MPE 422 - Plasticity by DR Eng Koech Pius

MPE/MPEN 422 : PLASTICITY
Instructor Room E-mail Time

Dr. P. K. Koech l'T12. LT d J0303802@111ail.nt11st.ed11.tw Mon: 10:00-.13:00
Course Content:
a) The flow curve for ideal materials: -
• True stress and true strain
b) Invariants of stresses and strain
c) Yield criteria for ductile metals:
• Tresca's or maximum shear-strain criteria
• Von Misses' or distortion energy criterion
b) Combined stress tests
tit c) Octahedral shear stress and shear strain.
d) Plastic stress-strain relations
• Levy-Misses equations: -
o Ideal, plastic solid
• Prandtl-Reuss equations: -
o Elastic solid
e) Solutions of Plasticity problems
f) Two-dimensional plastic flow
• The slip-line field theory
Examination grading:
• Final Exam: 70%.
• Continuous assessment test (CAT):-
CAT: 15%
Attendance : 5%
Assignment: 10%: (see pages 22, 41 and 61 ofnotes). Submit by 2ott, March;
Note: Copying each other not aUowd, similar assignments will be awarded zero
marks
Reference books:
1. "Plasticity Theory", By Jacob Lubliner, (2006), University of California
2. "Theory of Elasticity", By S. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier, (1988), New York
3. "Mechanics of Materials: 2nd Edition" By P.B. Ferdinand and J.R. Russel.
Q992), McGraw Hill
4. ''Mechanics of Materials: 5th Edition", By J.M. Gere and S.P. Timoshenko. (1997),
PWS Publication
5. "Theory of Plasticity" By J. Chakrabarty, (1990), McGraw-Hill Company, New York
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Flow Curve of Ideal Materlals: Review Plasticity- Teaching Notes
• The Flow Curve for Ideal Materials: -

Consider a tensile specimen in a uniaxial stress state o. Schematic representation of the
stress- strain curve is shown below.
Let (j be initial yield stress in tension and <Iy be current yield stress in tension, i.e,
<Iy=<Imax At a given stress level (J, total strain E comprises both elastic strain &e and
plastic strain &P: where the elastic strain is given when o Oy (elasticity) by £e =
when o > Oy (plasticity) £ = £ e+ &P

Cl"
(J
1------------------------------------------------------ ►
e e
Stress-Strain diagram for Elasto-plasticity : Definition of secant Es and tangent Er moduli
da a
We define the tangent modulus as follows: Er= - and secant modulus as: E 5=-;
de e
The total plastic strain can then be written as a function of the secant modulus:
&p = E;- &e = (:s -½)(j,
There are many stress-strain models for the elastic-plastic behavior under monotonic loading:
• Elastic-Peifectly Plastic where hardening is neglected, and plastic flows begins when the
yield stress is reached:
u
E = E- for cr < ay,• and E = E- + A for cr = ay;
• Elastic-Linearly Hardening model, where the tangential modulus is assumed to be constant:

CJ' a 1
E= - for cr < O"y; and E = - + - (cr- CJ,) for cr = cr0
E
E Er ) y• ,
• Elastic-Exponential Hardening where a power law is assumed for the plastic region:
a
E = E- for cr < cry•, and E= for cr > ay;
kd'1;f'n;
• Ramberg-Osgood which is a nonlinear smooth single expression:
c:= E+a
a (ai;)n
Va.Jues a, b, k and exponential n are constants which depends on the alloy material.
Lecture Notes by: Dr. E11g. Pius Koec/1 Page I of70
True Stress and True Strain: Review Plastlclty-Teaching Nates
• True Stress and True Strain

□ Engineering stress - strain curve is based entirely on the original dimensions of the
specimen (this cannot represent true defonnation characteristic of the material).
□ True stress - strain curve is based on the instantaneous specimen dimensions.
Force balance on small element of specimen

yields the longitudinal (troe) stress as:
F
<Tt=A; CTt= E&t; d&t=
61
L; (I.)
&r=ln Lo·
If initial cross-sectional area Ao and initial

Engineering length Lo, are used, engineering stress.
F 61
CTe = -; CTe = E&e; Ee= -.
A0 Lo
Necking begins at points M'and M.

Strain
Engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain curves.

True stress-strain curve for typical ductile materials, i.e., aluminium, show that the stress -
strain relationship follows up the Hooke's law up to the yield point, <io.
Beyond cr0, the metal deforms plastically with strain-hardening. This cannot be related by any
simple constant of proportionality.
If the load is released from straining up to point A, the total strain will immediately decrease
CJ
from £1 to £2 by an amount of E .
0
oet= 1; s,= JLL.:.oL= 1 (.!:...).
L oL L0
This is called the "true" or "logarithmic" strain.
The strain £1-£2 is the recoverable elastic strain. Also, there will be a small amount of
the plastic strain £2-£3 known as anelastic behaviour which will disappear by time.
(neglected in plasticity theories).
(J
e1 t2 E1 e
Typical tme stress-strain curves for a ductile metal.
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 2 of70
True Stress and True Strain: Rtvltw Plast/C:lty-Ttachlng Notts
During yield and the plastic-flow regime following yield, the material flows with negligible
change in volume; increases in length are offset by decreases in cross-sectional area.
Prior to necking, when the strain is still unifonn along the specimen length, this volume
constraint can be written:
L
<>V= O; A.l=A .L ; -= - A
0 0
L0 Ao
The ratio LL is the extension ratio, denoted as t Using these relations, it is easy to develop
0
relations between true and engineering measures of tensile stress and strain:
O"r = <Tr (1 + £e) = O"c ,l,; £r= In (1 + £e) = In A.
Above equations can be used to derive the trne stress-strain curve from the engineering
curve, up to the strain at which necking begins.
Beyond the necking point, true stress and strain should be computed from actual load, cross
sectional area, and gauge length measurements.
For some metals and alloys the region of the true stress-strain curve from the onset of plastic
defonnation to the point at which necking begins may be approximated by
Tme stress, O"r= K &?; true strain, £r= In (:J = In (:J.

where, Kand n are constants; vary from alloy to alloy and also depend on the condition of
the material (i.e., whether it has been plastically defonned, heat-treated, etc.).
The parameter II is often tenned the strain-hardening exponent and has a value less than unity.
Ductile metals often have true stress-strain relations that can be described by a simple
power law relation of the fonn:
log ch= log K + n log £r
Figure below is a log-log plot of the tme stress-strain data for copper demonstrating this
relation. The strain hardening parameter 11 = 0.474, used as measme ofthe resistance to necking. •
2.3
u
2
! 1.9
1.7
1.6
1.5'----------------------------:.._-_.J
-0.4 -0.2 o U.2 0.4 0.G I. ? 1.-1 1.6
O.
log (l'/)
Ductile metals at room temperature usually exhibit values of n from 0.02 to 0.5.
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 3 of 70
Tru Slrn und TrucSlrtlmExercise
Krn111plc I: /\ cylindrical specimenof srncl having an original diameter of 12.8 uim is tensile·
!cstcd lo fruct urc and found to have an engineering fracture srrenE,rth a-,of 460 r-.,!J>a.
If'ils cross-seerional diameter at fracture is l0,7 mm, determine:
(n) The ductility in termsof percent reduction in area
(h) The true stressal fracture
2
So/11111,n: (a) D11c1ilily iscomputed as ¾oA = (',1°;:1) x 100%; sinceA =n ( ) ;
(b) True stress is defined by a,== . where in th.is case tbe area is taken as the
,1
fracture area Ar. However, the load at fracture must first be computed from the
fracture strength as
2 2
F =a/Ao= (460 x N/m2) x ,_r (12 .Bm-m)
.
( 1m ) =5 9 . 2 kN
2 --106mm2
106
Thus, the true stress is calculated as:
(J,- --f-l -----e;-:5-9-20-0::N- 660 MPa
2
,11 rr(10.1 r,1111) ( )
2 106mm2
Exnmplc 2: Compute the strain-hardening exponent n, for an alloy in which a true stress ac, of
415 MPa produces a true strain £1, of 0.10; assume a value of K to be 1035
MPa.
Solution: This requires some algebraic manipulation of Equation (J'c = K £ f;so that n becomes
the dependent parameter.
This is accomplished by taking logarithms and rearranging.
logur= log K + n /ogf;r
Solving for n yields
log at-log K
n =
_log(415 MPa)-log(1035 MPa)

log(o.10)
= 0.40
Exercise: A tensile test was performed on 12.8 mm diameter steel rod with initial gauge length
of 50.8 mm. If the final diameter of 10.06 mm and fracture length of 59.18 mm is
achieved with a maximum load; 47.4 kN, while load at fracture was 36.5 kN.
Detennine, (a)% elongationat fracture (0.16)
(b) % reduction in area (o.38)
(c) true fracture stress (-160MPa)
(d) true fracture strain
Lecture Noles hy: Dr. Eng. PiuJ Koech Page 4 of 70
Invariants of Stresses and Strain: Stress Tensor Plastldty- Teachlna Notes
• Invariants of Stresses and Strain

There are two types of forces acting on a material body to produce stresses: -
I. Surface forces acting on the bolmdary of the body.
2. Body forces distributed throughout the volume of the body.
These applied forces are resisted by a system of stresses throughout the body.
Let us refer to continuous body in a state of
stress under the i.nOueoce of external forces to
a cartesian system, x, y, z at a given
point.
+
Stress acting on eacb plane area is
(5- resolved into three components.
r.
--+-------------;y Normal component is denoted by cr; while two
_..,.........
tangential components as lij, where i.j = xJ1,:.
t
That is CJ,, CJ)', CJz and 1,y,,xz, 1yx, 'rz, 1zx, 1zy.
Stress components acting on parallelepiped.

