solution is the same as the density of water – taken as 1 gcm-3. Hence 1
cm3 of solution has a mass of 1 g

o The specific heat capacity of a dilute aqueous solution is the same as that of water – which is 4.2 J g-1
o -1
C

o Heat loss to and/or heat gain from the environment is zero or negligible; hence the temperature change is
accurate

GUIDE TO CALCULATING HEAT OF NEUTRALIZATION:

1) Calculate the heat change using q = mc∆T

o Based on the second assumption, take the total volume of solution as the mass of the solution; for
example, if the total volume is 40 cm3 then the mass of the solution is 40 g.
o c = 4.2 J/g oC
o ∆T = Tf – Ti, Tf and Ti are final and initial temperatures respectively.
2) Calculate the number of moles of water formed
o Write the balanced chemical equation
o Calculate the number of moles of acid and base mixed together by using their concentrations and
volumes
o Use the mole ratio of the acid:base along with the moles of acid and base mixed together to
identify the limiting reactant
o Use the mole ratio of the limiting reactant:water along with the moles of limiting reactant mixed
to determine the moles of water formed
3) Calculate the heat of neutralization as follows:
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
heat of neutralization = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑑

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GUIDE TO CALCULATING HEAT OF SOLUTION:

1) Calculate the heat change using q = mc∆T as shown above

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
2) Calculate the number of moles of solute dissolved using the mole formula: 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
3) Calculate the heat of solution using: heat of solution = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

SAMPLE QUESTIONS:

Sample 1: 50 cm3 of 1.0 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide (NaOH) at a temperature of 26.0 oC is added to 50 cm3 of
1.0 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid (HCl) at a temperature of 27.0 oC. After mixing, the maximum temperature of
the solution is 33.2 oC. Determine the heat of neutralization.

Step 1 – calculate the heat change using q = mc∆T

o m = 100 g since we have 50 cm3 + 50 cm3 = 100 cm3 of solution total

o c = 4.2 J/g oC
o ∆T = Tf – Ti
26.0+27.0
 Ti = = 26.5 oC
2
 Tf = 33.2 oC
 Therefore ∆T = 33.2 oC – 26.5 oC = 6.7 oC
o Hence q = 100g × 4.2 J/g oC × 6.7 oC = 2814 J

Step 2 – calculate the number of moles of water formed

o Balanced equation: NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

 Mole ratio of NaOH:HCl is 1:1

o For NaOH of 1.0 mol/dm3

 1000 cm3  1.0 mol  50 × 1 cm3  0.001 mol × 50

1000 𝑐𝑚 3
→
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙  50 cm3  0.050 mol NaOH
1000 1000
3
 1 cm  0.001 mol

o For HCl of 1.0 mol/dm3

 1000 cm3  1.0 mol  50 × 1 cm3  0.001 mol × 50

1000 𝑐𝑚 3
→
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙  50 cm3  0.050 mol HCl
1000 1000
3
 1 cm  0.001 mol
o Neither are limiting reactants since they are reacting based on the mole ratio; therefore you can use any
reactant with water in for the next mole ratio
o Therefore the mole ratio of NaOH:H2O = 1:1
o Hence 0.05 mol H2O is formed
2814 𝐽
Step 3 – calculate the heat of neutralization: heat of neutralization = 0.05 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = -56,280 J/mol

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Sample 2: A student dissolves 5.35g of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) in 100 cm3 of distilled water. The initial
temperature of the water is 22.5 oC. After mixing, a minimum temperature of 16.4 oC is recorded by the student.
Determine the heat of solution of ammonium chloride.

Step 1 – calculate the heat change using q = mc∆T

o m = 100 g since we have 100 cm3 of solution in total (note: we did not add 5.35 to 100 to get 105.35g)
o c = 4.2 J/g oC
o ∆T = Tf – Ti
 Ti = 22.5 oC
 Tf = 16.4 oC
 Therefore ∆T = 16.4 oC – 22.5 oC = -6.1 oC
o Hence q = 100g × 4.2 J/g oC × 6.1 oC = 2562 J

Step 2 – calculate the moles of solute dissolved

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
o 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑒
o Mass of ammonium chloride = 5.35g
o M(NH4Cl) = (1×14) + (4×1) + (1×35.5) = 53.5 g/mol
5.35𝑔
o Therefore moles of ammonium chloride =53.5 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙

Step 3 – calculate the heat of solution

2562 𝐽
Heat of solution = 0.1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = +25,620 J/mol

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PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. 50 cm3 of potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution at a temperature of 29.5 oC is added to 50 cm3 of 0.6
mol/dm3 sulphuric acid (H2SO4) at a temperature of 29.5 oC. After mixing, the maximum temperature of
the solution is 37.1 oC. The sulphuric acid is the limiting reactant.

a. Determine the heat change for the reaction

b. State TWO assumptions you have made in your calculation in ‘a’ above.
c. Calculate the heat of neutralization.
d. Draw a fully labelled energy profile diagram for the reaction

2. A student dissolved 16.0 g of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) in 75 cm3 of distilled water at room
temperature. He recorded a largest decrease in temperature of 15 oC.

a. Calculate the energy change for the reaction

b. Determine the number of moles of ammonium nitrate that dissolved.
c. Determine the heat of solution of ammonium nitrate
d. Draw a fully labelled energy profile diagram for the reaction

3. The figure below shows an energy profile diagram for a chemical reaction.

a. State, with reason, if the reaction is exothermic or endothermic

b. Identify the parts labelled A, B, D and E
c. Copy the diagram, then using dashed lines, show what it would look like if a catalyst was added to
speed up the reaction rate.
d. Explain how a catalyst works to speed up the rate of a reaction.