The components of stress acting onan area nonnal to the:-
• X - aXIS : CJ,, 1xy, 1xz,
• y - aXlS : lyx, O'y, lyz,

• Z - ax.1s: 1zx, 1zy, CJz.
These nine components define the state of stress at a point given by the stress tensor:
It can be shown that in the absence ofunbalanced body moments, suchstress tensors are
symmetrical, i.e. r11 = r11. Thus,
•
fyz = Tzy·
Hence:
Txzl
fyz
C5z
If a body under examination is broken down into elementarycubes, there will always be an
i11finite number of elementary tetrahedral shapes.
These planes oftetrahedron coincides with the co-ordinates system axis and forth coinciding
with a part of the external body as shown in ne>..'t figure.
Invariants of Stresses and Strain: Direction Cosines Plasticity-Teaching Nate1
y y
b y
b
z z z
Direction cosines and areas
If the stress acting on the area abc is resolved into components along the axes X, Y and Z
as O"nx, O"ny and O"nz, as the area abc reduces to zero, we have a concurrent force system in
space. There are three equations of equilibrium for this force system.
The conditions IT= 0, LY= 0 and Z:Z = 0 can be applied as follows:
IT= O; O'nxdA - ClxxdA cos a- TyxdA cos /3- TzxdA cosy=0
LY= O; 0"11ydA - O"yydA cos /J- Txyd4 cos a- TzydA cosy= 0
LZ = O; O"nzdA - O"zzdA cosy- TxzdA cos r- TyzdA cos/3=
0
This can be rewritten by rearranging the tenns and removing dA as a common tenn follows:
Clnx = O"xxf + Tyxm + Tzxn

O"ny = Txyl + O"yym + Tzy11
O"nz = Txzl + Tyz111+ O"zz11
• Oi1y
Oi1
x
This can be written in= matrix

Txy ayy
0:'0C Tyx
Tzy m
notation as:
Tzx
Thus, we can write, for the nornrnl stress a1111, acting on principal area abc as:
If we substitute these values in the equations derived earlier for O'nx, O'ny and a112, we get:
( O"xx- O"nn)l + fyxm + Tzxn =0

Txyl + (O"yy- CJnn)m + Tzy11=0
Txzl + Tyzm + ( O"zz- O"nn)11 =0
We also know that: 12 + m2 + n2 = 1.
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page6 of70
lnvnrlants of StrcsJes and Strain: Direction P/ostlclty-- Ttochlna NOL/ti
Cosines
Designating <Tnn by ar, we cnn find the pr/11clpal stresses O'i, a2, a3 and the direction
cosines of the principal plnnc from these four cquntions.
As/, m, n nil cannot be zero, the dercnninant should be equal to zero.:
Remember;
Thus, we have:
O'x- O'p fxy 'xz
'xy O'y- O'p Tyz = ()
Txz Tyz a.i ar
If this determinant is expanded, we get a cubic equation:
a - a( ax+ ay + a z) + a 11 ( a xa y + a ya z + a a x
2 - ( r;y + riz + Tix))
- ( a xa ya z + 2 r xy T yz r zx- ( ax ry2z + a yrz2x + a z r 2xy))- - 0
If we denote the Ist, 2"J and 3'd invariants as /1, /2 and /3, we have:
11 ==ax+ ay+ a2
/2 == a xa y + a ya z + a 2 a x -( T;y + Tz + dx)
/3= OxOyOz + 2rxy'yzfzx-(axT z + ayr x + a2r;y)
•
And we get a cubic polynomial equation for principal stre.\'Je.,·as:
at- JJai+l2a11-l3=0
If the x, y and z planes are principal planes as well as the shear stresses are zero rij = O;
/1=a1+a2+a3
/2= 0102 + Oz03 +0301

l3=a10'z0'3
These parameters/; are known as the i1111aria11ts of the stress state; they do not change with
transformation of the coordinates and can be used to characterize the overall nature of the stress.
Stress invariant are quantities which are permanent and do not vary with difference
conditions. In context of stress tensor invariant are such quantities that do not change with
rotation of axis which remain unaffected under transformation from one set of axes to another.
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. PiuI Koecl, Page 7 of70
Invariants of Stresses and Strain: Direction Cosines Plasticity-Teaching Notes
• Deviatoria/ and spherical stress tensor are given as:
cr!=, 0
(2crx ::-crz 2cry!-crz : )·
q 2 3 2 '
rxz l'yz 2cr1-cr x-cry
I 1
w 1ere O'm =; <ax+ ay + a2); and
2 2 3
I II
Olj=qi+aij;
1•.e. stress tensor Olj =
dev'iator stress tensor O 'ij +spben'cal stress tensor O Iij I
• Strain tensor:
Yxz}
Yyz
Bz
• • Deviator strain tensor:
Zcx-7-cz ixy
2 Y2xz }
E!.
IJ
= 3t
2
27-cx-cz E
{ 3
• Spherical strain tensor: Y.,z 2c1-;x-7
E
2 2
where &rn =;(Bx+ By+ Bz)

and
1 I II
Eij=Eij+Eij
Deviator strain tensor consists only of purely shear strain component. Thus, plastic defonnation
takes place when deviatorial strains (or stresses), shear strain or both of themcombine.
If the volume remains constant during plastic defomrntions;
Bx + By + cz=O;Hence, EIiIj =O , and Eij=EIij
•
The principal strains are detennined as the roots of the following cubic equation with principal
invariants, Ile, Ize, I3e:
l1e = Ejj = Ex+Ey+E2j
l2e =; (Eijtij-EiiEjj) =; [(E + E + Ei)- ( ExEy+ExEz+ EyEz) + 2 (r + Yz+ y )]

l3E = EijkE1iE2j83k= ExEyEz + 2YxyYxz Yyz- ( 8xY z+ EyY;z +EzY;y)
Similarly, the three principal strains can also be worked out in tenns of principal stresses as
61 = E_:[a1 - V (0-2 + 0"3)]; £2 = _: (0-2- V (0-3 + 0-1)); £3 = + O"z)];
_El [o-3 - V (0-1
Practical approach of solving principal stresses of cubic equation:

For a cubic polynomial equation with principal stress given as:
ai- lier +I2erp- h =O
• Using Newton-Raphson Method:
Letf(eri) = ai- lier + I2erp- /3;
f'(ai) = 3er - 2/1 erP +12;
Let ap =a
Thus,
• Using direction cosines Method:

Let a3 - /1er2 + lzer - /3 = O;
a1 = 2S cosf +½/1;
a2= 2Scos(f+120°)+½J1;
•
a3 = 2Scos( +240°)+½/1;
Where: R = !3 I 21 - / z,•
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page 9 of70
Invariants of Stresses and Strain: Examples and ExercJses Pla.stkity- Teaching Notes
Example I: For the two stress tensors, check whether the invariants Ii, h, h remain unchanged.
200
Oli = 100
100 o l I 136.6 -136.6 o l
1 0
0
0
0
500
MPa Tps -136.6
0
63.4
0
0 MPa
500
Solution: For Oli
/1 = Ox + o·y + a z = 200 + 0 + 500 = 700 :MPa

12 = o·xoy + OyOz + OzOx-(r + 1 z + 1 x) =200x500-(1002)=9x10-l
6
/3 = o·xaya z + 2T xy l yz 1zx -( o·x 1 z + Oy1!x + Oz 1iy) = (500x1002) = 5x10
: For 'ps
/1 = 136.6 + 63.4 + 500 = 700 :MPa

12 = 136.6x63.4 + 63.4x500 + 500xl36.6 -(136.62+0+2) = 9x104
/3 = 136.6 x 63.4 x 500 +o-(O+o+500xl36.62) = 4.99956xl06::::: 5xl06
Invariants remains unchanged in both Oji and rps stresses, that is stress vector of Oli = 'ps
500 500 -400 l

Example 2: The state of stress at a point in x, y, z co-ordinates system is given by stress tensor:
!
Oji= 500 -300 300 :MPa Detennine the: (a) stress invariants
-400 300 -1000 (b) magnitude and direction of the
principal stresses
Solution: Stress invariants, 11, hand h:
/1 =Ox+ ay + az = 500 + -300 + -1000 = -800 :MPa
12 = crxcry + crycrz + O"z<:rx -( r;y + r}1 + r x) = (-350,000)-(500,000) =-850,000
•
/3 = OxOyO1 + 2'xy r yz r zx - ( Ox 1 1 + Oy r!x +01 r;y) = 283,000,000 (MPa)
3
Principal stresses are given hy:
a - l1a + lzaµ- /3=0
• Using Newton-Raphson Method:

2713-It 27 x 283,000,000-(-800) 3 8,153,000,000 g
c;- =- = -------=-------------=-2 3.98.MPa
2
. 9( 312-1i) 9(3(-850,000)- (-800)2) -28,710,000
0 1-u2) ±J(i 1-"'2/ +4{(!1-uz)u2-12}

0'1 or 0'3 = 2
; o-1 = -773.06 :MPa; o-3 = -1,289.08 MPa
Thus; O"t = -773.06 MPa; o-2 = -283.98 MPa; <T3 = -1,289.08 MPa
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koecl, Page 11 of70
Invariants of Stresses and Strain: Examples and Exercises Plasticity- Teaching Notes
Example 3: The stress tensor relative to x, y, z a.xis at a point in a loaded structure is defined by:
-19 -4.7 6.45]
!
Oij = -4.7 4.6 11.8 MPa Determine the: (a) principal stresses
6.45 11.8 -8.3 (b) orientation of the principal stresses w.r.t
the original co-ordinate system
Solution: Stress invariants, I1, hand b:
11 =Ox+ Oy+02 =-19 + 4.6 +-8.3 = -22.7 MPa

/2 = Oxa y + ayo z +oz Ox -( r;y + r z + 1 x) = (32.12) -{202.93) =-170.8l(MPa)2
3
/3 = O'xOyOz + 2rxy!y 21 2x -( Ox1 2
+ Oy1!x + 0' 1i-y) = 2,647.52 (MPa)
2
(a) Principal slresses are given by: a - I1 <J" + I2 <Jp" I3 = 0
•
-
Using direction cosines Method:

Principal stresses are given as: a3 - I1 <J"2 + I 2 a- - 13 = O;
Let: R = !.Ji-1
2
= !.(-22.7)2-(-170.81)=342.57
3 3
T = (1 1
R)2 = S3 = 10.6863 = 1,220.249

27
Q = !.11/2-2. Ji -/3=-488.607
3 27
a = cos-1 (; ) = cos-1(0.2002) = 78.45°

5
2 Scos- a + !/ = 2xl0.686 cos 78.4 + -22.7)= 11.623 MPa
• al=
a2 =
3 3 1
2Scos(i+120°)+ /1=-25.316MPa
3 3
a3 = 2Scos(f+ 240°)+ /1=-9.00I MPa

(a) Orientationlthe principal stresses are given by:
Ai= (ay - a1)( oz - o 1)- r}2 = (4.6 - 11.623)(-8.3 - 11.63) -11.8 2 =

0.679 Bi= (a 1 - a 2) 1xy + r xz r yz = (11.623 - -8.3)(-4.7)
+6.45xll.8 = -17.528 Ci= r xy r yz -r xz (ay - a1) = (-4.7)(11.8) -6.4Sx(4.6 -
11.623) = - .10.162
Ki= (At+ Bt +Cl)½= (0.679 2 + -17.5282 + -10.162 2)½ = 20.272

=A;_ 0.67 =9 Q 0335_ = !!.J _- -0 8646- C; -10.162 0 0 3
= =8 any
a
nx 1<; 20.212
I<-;
17.52
20.272 -·--· anz = K; = 20.212 =- J l ;
Invariants of Stresses and Strain: Examples and Exercises Plasticity- Teaching Notes
Exnmple 4: The state of stress al a point relative to the x, y, z co-ordinates system is given by
the stress matrix.
Detennine the normal stress, crn and the magnitude
and direction of the shear stress whose direction
cosines nonnal to the plane are:
Solution: Nonna)stress an, of all the forces in the x, y, z direction as zero given as:
2 2
a = (-
2
-) x15 + (-2) xlO + (-3 2
x40 + 2(-2-.2x10 +2.-3-xO- -2
3
-.-
-xlo)
-)
TI ill ill ill ../IT ../IT ../IT ,/IT ,/14 ,/IT
2
C111 = I MPa = 19.3 MPa
I
Shear stress rs, is then given as : 1 s = (o.z- o )z;
where the values of o2 are· a2 = A2 + B2 + C2• ' X y Z,
2 -1 -3 -10
Ax=auxax+a 11
yrxy+anz'xz= ,.-.xlS+ ,.-.xlO+ ,.-.xlO= r.7
v14 yl4 yl4 yl4
2 -1 -3 10
By= a,ulxy m xlO +14x10 +14 x0 14
+a,.yay +anzTyz=
Cz=anx'xz+auylyz+altZaz=
=-2
,.-.xlO+ ,..xo+ ,.-.x40=
-1 3 100
,--
vl4 v14 v14 vl4
a2 = A2 + B2 + cz = (-10)2 + ( ) 22+ ( ) =10200 = 728.57 (MPa)z

X Y Z .fl4 .fl4 14 14
a2 - a 2).!. _(10200
l I
_( _ 21ox210)2 _ (17.475)2 _
1 -
" _p
2 - -- --- - -- - 18•9 l1' a
•
S n 14 14x14 49
Direction cosines for shear stress in the x, y, z axes are given as:
1 { (ax-<Ya)+ } =- 1 { 2
r.:-ClS-19.3) - 1
1 7"710+-3,-- =-0.687
Usx=-
}
anx aayZxy+a,lzfxz +
10
1's 18.9 vl4 ,,14 vl4
Usy=-
1 { a,ufxy+ any
(Oy-0 ) +anzTyz
} =- 1 { 2
r.:-10+-1r.7(10-19.3) + -
=0.414
3
r c - ,-0}
f's 11
vt4 v14 v14
18.9
1{
asz=- } =- 1 {- 2
, - :;-,-10+ -,.1-.0+ 3,.-;-1(40-
a,u-fxz+ any1yz+a,iz(Oz-<Yn) =0.595
}
19.3)
1'5 18.9 v14 vl4 vl4
Therefore, cosines angles for shear stress would be:
zCOS-l (0.595) = 53.5°
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page 13 of70
Invariants of Stresses and Strain: Examples and Exercises Plasticity- Teochlna Notes
Exercise 1: The stress tensor at a point is given by the following array of tenns.
600 400 5001
!
OiJ = 400 400 200 MPa Calculate the (a) deviator stress tensor, ot,
1,
500 200 600
(b) spherical stress tensor, di
Exercise 2: The strain tensor at a point is given by the following array of tenns.
3 Calculate the (a) deviator strain tensor, Y11,
l
x 10-
ei
1 l 2
= 23 24 34 3 (b) spherical strain tensor,YiJ, (6m = 2)
]
l
Exercise 3: The state
200of stress
-100 at a50
point is given by the following array of
l
Oij = -100 200 100 MPa
Detem1ine (a) nonnal stress, <Yn (b) magnitude T
• terms.
50 100 50 and direction of shear stress on a plane
whose direction cosines nonnal to the plane
are:
,/3 1
a nx = O; a n y =T ; a nz = 2 ; (cr,,=2./9. /Ml'a, r=63.4MPa, a.a=-0.972, a.ry•=-0.I /8, a,,=-0.204)
Exercise 4: The state of stress at a point is given by the following stress tensor.
30 40]
100 20 Detem1ine the (a) principal stress, crp (b) principal
MPa
planes
20 50
(2/9.7Ml'a, 92.9M/'a, 37.-IMl'a, n...=. 0.346, a,J,=0.692. a,,=0.633)
Exercise 5: Obtain the principal stress and the related direction cosines for the following cases:
3 4 6]
4 2 5 ; (b) crii = !14.32
0.8
0.8 1.55] 112 6 9 ]
6.97 5.2 ; (c) crii = 6 1 3 MPa;
(a) a;i = 0
6 5 1 5.2 16.3 9 3 14
1.55
•
l
(12. IMl'a. -/51Ml'o. --l.53MPa. o.o:=0669, o,y=0.577, o,,=0.468);(/9.2Ml'a. 13.7Ml'a, -l.7Ml'a. a...,=0.33. a,y=0.39, c,,,=0.89)
(11=3(,, )z=302. IJ=582, 2-1.75Ml'o, 8.-18M/'a, 2.77Ml'a, a._=0.7-17, aij,=0.396, a,,=0.652)
Exercise 6: Find the expression of the octahedral shear stress assuming for principal planes:
(i) Show octahedral shear stress is 9Tct= [(crx - cry)2 +(cry - cr2)2+(a2 - crx)2]
(ii) Show that 9Tct= 2[/i - 312]
Exercise 7: Components of the linear strain tensor Cij at a point with respect to the (x, y, z)
axes coordinate system are given by
Find the (a) principal invariants of E, (b) principal strains c;,
(c) maximum shear strain and associated directions
Lecture Notes by: /Jr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page 14 of 70
Invariants of Stresses and Strain: Examples and Exercises Plasticity- Teochlna Notes
Yleld Criteria for Ductlie Metals: Tresca's and Von Misses' Plasticity- Teaching Notes
• Yield Criteria for Ductile Metals:

Commencement of plastic deformation in materials is predicted by yield criteria. Yield
criteria are also called theories of yielding. A number of yield criteria have been developed for
ductile and brittle materials.
Plasticity theory began with Tresca in 1864, when he undertook an experimental program into
the extrusion of metals and published his famous yield criterion.
Further advances with yield criteria and plastic flow rules were made in the years which
followed by Saint-Venant, Levy, Von Mises, Hencky and Prandtl.
The 1940s saw the advent of the classical theory; Prager, Hill, Drucker and Koiter amongst
ot11ers brought together many fundamental aspects of the theory into a single framework.
The arrival of powerful computers in the 1980s and 1990s provided the impetus to develop
the theory further, giving it a more rigorous foundation based on thennodynamics principles, and
brought with it the need to consider many numerical and computational aspects to the plasticity
problem.
\
\ a3
\
\
a1-- .:.:.i.;., =-
1r-plane
\a
\1=a-'J=a3
• Tresca's or maximum shear-strain criteria
It states that when the maximum shear stress within an element is equal to or greater than a
critical value, yielding will begin:
where k is shear yield strength.

Tmax k •
or
where er1 and cr3 are principal stresses
1
For uniaxial tension, we have k = -Y;
2
Here, Y and k are material prope1ties. The intennediate stress cr2 has no effect on yielding.
Tresca criterion is convenient to use in practice, but a somewhat better fit to experimental
data can often be obtained from the "von Mises" criterion, in which the driving force
for
yield is the strain energy associated with the deviatoric components of stress.
Yield Criteria for Ductile Metals: Tresco's and Von Misses' Plasticity- Teaching Notes
• Von Misses' or distortion energy criterion

The von Mises stress (also called the equivalent or effective stress) is defined as:
ln tenns of the principal stresses this is:

2 t
u..) 12.
2
y= [
1 - (CJ', - CJ', ) +1-(u, - u._)Z+1 -(u, -
2X y zX z zY z,
According to this criterion yielding occurs when:

2
•
2Y == (u1 - Uz)2+(u1 - <13)2+(e1i - <13)2;
For plane strain condition, we have: u2==
2
! (u1 + <13);
Hence, from the distortion energy criterion, we have u1 - u3== Y;
Here, Y is called plane strain yield strength.
Von Mises criterion can also be interpreted as the yield criterion which states that when
octahedral shear stress reaches critical value, yielding commences.
The octahedral shear stress is the shear stresses acting on the faces of an octahedron, given by:
1
'toct == [(o"i - cr2)2+(0-2 - 0"3)2+(u3 - 0"1)2F;
According to Tresca's criteria, we know ! (cr1 - cr3)
2
= k;
thus;
•
o·
J
Von Mises Criterion
Yield Criteria for Ductile Metals: Tresca'sand Von Misses' Plasticity-Teaching Notes
Von Mises yield criterion is found to be suitable for most of the ductile materials used in
forming operations. More often in metal fonning, this criterion is used for the analysis.
The suitability of the yield criteria has been experimentally verified by conducting torsion test
on thin walled tube, as the thin walled tube ensures plane stress.
We observe that the von Mises criterion is able to predict the yielding independent of the sign
of the stresses because this criterion has square tenns of the shear stresses.
However, use of Tresca criterion is found to result in negligible difference between the two
criteria.
• Combined Stress Tests

The projection of the Tresca yield surface in the JC-plane is a regular hexagon, whose vertices
lie on the projections of the positive and negative cr,, cr2, cr3-axes, while in the (cr1- 0-3)-(cr2-
cr3)
• plane, it
takes the fonn of the irregularhexagon shown below.
112-0-3
Tresca
a3
I
I
(a) (b)
Projections of Tresca and von Mises yield surfaces: (a) 1r-plane; (b) (cr1- <J3)-(cr2- cr3) plane.
Compression
Lecture Notes by: Dr. E11g. Pius Koech Page 17 of70
Vleld Criteria for Ductile Metals: Tresca's and Von Misses' Plasticity- Teaching Notes
Effective stress is defined as that stress which when reaches critical value, yielding can
commence.
Effective stress for different criterion is given as:
• Tresca criterion: <Terr = <T1 - <T3
H [(u
1
• von Misses criterion: <Terr== 1- u2)2 +(u1 - 2

u3) +(<ri- <T3)2] }2;
1
The factor {½}2= :Z, is chosen such that the effective stress for uniaxial tensile loading is equal
to uniaxial yield strength Y.
The corresponding effective strain is defined as for:
•
Tresca criterion:
von Mises criterion: 1
&etr = i{2[(t:1 - &2)2+(&1 - E3)2+(&z - &3)2])z;

For uniaxial loading, the effective strain is equal to uniaxial tensile strain.
Note:The constants in effective strain expressions, given above are chosen so that for uniaxial
loading, the effective strain reduces to uniaxial strain.
Normal strain versus shear strain:
We know for pure shear: Oi = -cr3 and Oi = 't
Therefore, from the effective stress equation of Tresca, we get: Uerr = Za-1 = 2r1
Similarly using van Mises effective stress, we have: Uerr =3 a1 =3 r1
A plane strain compression forging process
Yield Criteria for Ductile Metals: Tresca's and Van Misses' Plasticity-Teaching Notes
Example l: The stress invariants at a point relative to the x, y, z co-ordinates system in a 3-D
1
stressed field of a structure are:11=90x106; h = -198x1014;b = -648x1<>2 .
If the unit of stress are in N/m2, calculate the;
(a). minimum yield point stress of the material of the structure if no yielding is
to start at the above point as per Tresca's and von Mises criterions
(b).nonnal and shear stress on a plane passing through the shear stress on a plane
passing through the above point and whose direction cosine with respect to
the
principal axis through the point are : a nx = any = a nz = ;
Solution (a): Principal stresses are given as: a 3 - / 1 a2 + /2 a - /3 = O;

Let: R = ili-12= ;(90x10 )2-(-198x1014)=2.25xl016
6
S = GR)
T =
1/2
(..2!.7. R) 2 = S
= (;li-i/2Y=Gx2.2Sx10
3
I
= (86 ' 6x106)3 -"-'' 495x1023

16
= 6:::;.;...........c
)
1/2
=86.6x106
•
Q = 131112 - 22 7 / 3
1 -
J 3 = -594x1021 - S4x1021 + 648x1021=0_
a = cos-
1
G;) = cos-
1
(0) = 90°
90
a = 2 S cos +! l =2x86.6x106cos +90xl06) = I 80 MN/m2
1 3 3 1 3 3
a 2 = 2 S cos( + 120°) + i I = -120 MN/111 1

2
a 3 = 2S cos (i + 240°) + i = 30 MN/m I 1

2
•
According to:
Tresca criterion:
Y = cr1 - cr3= 180xl06-30xl06= 150MN/m2
von Mises criterion:
1
Y = [½ kt - 0-2)2+ ½(0-1- 0-3)2+ ½(0-2- cr3)
2
]2=259.8 MN/m2;
Solution (b): Nonnal stress a 11, of all the forces in the x, y, z direction as zero given as:
an= (anx)2(a1+a2+a3) = ( )\rno+-120+30) = 30 MN/m2;
2
a2 = ( ) [at+ ifi + ] =( ) [180 + 120 + 30 2 2 2
] = 15,900MN2/m 4
I t
1 = [a2 - crnF = [15,900 - 302F= 122.5 MN/m2;
Yleld Criteria for Ductlle Metals: Tresca's and Van Misses' Plasticity- Teaching Notes
Example 2: When the loads that act on a member reach their working values, the nonzero
stress components at the critical point in the member where yield is initiated are
ax = 100 MPa, a y = -14 MPa and r xy = 50 MPa. The load-stress relations are
linear so that
the factor of safety (SF) can be applied to either the loads or stress components.
The member material has a yield stress Y = 300 MPa. •
(a) Assuming that the material is a Tresca material, determine the factor of
safety, SF against yield.(Ans. 1.98, Determine a1 and a 3 then equate to
Tresca egn)
(b) Assuming that the material is a von Mises material, determine factor of safety
against yield. (Ans. 2.17, Substitute a1, a 2 and a 3 to von Mises)
(c) Detennine which criterion, Tresca or von Mises, is more conservative (Tesca
criterion is more consen,ative; it predicls yield initiation at smaller loads than Mises)
(d) Illustrate the stress state and factors of safety in the 1t-plane for the material (solve
$a 1 = 97 MPa, a 3= -26.78 MPa and am= 26.67 MPa, then find deviator
stress as am- a 1 = s 1, hences 1 = 90.13MPa, s 2= -28.67 MPa and S 3= -

61.47 MPa)
• Exercise 1: Copper alloy is subjected to lhe stress state O"x= 100, O"y= -200, Txy = 100 (in MPa).
100 100 ol
O"ii
!
= 100
0 -200
0 0 :MPa
Determine whether yield will occur according to
(a) Tresca criterion
(b) von Mises criterion.
Exercise 2: Repeat Exercise 1, but with the stress state <h = 190, O"y=90, Txy = 120 (all in MPa)
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eug. Pim Koecli Page 20 of70
Octahedral: Sh or Strtss and S or Plastlcfty-Ttachlng Notes
Strain
• Octahedral Shear Stress and Shear Strain.

An octahedral is a solid with eight identical faces having equilateral triangles equally
inclined to the x, y, z axis.
Octahedral plane is a plane whose normal is equally inclined to the three principal
directions and the maximum shear stress occurring on such plane is known as octahedral
shear stress.
Let fi be the unit nonnal to an octahedral plane. Further, let ni (i=x, y, z) be its
components with respect to the principal directions ei. Since ni are equal in magnitude (nx=
ny = 11z):
1
we get 11i = ± ./ 3
Thus, there are eight octal1edral planes equivalent to eight different normal vectors given as:
1 1 1 1 1 -1 1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1)
(../3, ../3' ../3),(./3, ./3' ../3),(../3, ../3' ../3), (./3, ./3' ./3), (./3,../3' ../3), (../3, -./3' -13), ./3' ./3),(./3, ./3' -./,3
If we consider a plane which makes equal angles with respect to each of the principal-stress
directions,11: plane, or octal1edral plane, the normal to this plane is given by:
. .. :..!!]
7l = l i
1
•
The vectorof tractioo onthis plaoe is: loc, = J,l l
The traction on such a plane(called an octahedral plane) is
loc,.fi =;,l ::im = i( rr, + rr, + rr,J
;,
Normal stress component (denoted by Goc1) on the octal1edral planes:
1 1
O'oc1= -{a'i + 0'2 + 0'3) =- la
3 3
r
Finally, the octal1edral shear stress is obtained as:
1
<oc,= [Itocrl' - o)c,]l = [ ;, 1::]'- G (rr, + rr, + rr,J)

2
[ 1(012 + 02 + G23) - 1 (
1
Tocl = )2]2
3 9 0'1 + 0'2 + 0'3
Toc1= [2(af +a + crD- 2(CT1CTz + O'zCT3 + CT3CT1)]¼
1 1
Toe!=-
3
[2(/ + 3lla)F
y
1
'Coct= [(0'1 - 0"2)2+(0'z - CT3)2+(a-3- CT1)2]¼= rn fz

3
Direction of the octal1edral shear stress is given by: cos 30= {2
Toct
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eug. Pi11s KoecJ, Page 21 of70
Octahedral:Shear Stress and Shear Strain Plasticity- Teaching Notes
Example I: If the principal stresses are: a-1= 35 MPa, a-2 = - I4 MPa, a-3=-28 MPa. Find the
octahedral shear stress at this point.
I
Sol111io11: Using the equation: Toc1 3=! [(<Ji - a-2)2+(a-2 - c,3)2+(0-3 - a1)2F
Toc:l =! [(35 - -14)2+(-14 - -28)2+(-28 - 35)2]½

3
=¾[(49)2+(14)2+(63)2]½
!
=-1 [6566] 2
3
=27 MPa
• Example 2: In a biaxial tension test, the ratio of a-1: a-2 = 2 and a-3=0. If the octahedral shear
stress to produce yielding is 150 MPa, find the value of a-1 and a-2 at biaxial
yielding and O'yp at uniaxial yielding.
So/11/ion:
-
Using the equation: Toc1 =i[Cai - cr )2+(cr
2 2 cr3)2+(o-3 -
1
o-1)2F = 150 MPa:
Since the ratios; Oi = Zo- ,
2
o-
2
= 0.50' 1
, and o- =0
1 l 3
150 MPa =- [1.Sa-/F
3
450 tvfPa = 1.5a12

2
Oi = 367.42 MPa
cr2 = 183.71 MPa
At yielding, ayp = Cloe,
•
1
Clyp =3 {0'1 + O'z + 0'3}
= {367.42
3
+183.71 + O}
= 183.71 MPa
Exercise: A soil sample tested under triaxial compression and the values of principal stresses are
2.5 N/mm2;0.5N/mm2.
(a). Find the value of octahedral shear stress (Ans 0.7071 MN/m2)
(b).Calculate the values of variants Ii, hand h
I
Assignment I: The octahedral shear stress .1s: Toct =1 [(cr1 -
3 2
a2) +(a2 - <T3)2+(cr3 - cr1)2Ji.
Show that the von Misses criterion for start of yield at the above point can be
expressed in tenns of the octahedral shear stress Toct at the point of yield stress
ayp of the material by the relation toct = k O'yp. Find the value of k.
Plasticity:Plastic Stress - Strain Relations Plasticity- Teaching Notes
• Plastic Stress-Strain Relations (Theories of Plastic Flow)

Plasticdeformation is a non-reversible process where Hooke's law is no longer valid.
Theoryof plasticity deals with the methods of calculating stress and strain in a defonned
body after part or whole of the body yielded.
One aspect of plasticity in the viewpoint ofstructural design is that it is concerned with
predicting the maximumload, which can be applied to a body without causing excessive
yielding.
Another aspect of plasticity is about the plastic fonning of metals where large plastic
required to.
The equations of the theoryof plastic nowestablisha relationship between infinitesimal
•
increments of strain and stress.
The following are the various theories of plastic flow:-
■ Levy-Misses theory: Ideal, plastic solid: -
St. Venants first proposed that the principalaxis of strain incremental coincided with the axis
of the principal stress.
However, general relationship between strain incremental andstresses were first introduced
by Levyin 1871 ADand independently by van-Misses in 1913 AD.
These equations are now known as the Levy-Misses equations and arewritten as:
a E:x- ao y- ao z- a rx y- ar xz - ayyz -
-
Gx
-- Gz
Gy
- Txy
- -Txz - -
Tyz
- - - - 8 , 1,
Levy-Mises relation gives three nonnalequationsofthe type:
aCx = aA{a- X- ; ( (Y y + a z)}
a&
And three of the shear type:

y =3 a,,i{_ay-.!.2(a- +az)} X
•
ayxy = rxy81;
a Yxz = rxz8A;
aYyz = ryzaA.;
Limitations of Levy-Mises equation: the elastic strains are not taken into account and are very
useful where cases of unrestricted plastic flow arise.
Lecture Notes by: JJr. Eng. Pius Page 23 of

Koech 70
Plastlcity: Plastic Stress· Strain Relations Plasticity- Teaching Notes
• Prandtl-Reuss theory: Elastic solid: -

In the problems of constrained plastic flow, e.g. in the presence of elastic regions adjacent to
the plastic regions, the deformations may be too small that the basic assumption of St. Venants
theory that, the elastic strains are negligible, may lead to erroneous conclusion.
Prandtl-Reuss theory is intended to cover such cases by including in the expression of the
total deviator strain tensor, the elastic part of it.
Hence,
where tJ1e elastic deviator strain tensor (E[j) obeys hooks law, i.e.
•
e
and the plastic deviator strain tensor ( E;i) is assumed to be related to the stress deviator
p
tensor according to St. Venant's theory:
I) _ /Jt /
(Eij p- z..t 'tij
By differentiating both sides elastic strain tensor ( E;i) equation we get:
e
Now, according to St. Venant's theory;

iJt I I 1 a I
-1 .=. .E-.- t..
z..t IJ IJ 2G I]
•
Dividing both sides of above equation by and rearranging gives:
2,i,
2.l / / 2A,
- aE 1.. 1 11.. +I -
at· 1
2 1
=
The series limitations of Prandtl-Reuss
a 1.1.
ca t theory is that the co-axiality of the deviator stress
tensor is not explicit in this equation, and unless co-axiality is imposed by the conditions of the
problem, it cannot be expanded into differential equations between the principle vales of the
two tensors.
Assuming co-axiality, above equation becomes:
aE,'. . = () 1'..+ .2...a-r'.-
1 2A IJ 2G IJ
Pl3stlclty: Phsrlc Strus • Strain PliJSt f(/ty- TMchlng
Rtlatloru Natcs
wh•l.!rl.!: G, = --I::' · = 0- = -Clm {l - Z \')•

111
1:
(1+\'' Ill k b' •
s11hstituti11 to pri.:Yious l.'quntinn:
Simplifyini\'C
• Newton's Law: -
The generalized Newton's law for viscous flow establish the following relationship
netween the de iator stress tensor and the deviator strain rate tensor:
CJ··
IJ
I
= "Tl
-
, I
IJ
ac!,
t"
where tij = a;I, is the deviator strain rate tensor. while '7 is coefficient of viscosity
• Kelvin relation: -
This relation assumes the deviator stress tensor to be a linear function of the deviator
strain tensor and the deviator strain rate tensor. Thus,
= 2G Eij + 211 Ejj I

1
I •
CJij
where G, is the shear modulus.
• Maxwell relation: -
Ma:\,vell proposed a linear relation for elasto-viscous fluid which is a linear relationship
between the deviator stress tensor, the deviator stress rate tensor and the strain rate tensor.
It is exl)ressed as:
where G and l1 are the shear modulus and coefficient of viscosity respectively.
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page25 of70
Plasticity: Plastic Stress• Strain Relations Plastlclty- Teaching Notes
• Saint Venant's theory: -

The plastic flow phenomenon can be condensed into two tensor equations:
cr' ij = "l • '

2A . E jj
E··
IJ
II
=
where A. is scalar function
0 and is a function of the yield strength cr0 and of the rate of strain.
a/.
By rearranging above equation noting that t;j a ;1 , becomes:
= -=, Toct
also, 'foct = A yoct; where

Yoct
I\,
• From the distortion energy tl1eory of yielding:
hence A = 3,fi.a• O
•
'
Y oct
In St. Venant's theory, the spherical component is zero i.e. E[J = 0. Thjs is referred to as the
volume constant equation and ex-presses that the mini-nonnal strain Em and consequently the
volume strain is zero.
or E1+Ez+E3 = 0, or aE1 +OE2+aE3 = O; hence, II
Eij = O;
and subsequently,
E..=E'.•+E'.'.
IJ IJ Il
reduces to E..=E'.·
IJ IJ'
St. Venant's theory implies co-axially of deviator stress tensor and strain incremental tensor.
2A
If the equation cr;i = at aE;j is written in terms of stress and strain tensors becomes:
• I
O'jj
20'1-(12-0'3
0
0
2cr2-cr1
a3
-
0
0 = n. {a
0
aE2
aU
0
3 2 0'3-0'1-0'2 1 0
0 3 at
0
Expanding above equation using Gramer's rnle:
20-1 - O"z - o-3 = 6A :E:.....................(i)

2O"z - 0-1 - 0-3 = 6)..OE2..................................... (ii)
at
26-3 - (1"1 - (1"2 = 6A. - OE3

.................(iii)
at
Plasticity: Plastic Stres.s - Strain Relatlon.s Plast/clty- Teaching Notes
1
Eliminating 6i.- in the above equations we get:
at
2CT-1CT2-CT3
2CT2-CT1-CT3
2CT2-CT1-CT3
2CT3-CT1-0"2
Above equations (iv) and aE1+aE2+aE3 = O fonn a system of differential equations.
Putting: n'l -- 2a1-0'2-CT3,

u
3
Writing equation cr;i = nat oc;i in expanded form

becomes:
2ar-C1y-C1z
ixz acx
aru
3 'xy 2 2
2cry-O"x-CTz n ayyz
I rxy
3
Tyz -at 2
acy 2
crii 2CTz-CTx-CTy By.n_
Txz 'yz 3 aEz
2 2
Similarly;
2CTx-CTy-C1z
-a"-y
·
a E-x
•
2CTy-CTz-C1z '
2ay-C1x-CTz
2crz-ax-C1y - ·'
a 1 :.y
af..l
Above equations and OEx+OEy+OEy = 0 similarly forms a system of differential equations:
and: ,
CJx
'
cry Oz
, txy 'txz tyz 2}..
X
ar.- or..-
·y
ar.-Z ayxy-
_
- a•,yz- at'
2 2 2
Limitations of St. Venant's theory is that the elastic strains are neglected all together in the
plastic range.
Lecture Notes hy: /Jr. Eng. PiuJ Koech Page 27 of 70
Plasticity: Plastic Stress· Strain Relations Plasticity- Teaching Notes
• Henky's theory: -
Henky's approximation and relation between the deviator stress tensor and deviator strain
tensor when the plastic deformation is small is:
,
'tij = 2GPEij; where Gp, is the plastic shear modulus.
Assuming plastic constant, i.e. 1:::;i = 0, above equation becomes:
'
't jj
-- 2GpEij
The proportionality between the two tensors implies co-axially hence above equation can be
I
't··
1
rearranged to Eij = -' and can be expanded in tenns of stress and strain as follows:
•
2Gp
E1 = - {2(J'l - ( (J'2 + (J'3)} = -1 (J'l -

1
- ( (J'2 +
1 6Gp { Ep 2 }
(J'3)
E2 = :P { cr2- ; ( cr1 + cr3)}
E3 = :P{ (J'3- ; ( (J'l + cr2)}

If Ep can be interpreted as a variable of plastic modulus having same role in this equation as
Young's modulus as in the elastic equations.
The factor,.!., takes the place ofpoisson's ratio in consistency with assumed volume constant.
2
The value of strain calculated from above equation making use of Gp are small finite strains and
is not permissible to calculate large total strain by integration.
The Henkey's theory fomishes results identical to those of St. Venant's theory under two
conditions, that the:
•
(a) principal axis of stress and strain for a particle do not rotate w.r.t the particle during
the process of strain
ai:1 ai:2 ai:3
(b) straining is propo1tional, i.e. - = - = -
Et E2 C3
• Levy-Lode's variable: -
The first experiment to investigate the plastic stress-strain relationship were carried out by
Lode in 1926. He introduced the parameter:
(a3-a1)-(a2-a3) _ (ai:j-aEi)-(aEi-ai:j)
µ= (a1-a2)
u- (aEi-ai:D
If Prandtl-Reuss equations are correct, then it= u. Here, land D should not be confosed with
poisson's ratio or the coefficient of viscosity.
Ifµ = -1, then cr2 = cr3. It will be urtiaxial stress of (o- - 1 o-2) and hydrostatic stress cr2.
Ifµ = 0, then cr3 = ½(a-1 + o-2). This is the same as the state of pure shear.
Plastlclty: Solutions of Plasticity Problems Plasticity-Teaching Notes
• Solutions of Plasticity Problems (Cartesian Co-ordinate Systems):

Consider equilibrium of a small rectangular block of edges dx and dy with unity thickness.
The stresses acting on all faces are indicated. On account of variation of stress throughout the
body, the value for instance along the x-axis shows that crx :;t crx + aa-xdx and T-yx :;t ryx + a?xdy.
a Qy
dx
dy
0<1.r
crr+-:;- dx
• O.t •
CT_r
• Equilibrium Equ"tio11s:
Since the faces of such block are verysmall, the corresponding forces are obtained by
multiplying such values by the areas of the faces they act on.
If Fx and Fy denote the component of body forces per tmit volume, the equilibrium for the
forces x-direction is:
axdY -( axdY + aa dx )dy + ryxdx - ( ryx +a;yxdy) dx +F, dxdy = 0
If now the bloc-k is takensmaller and smaller, dividing above equation by dxdy gives:
aax
-+-+Fx=O
ax
aryx
ay
Similarly, equilibrium of forces in they-direction can be obtained as

•
arry arxy
-+-+F,=O
ay ax
)
Above are called differential equation ofequilibrium for two-dimensional problem (2D).
In many practical applications, the weight of the body is usually the only body forces acting.
Then taking the Fx = 0 and y-axis downwards with density p, then 1' , = pg Hence equations:
ar
-ax +
aryx
rx
- = 0 and
ay
a(j. arx
-1.+-y +pg= 0
ay ax
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Problems Plasticity- Teaching
Notes
For cartesian problem in three-dimensional problem, this expands to:
iJ Txz afy2 iJ CYz

-+-+-=o
ax ay az
Strain a,w(vsis: The displacement of any two points .in a body maybe as a consequence
of defonnation or straining.
Tims the body experience straining if the relative motion of points in such body are altered.
• For purpose of defining strain, refer to the figure below.
xtcns1on
□
Consider an element with dimensions Li.¥ and y with unit thickness. TI,e total
defonnation or strain for the uniaxial extension and for shear body is then given as:
• three-dimensional problem, strain components can be expressed =-·

E:
z as: az'
auz
In
The expressions are called the strain displacement expressions

of continuum mechanics or simply referred to as the kinematics relation.
TI,e relationship between shear stress and shear strain is given by:
2(1+v)
Yxy = Yxz = E Yyz =
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Enx. Pius Koech Page 30 of70
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Problems Plasticity- Teaching
Notes
Plastfclty:S0l11tlons of Plasticity Problems Plasticity- Teaching Notes
♦ 8011mlt1Q' Ct11u/itimu:
Stres components in a volume of an infinitesimal body will vary tltroughoul the volume
but becomes equilibrium with the external forces at the boundary
Thus, the external force may be considered as a continuation of the internal stress
distribution. Therefore, the equilibrium of the internal forces and external forces (stresses) can
be established.
X
O'x
.Fx
•
FN
Fy
Taking small triangular prism ABC.so that the side BC coincides with boundary of the
plate. Denoting f and Fy as the components of the surface forces (traction) per unit area at
this point of the boundary, we have:
Fx= er)+ 'xym + rxzn

Fy = rxyl + + O"ym
Tyz11 F2 = txzl + Tyzm +

O"z11
where/ m, n are the direction cosines of the nom1alFN to the boundary.
Taking side of plate parallel to y-axis, the values of m and n = 0, while/=± I (i.e. cos 0°
=I), above equation reduces to:
FX-- - -ux,
+,....
F-y- -n -=+r0,X)"while
. F.-zm-- -+Txz
•
Similarly, for x-axis the values of land
=±I
F- X-- +r- X)'>. rBy -- - +
F.-z -- -Z"yz
+u,,y-,
and for z-axis the values of/ and m = 0, while n =±I, thus:
F.-x
-- -+ rxz, rf:y = -+r F.2 = ±,, .. z
v -
• yz•,
The positive(+) sign are taken if the nonnalFN has the positive direction either in x, y, z-
axis and the negative(-) sign for the opposite direction of FN.
It is seen from this that at the boundary, the stress components become equal to the
components of the surface forces per unit area of the boundary.
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Problems Plasticity- Teaching Notes
♦ Compntihilit}' Co1Ulitio11.'i:
The problem oft he theory of elasticity and plasticity is to detennine the state of stress in a
body submitted to the action of given forces.
In a two-dimensional, it is necessary to solve the differential equations of equilibrium defined
earlier, and the solution must be such as to satisfy the boundary conditions.
Such differential 2D equations containing three stress components crx, cry, rxy are not
sufficient for the detennination of these components.
The problem is a statically indetenninate one, and in order to obtain the solution, the elastic
defonnation of the body must also be considered.
The mathematical fonnulation of the condition for compatibility of stress distribution with the
• existence of continuous fi.mctions Ux, Uy, Uz defining the defonnation will be obtained from
equations of Ex, Ey a11d Yxy as earlier defined for two-dimensional problems as follows:
These three strain components £x, E:y and Yxy are expressed by two functions Ux and Uy;
hence they cannot be taken arbitrarily, and there exists a certain relation between the strain
components from differentiation with respect to x and y.
." " - . . . ·1
D1 u e renti atm g equati on £x . . auy . . I
aux ax twi ce wit 1 respect toy equati on cy= ay twi ce wi t 1
= an
ouy aux
respect to x, and similarly rx = --
Y ax
+ 0y
with respect to both x and y once, we find:
-
•
a2 Ex a 3u X
-ay2- axay
=- -2' - ·
a2£x ait:y
Adding above first two equations, ayi and axi we get:
o2 Ex az Cy o
3
Ux a uy
3
o2 (OUy aux)
ay2+ ox2 = axay2+ ax2oy= axay ax + ay ;
Above equation can therefore be written as:
• Above equation is referred condition of compatibility, and must be satisfied by the strain
components to secure the existence of functions Ux and Uy.
Plastlcfty: Solutions of Plasticity Problems Plasticity - Teaching
Notes
• Uy using I looks law, lhc c:011cli1irm ofco1111,011ht!ity eq,rntion can be tra11sfonrn:d inI0 a
relation between component or stress. In the case or plane tress condilion, I look's law
stales that:
l·x = i (CTx - l'CTy): r.y

*
= (CTy - l'CTx); Yxy = 2(1;1J Txy;
·n· .
l)
,
a 2
Cx a2r a2y xy . . .
1 erentIate and substitute values of----------------nnd--I0 compalibility condiI1on gIv111g:
ay2 y2
ax axay
a2 a2 az Txy
-a 2 ( (TX - l'(T.y) +-2 ( O"y - VO"x) = 2(1+ 11) -a a ;..........("')
y ax X y
Therefore, for a plane strain problem, 011ly one condition of compatibility isneeded along
with the equation of equilibrium.
For a case where weight orthc body is the only hotly force, differentiating aa + a;; = 0 •
aay a Tx}'
with respect to x and-+--· +pg= 0 with respect toy and adding them, we find:
ay ax
a20'x aiO'y ai rxy
-- =-2--
axz ay2 axay
+--
Substituting into equation("') above, the compatibility equation in terms of stress components
becomes:
♦ Airv's Stress F1111ctin11:
G. B. Airy introduced a function to solve a two-dimensional problem.
•
Thus, the solution of a two-dimensional problems reduces to the integration of the
difTcrential equations of equilibrium together with the compatibility equation and the
boundary conditions.
aax aryx aay arxy
The equations ax + ay 0 and ay + +pg= 0 derived earlier are satisfied by
=
taking any function of x and y then putting the expressions for the stresscomponents, thus:
a2
az
CTy = ax2 -pgy; r =-a-x-a y·'
xy
. . b • I
Subst rtut mg a ove expressi ons 1i:: or t 1e stress components (
m
• to - + -a2) ax+ a:y
)
=O
a2 (
ax2 iJy2 ,
we find that the stress fimction must satisfy the equation:
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page 33 of 70
Plastlcity:Solutlons of Plostlclty Problems Plasticity - Teochfng Notes
The above equation may be assumed to be of the following fom1s:
= x, x2, x3, y, y2, y3, co hA.X, etc.

Thus, the function may be:
• Algebraic,
• Fourier series
• Polynomial,
• Complex numbers
• Trigonometrical,
2
Note that, ( which is a Laplace operator.
iJx
+ iJy2
) = V
Tims, V
2
( crx + cry) = 0, and V4 = 0.
• Wl1ere V4 is Biharmonic operator and gives the solution ofa single Biharmonic
equation which must satisfy the boundary conditions.
♦ Solution of Polynomial Problem:
An elementary approach to obtain solution ofthe Biharmonic equation is by taking
polynomials of various dq,rrees, and suitably adjusting their coefficients so that V4 =0
is
satisfied, thus, a number of important problems can be solved.
(t1). Po rnomial problem of 2"J degree:
A polynomial of the second degree given a :
2 =a22 xz +b2XY + c; y2.
-
Therefore, solving for O'x, cry, and rxy.
'
it--------------t1r--
'
• All the three components O'x C2 CYy = a2, Txy =
y
-b2 are constant =
throughout the body, i.e. stress function represents a combination of uniform tension or
compression
(h). Polynomial problem of 3rd degree:
A polynomial of the third degree is given as:
"'y3. = x3
4'3 3·2
+b3 x2y +c3 xy2 + -5!.1.
2 2 3·2
Therefore, solving for CYx, CYy, and rxy puning pg= 0.

az
= --t
a2
Ux
ay
= C3X + d3y; Uy =a X
: a3X + b3y; 'xy -
=
Lecture Notes by: Dr. E11g. Pi11s Koecl, Page 34 of70
Plasticity:Solutionsof Plasticity Problems Plasticity - Teachfng Notes
Exumpie I: for a plane strain case, the strains are specified as Ex, £y and Yxy· State
whether they are compatible for:
Y xy = x + xy'·
2
Ey = 4xy ; 3
Solution
a2t:x ai
= -a (yi3x2 y)
(a): ai =,O·
az aze aiy
The above plane strain is not compatible since +
•
Y ;t
ay2 ax2 axay
(b) Ex = y2 + Sxy; Ey = -x
2
+ xy2; = 4x + y,
2
•
S0l11tio11(b):
ai &x a2 &y
2
The above plane strain is compatible since -- + --
ay ax
Example 2: The stresses O'"x, O'"y and rxy in an elastically solution of a particular problem are
satisfied by: O'"x = A(x3y 3- 2xy3 +3 1.2 c2xy );
o-y = A(-3c x + xy -1.2 c3xy);
• 1xy = iA(c 3-
y2)(3x2- c 3- y2 + 1.2 c2);
(a) Verify whether equilibrium equations as well as stress compatibility are satisfied.
(b) Check whether the strain compatibility criteria are satisfied or not
Solution: . . . . . . a(J'x a,yx aG'y a,xy

For eqmhbrmm m two-d1mens1onal, -
ax
+ --ay = 0 and - ay + --ih O;
2 2
a a) =
For stress compatibility equation, (-2 +- (O'"x + O'"y) = O;
ax ay2
For strain compatibility criteria,
2
a2 ) a2 a rx
- (o-x - VO'"y + -aX 2 ( O'"y- Vo-x) = 2(1 + v)a X yy; (Input g;ven values)
ayz
a
Leeture Notes by: /Jr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page 36 of70
t,:,11111pk .1:( li" ·1111.111.i II,· H'l' p11l,,1m111d11I: 11>:,, " :,r"..', ·I h,.xy •I 1.-i/, l11vc illv,oll" 111(, ttlH!
Pl' lht· p1,1hl ·111 1;,1 whkh 1l l'1111b1· 11:-:,·tl.

.\'11/11111111: Sulvi11µ. ti11 1•• ny, 1111d,,I',\' 111s111g 1\11y'1,s11 KN 1i111t'I11111
(I.: ,. iJ •,1,' ') 1))•,11
. =_... :::- '.,· 1· n: : : - , ·--:,.,,.,: r . , ;-• - :..:.._,_:_;_ = -h•,·
• 1)y • ,I' cl.I'• '' ' 1• i),'cl' •''
1
1
All sttL'SSl'S 111, ,·1111st1111t. i11whil-11 tl1t· hud

1 I is st1hjn·1·d 11111 h'1rnll • Nl1tl!ti nl'
111 q 11i1111k 1·:· i11.,·•1li1t'('tit111, .1.fl;'. i11.1·-di1c\:ll,1111111d . ht•11r sites 1>f-hz.
n11=-l.u:,
T,ry•- •
(Ty
1·>1.1111 p1 k -1: (u) Oti1ui11 !Ill' l' l'l'l'SSillll or Slit'ill' SII l'SS Ii II lllllill 111' II l':1111 ii ·v ., hellIll ()r
reel1111g111111 l'l'l1:-S•Sl't:llllll /,/i lllllkr lll'li,111nl\'lllll'l'llll'lllnl il1Hd /' Ill fr ·c end li,r II
110 l,ndy lc,l'Cc,
(h i\i, 1's s11css li11,c1io11

) l)c1L·r111inc slrcsscs n:r• rry, nml''.l'
,.
11si1 11
So/1111011: (a) I{ ·lntio11bc1wcc11sl1\·ss

err
•
Mx
=-
a (/1..r ) _ f>y
Also.-=--)'--:
O<T,·
=
I.r P .".-Ix
y :
I"
O:r- 1110111c11t
.
for 110 l>n1ly lnrccs. -·
..
c1o\ l.r, 1111d hc11di11e IlliJcr
nfincrtii1
D rv.,·
lh11s,-L--
a.\'
,111c111 Mx, is:
+ _Ay,
O; I
cJ rv.,·
Py_
= k1H.:e, -·
D.,· =-
iJ r v tJy
. •
cJ.r ,h' l.r Ix i1y Ix'
· • J ay = - I' y2
yay:
lntc!.!.rat1 011 ot : ,1r\'f
rxy = --, .- + Cx:

1
"f X 2
At y =
2I h: ry = 0:
P.x - p 2 2
= -yI x: =
81.01 - 4y )
CJ ', . r,.y r.\'.y -
O:• •
l ,t•ct urr Not rs hy: Or. Eng. 1 m liorch Pugc 37 of 70
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Plast /city - Teaching Notes
Problems
(b) Stresses a-x, a-y, and 'xy using Airy's stress function is given by:
a2 Mx P.x .a2 - Px f .
a-x = - =- =-y; Integrat10n of f-2 8y - - yay,
By2 Ix Ix ay Ix
a Px y2 . . • f (Px y
2
)
ay= -2 + C; 1 2°J rntegrat1on 1s; = "°i;'z + C1 ay
• f
6
xy
=B
- -2 -
+ciY +2c
2
a xa y
=-
B (PX-y -- -
ax ay
2
Ix•
3
=--
·
2 '
I •
p y2
-
Example 5: Detennine with reasons, if the following stress field is a valid solution of a
plane stress elasticity: crx = a1x2y; cry =-; 1
y 3; 'xy =
a1xy2;
where a1 is a constant.
Solution: For equilibrium solutions:
Note: Equilibrium equation is not satisfied unless external forces Fx exists.

1
aa + a;x; = o aay (-; y3)+:/a1xy2) = a1y(-y + y) = O
• ate: Equilibrium equation is satisfied and external forces Fy does not exists
For compatibility condition:
2 2
:a.- ( ax2 y--a1 y3)
+- a ( a x2 y--a1y3)
=O
ax 2 l 3 ay2 l 3
2a1y - 0 + 0 - 2a1y = o
Note: Compatibility equation is satisfied.
Lecture Notes hy: Dr. Eng. Pius Koecl, Page 38 of 70
Plastlclty:Solutions of Pio.st/city Problems Plasticity- Teaching Notes
Exercise I: Thin cantilever beam shown below is subjected to uniform shearing stress To
along its upper surface, y = +h while surface y = -hand x = l are free of
stress.
Determine whether the Airy's stress function3given below satisfies the required
conclusion for this problem. 3 =ro { x y- ! xy2 - 2.. xy3 + ! ly2 + h\ ly3}
4 2 h h h
_,.. _,.. _,..
- az 3
O"y- a x2 ; fxy
- az 3.
axay'
I
So/11tion: Hint; Solve for stresses O"x, O"y, and Txy using Airy's stress function: O"x
az
= ay:;
•
a\)
2
Then check whether it satisfies equation
of
a( + O"x + = O;
O"y)
(
2
ax
ay
Also check for shear stress fxy at y =+handy= -h ifit satisfies given
condition of fxy = To and fxy = 0.
Exercise 2: Investigate the given fifth degree polynomial function. As a 2-D stress function,
discuss the types of the problem it can fit into.
s = a5x5 +b5x4y + c5 x3y2+ d5 x2y3+ e5 xy4 + /5y5;
Solution: Hint; Using Airy's stress function solve: O"x = ay;; O"y = ax:; Txy =-
•
a2 a2 a2
axa;;
aax aryx aa-y aryx
Check for equilibrium conditions using: -
ax
+ --ay = 0 and -
ay
+ --ax 0
=
Then check for compatibility equation using: ( a \ + a\)(
ax ay
O"x + O"y) = O;
Check for conditions of e5 and /5 that satisfies compatibility. e5 = -(Sas+ Cs);

1
and /5 = -5(b5 + d5);
Exercise 3: Investigate the stress fields that arise from the following stress functions. (Use Airy's)
(a) 2 2 3 2
2 =a 2 x 2 + b2xy + c2y ; (b) = a 3 x + b3 x y + c3y
2
+ d 3y 3;
(c)
2 =c 2 y 2 ; (d)4 =a4x4 + b4x3y + c4x y
2 2
+ d4xy3 + e4y4;
Lecture Notes by: /Jr. Eng. PiuJ Koech Page 39 of70
Plasticity: Solutions of Pla5ticity Problems Plasticity-Teaching Notes
Exercise 4: Detennine \\ hether the following stress satisfies equilibrium:
zx3y2 -zx2y3
(a2 - y2)x
!
(a) crii = -zx2y3
0
xy4
0
.: (y3 - 3a2y)
3
0
Exercise 5: Develop the two and three-dimensional form of tbe Cartesian equilibrium equations
by drawing a free-body diagram of an i□fi□itesimal section:
0-2
• .
'Txz+ oT,
ax
.-zdx
aTyxd
'Trx+ ay Y
a' Ty
'Tyz+ a y
zd
y
Exercise 6: Use the free body diagram of the previous exercise 5 to show that 'rxy = 1,.,.
Exercise 7: 1l1e Airy stress function (x,y) is defined such that the Cartesian Cauchy stresses are
az
r =-i-Jx-iJy·'
xy
Show that stresses obtained from this procedure satisfy the equilibrium equations.
• Exercise 8: Components of linear strain tensor£ at a point (X0, Yo, z0), with respect to (X,
y, z) co-ordinate system, are given as:
Yxy = CXoYo; Yxz = Eyz = Ez = O;

where a, b, care constants. Check whether this state of strain is compatible.
Exercise 9: Investigate what problem of plane stress is solved by the Airy stress function:
(a)3 = :: (xy 3
:2 xy ) +;Y2;
- 3
(b)2 = :: xy2(3d - 2y);
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. PiuJ Koech Page 40 of 70
Plastlclty:Solutions of P/astlclty Problems Plastlcfty- Teaching Notes
Eu.-rcisc 10: The tress lield for the ca11t.ilever beam hown below considering bending and
-P.x
transverse clfoct a : O'x --y= IX
O'y = O; rxy =
-P
.(c2 - Y 2). 2
1 X
Verify that this tres lickl satisfies the equilibrium equations.

p
y
1::xcrcisc 11: For the plane strain field given by:
Ex = Bxy; Ey = -
Y xz --y yz --
v
E z -- O,·
Bxy; yxy = (1 + v)B(h2 - y2); •
where 8. v and Ir 11rc co11stm1ts.
(a) check if the compatibility condition is satisfied:

(b) if it is, detennine the displacement field Ux(x, y), Uy(x, y) in O< X <L,
auy
-Ji< y < h such that Ux(L, 0) = 0, Uy(L, 0) = 0, and(ax +aux)
ay (L, 0) = 0
Exercise 12: For the plane stress fielt.lgiven in engineering notation by:
O'x = Axy; Txy = (h2 - y2); cry = 0, where A and hare constants,
(a) show that it is in equilibrium under 11 zero-body force.
(b) find an Ai1y stress function (x. y) corresponding to it
Assi•gnment 2: Show that ,,ip.. - q ( 2 ( 3

3
a
- Bc3 X
3 2 +2
C y -C -
Y ( 2
5 y 2c
stress function and find what problem it solves when applied to the region
3)
2)) •
1s
3
y -
•
included iny = ± c and x = 0 on the side x-positive.
f/im: Solve 2-D stress condition with no shear stress and no ex1ernal forces onX-direction.
Assignment 3: 2Show2 that2 if is a plane harmonic function, i.e. it satisfies the Laplace equation.
V (a
+ =
a
!) 2
+ Y2) will each satisfy the
0. Then the fimction Xh Y41,
ax cJy
(X
a4$ a4 a1
<lifTerential equation -
OX4 +2
0 X 20 y
+- 4
= 0 and so can be used as Airy's
a
y
stress function.
Leclure oles hy: Dr. E11J!. l'im Koecl, Page 41 of 70
Plasticity:Solutions of Plostlclty Problems 1111D Polar Coordlnote Plostlclty- Teochlng Notl'J
• Two Dimensional Problems in Polar Coordinate System

In order to olve two-dimen ional elasticit prohlc111s by employing .i polar co-onJim11c
reference frame, the equations ofequilibrium, thc delinitionorJ\iry's Stress function, and one uf
the tress equationsofcompatibility must beestabIi hcd in tcnns of Polar oordinates.
Geometricalconsideration related to either loading or boundary of unloaded systemoflcn
make it prefcr;ible to employ polar coordinale rather than cartcsian system.
Polar co-ordinate generally arc used where a degree of axial symmetry exists. Example. arc:
• Thick cylinders, ♦ pl;itc withcircular hole,
♦ rotating discs, ♦curved beam, etc.
•
Cartesiancoordinates (x, y) can be transformed to polar coordinale (r, OJ as follows:
.t = r cos O; y = r sin 0; y =x tan O;
• 0
X
Consider the deformation of the infinitesimal element A□CD of unit thickness, denoti11g
rand 0displacemenls by u and v respectively, undergoing both linear and rotation displaccmcuts.
♦ Equilibrium n[radial forces:
Equilibrium of radial forces in element ABCD, with radius ofrand angle 0 is:
aa: )cr+ara0-C1rra0-
) (CJ'o+-a
aa-11;ie)a • ao ar-+
ao ( T,.o+-a0
iJr,o ) an
( (11.+-rar
iJr IJ
V rsm--(5(}
2 2 ao ar- 2
a o
-'!rear cos - + Fr rara0= 0
2
As 80 0 s•ina-e -ae,·and cos-a;:o:;;1 ; sub sll• lutm• g vaI uesor-aoand d1' v'1deb )' ru.cl,...ae gi• ves·
' 2 2 2 2 ' •
Plasticity:Solutions of Plasticity Problems In 2D Polar Coordinate Plasrlchy- Teaching Notes
• 1 ·1111ilihr/11111o[ fOllf!('ll/ial forces:

Similarly, the equilibrium condition of an element in tangential direction will yield:
,:aao+ar,-,J+zTr/}+F=0
r ao ae r fJ
The above two equations for radial and tangential arc differential equations of equilibrium
in polar co-ordinate which contains three unknown stress functions: err, cr0 and Tra-
• Uad,a! and ranernrial strains:
Referring to the previous figure. it i observed that a displacement "11" ofside AB results
in both radial and tangential strain.
•
Radial strain t:r:
Tangential strain t:eu due to displacement ll per unit length of AB is;

u
Tangential strain t:ev due to displacement vis given by;
£ -
(: )a0 - 1 av•
0v -7ao-;a0·
Hence, the resultant tangential strain et is:
u 1 av
t:0 = t:eu + eev = -r ra0:
Similarly, the shearing strains can be calculated due to displacement u and v as
follows: Component of shearing strain Yredue to 11 is:

•
_ (! )ae _ 1 au_
Y,-0u - ---:;:'ae - ; a0'
Component of shearing strain Yradue to v is:

av V
Yr0v = "a-; ;;
TI1erefore, total shear strain Yre is given by:
1 au av V
Yre = Yreu + Y,-0v = ; ae + -;i-; ;
Lecture Noll's hy: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 43 of 70
Plasticity: Solutions of Plostlclty Problenu In 1D Po/or Plostlclty - Teaching Notes
Coordinate
011 idcr a dcfonncd clement in three-dime11sim,a/ Mress Jfaft.• shown below:

The strain displacement relations for the most
general state of stress nrc gi\'en by:
z ♦ Radial slmin:
au
£,. =or;
♦ 'l'a11!je11tial strain:
II 1 av
£0=-+--:
•
r r a0
♦ Shear strain:
r
♦ CompatihiliD· Co11tlitions (Polar co-ordinate):
We have from strain displacement relations for radial £r, tangential £0 and shear r,.6 as:
ll 1
iJv
£0 = -r + r-a-e:
• . .
- 0r
1
au . I
r ,. ae
B d - u + 1 av .J
Different tat ma:£ • = - wi t 1 respect to an £0 = - -- ,,1 t I respect tor we get:
aEr a2u
To
Differentiating Yre with respect tor and using arat! we get:
=
. . . at:o . ilr,.o .
Different g respect tor and -
a iatmrespect to 0,
equation - wewith
get: with
ar r
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. PiusKoech Page 44 of70
Plasticity:Solutions of Plasticity Problems in 2D Polar Coordinate Plasticity- Teaching Notes
. . ae sin0 ae cos0
Sbu stllutmg values of
ax
=---------------=-- <J'. -
r, ay r X -
a2
--·
ayz'
and <J'.y = axz
- a2
from previous
equations gives:
This is the stress compatibility equation.
The polar components of stress in tenm of Airy's stress functions are as follows:
1 a¢ 1 a2
a a 2
r
a:, =--Tar +-ae
r
2
and r.,
re
= -----·
1
r ar r arae'
2
1
'
-·2
• The above relations can be employed to detennine the stress field as a function of rand 0.
♦ So/11tio11o(Biharmonic Equation:
Stress compatibility equation derived above, fimction must satisfy the bihannonic equation.
If is a fimction of r only, as in a rotating thick cylinder where the stress only depends on
radius r, then both stresses and stress compatibility equation become:
and r,-e = O;
a 2 1 a
)(a2 1 a¢ . . . .
)
(a-
2
r +--.
r or
- + --a
ar2 r
= O; Expandmg this equation gives:
a4 2 a3 r 1 a2 1 a
a-r4+r -ar-3 -r-2a-r+2..........................r-3-a-r -o (**)
• This is a 4th order ordinary differential equation which can be reduced to a linear
differential equation with constant coefficient.
The general solution to this problem; using Mathematica is:
where A, B, C and D are constants.

The corresponding stress components are:
1 ii¢ 1
=-A+
O-r = Tar r2 B(l+ 2loger) + 2C;
-- =
a-0 ar
a2
=-: A+ B(3 + 2loger) + 2C;
2
2
Tro = O;
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Problems in 1D Polar Coordinate Plasticity- Teaching Notes
Thus, we can write:

1
-p·t =-
a2 A+ 2C-
,
1
-p o =--b2A+ 2c·
,
This gives values of A and 2C as:
Substituting values of A and 2C we

get:
a2b2 (p -p.) (p b2-p a2)
(T, =-- 0 I_ O I •
r ,.2 (b2-a2) (b2-a2) '
•
(J " a2b2 (po-p.l ) (p0 bz-p I az)
.
_
0 r2 (b2-a2) (b2-a2) '
The displacement components can also be obtained as:
1 { (1 + 1" ) 2b2 (p, -p o) (1 Ue= 0

u.=
) - - - a
(pob2-p,a2)}· - - - -
-v r
1 E r (b2-a2) (b2-a2) ,
These expressions were first derived by G. Lambe.

(ii) Thick walled cylinder subjected to internal pressure only:
Consider a cylinder with no external pressure. In this case, Po = 0 and Pi = p then:
The circumferential stress is greater at the inner surface of the cylinder and is given by:
• O"emax =p
(a2+b2)
(b2-a2)
(iii) Thick walled Lylinder subjected to external pressure 011/y:
Consider a cylinder with no external pressure. In this case,

Po p and Pi = 0 then:
0"0 =- (b: :2)( 1 + ;:);

If no inner hole, i.e. a = 0, then stresses are unifonnly
distributed in the cylinder as: CTr = cr0 = -p
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Piuv Koech Page 48 of 70
Plastlcity: Solutlons of Pfost/city Problems In 2D Polar Coordinate Plasticity- Teaching Notes
(b) Rotating Discs of Uniform Thickness Analysis:

The equation ofequilibrium given by (sec page 42):
aar• + aT r O+ Clr-Cl1J+F,. -aa,- +a-,-•-Clt) +F,. = O; (fi.mction of r only)
Q
ar T ae r I ar r
is used to treat the case of a rotating disk, provided that the centrifugal "inertia force" is
included as a body force. It is assumed that the stresses induced by rotation are distributed
symmetrically about the axis of rotation and also independent ofdisk thickness.
Thus, application of above equation, with the body force per unit volume F,. equated
to the centrifugal force plt.>2r, yields:
aa,• Clr·-Cl(I
2
- + --+pfv
r r=O
a r
where p is the mass density and w is the constant angular speed of the disk in rad/sec. The
above equation multiplied by r can be written as
a
ar (rer,.) - er0 +pw2r2 = O;
But the strain componentsare given by:
au
£,- = ar; and £0 =u- or canb e wn.ttcn as T£0 = u
r
Therefore;
From Hook's Law, with er2 = O;

1
•
Ei· = E (a;. - VO"o); and
Equating values of£,. we get:
a
1 1
t:.,- = - -r( ere - verr) = -(err - V(To);
E a1· E
Ley rerr = y then;

a
- ( rGr) - 0"0 +pw2r2= O;
a r
Substituting ere=:: +pw2r2 to :r (raa- 111"ar) = (a,. - va0) we get:
a2 a 23
r2
2
ar + r2
ar - y + (3 + v) +pw = O;
r
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koecl, Page 49 of 70
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Problems in 2D Polar Coordinate Plasticity- Teaching Notes
The solution of the above differential equation is:

z
y = Cr + C -1 - -
(3+ 1)
f l (
r3 •
,\
1 r B ,- , = '
Sm. ce
I
ues of y = ay
r a- and a:8 = - +pw2r2 tben we can obtain:
va
a-, = C + C1 - r
1 (3+1) 2 ar2
r r2 - --
'
/1 (, \ r •
8 , - , ,
z
a-a= C - Ci-,.2
1 ---pw
(3+1,)
8
2 r;
The constants of integration are detennined from the boundary conditions.
•
(c) Solid Disk Analysis:
For a solid disk, it is required that C1 = 0, otherwise, the stresses a-,. and a-8 becomes
infinite at the centre when r = 0.
The constant C is deten11i11ed from the condition at the periphery (r = b) oftbe disk, a-,. = 0.
If there are no external forces applied, then previous e(luation becomes:
CYr = C - - -pw b 0; = --pw b
(3+1 2 2
(3+ v) 2 2
therefore, C =
8 8
Hence, radial CYr and tangential a-0 stresses become:
r = s- -
( Hi)
CY , fl(,\ 2).
,-,
2(b2 - 'r
r The stresses attain their maximum values at the centre of the disk, i.e. at r = 0.
./
Therefore:
(d) Circular Disk with a Hole Analysis:

Let a = radius of the hole.
If there are no external forces applied at the boundaries a and b, then:
Oi·(r=a) = O"r(r=b) = 0
0
from which we find that:
C = (3h pw2(b2 + a2), and
8
C= - (3+v)pw2a2b2.
1 8 '
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Ellg. Pius Koech Page 50 of70
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Problems in 2D Polar Coordinate Plastic;ty- Teaching Notes
Substituting values of C and C1 to equations of O'r and a-0 derived earlier we get:
O"r
(3+,:)
=- 8-pw
2{ a2 + b2 -7-r
a2b2 2}
;
(3+1:) 2{ 2 b2 a2b2 (1+3v) 2}
0-0=--pw
B
a+ +----r
2
r (3+1.) '
•
The radial stress a-,. reaches its maximum at r = (ab)½, where:
(3+,) 2 )2
O'r(max) = - -pw {b - a ;
0
The maximum circumferential stress Cie at the inner boundary, where:

+
•
CJ'.( - (3+v)pw2{b2 (1-F)a2}.
0 max)- 4 (3+,) ,
The displacement Ur for all the cases considered can be calculated as:
u,. = rc0 = E!: (a-e- va-r); u0 = 0
(e) Infinite Plate with a Hole Analysis:

Analyzing the infinite plate under unifom1 tension with a circular hole of diameter a,
and subjected to a uniforn1 stress ao, as shown below is that the far-field boundary
conditions are better expressed in cartesian coordirntes, whereas the ones around tbe hole
should be written in polar coordinate system.
1
.·· ---
arr ,....--·····-
- ,: q,
_
:
.
•, : \
,· \
. . \ ...
1-
•
o;, --f .
,'
. ',
.....·\'
This problem is solved by replacing plate with thick tube subjected to two different set ofloads:
I. Thick cyli11der subjected to uniform radial pressure
II. Thick cylinder subjected to both radial and shear stresses which must be compatible
with the traction applied on the rectangular plate.
First, we select a stress function which satisfies tl1e biJrnrmonic Equation, and the far-field
boundary conditions.
From St Venant's principle, away from the hole, the boundary conditions are given by:
<>x = <>o; CTy = !xy = 0
Lecture Notes by: Dr. E11g. Pius Koecl, Page 51 of70
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Problems In 2D Polar COordinate Plasticfty- Teaching Notes
Next, we seek to solve for the four constants of integration by applying the boundary conditions.
We will identify two sets of boundary conditions:
I. Outer boundaries: around an infinitely large circle of radius b inside a plate subjected to
unifonn stress cro, the stresses in polar coordinates are obtained from Strength of Materials:
[
err err0=l[cos 0 - sin 01 [era 0][cos 0 - sin 0r1
erre ereJ sin0 coseJ O O sin0 coseJ
yielding (recalling that sin20 = sin20, and cos20 = (1+cos20), then:
err, r=b =
er0 cos20 = era (1 + cos20);
1
1
2
erre, r=b
e,re r=b =
= 2 erasin20;
1
-2 Oia(l - cos20);
For reasons whjch will become apparent later, it is more convenient to decompose the state of
•
stresses given by err, r=b and erre, r=b, into state I and II due to two different sets ofloads:
I -
( er,. )r=b - 21 (Oi· )rII=b 1 er0cos20 ;
ero; -
2
(erre) =b = 0; II
( erre )r=b = 21 er sin20
0 ;
where state I corresponds to a thick cylinder with external pressure applied on r = b and of
1
magrutude - era. Hence, only two equations of state II will provide us with boundary conditions.
2
2. Around the hole:the stresses should be equal to zero:

err
. =
r=a 0
erre r=a = 0
.
Upon substitution above equations, the four boundary conditions become:
err, r=b = -(2A + C b4

6
+D
b 2) cos20=
4
CJ"0cos20;
CJ",.
, r=a = -(zA + c a + n-;) cos20= O;
a
6
erre, r=b = (zA + 6Bb -c b 2
4 -D b\)sin20 = ½erasin20;
erre, r=a = (zA + 6Ba 2
6 2
- Ca Da )sin20 = 0;
4-
2
Solving for the four unknowns, and taking = 0 (i.e. an infinite plate), we obtain:
A=-- a a
B= C=--44 D = 22-o;o.,
1
o;· 4
O; o;o·,
Plasticity: Solutions of Plasticity Problems In 2D Polar COordinate Plasticfty- Teaching Notes
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page 53 of 70
Plasticity:Solutions of Plasticity Problems In 1D Polar Coordinate Pla5tlclty- Teaching Notes
To this olution, we must superimro e the one of a thick cylinder subjected to a uniform
radial traction CTo on the outer surface, and with b much greater than a ( ( CTr) =b and (
CTr0 )!-=Ir These stresses are obtained from Streng!h of Materials yielding for this problem
(note the sig)
cr0=¼a-O {(1+ :)-(1+3::)cos20;}
CTre =_2.<To
2
(1- 3 r4
+ 2 )sin20;
r1
We observe that as r - rn, i.e., =r 0 both er,.and CTre are equal to the values given earlier as:
•
1
-, r= = a- (1+ cos20);
b
21 0
= o-0sin2O;
= 2 a- (1 - cos20);
(]'1-0, r=b 1
o- , r=b
0
2 0
Alternatively, at the edge of the hole when r = a, we obtain:
(Yr, r=a = O;
O"re, r=a = 0 ;
(Ye, r=a = 0-o (1 - 2cos20);
which for rr 3rr .

O = - and - gives a stress concentration factor (SCF) of 3.
2 2
For 0 = 0 and 0 = rr, U0 = -uo .
• (f) Bending of Curved Beams Anal) sis: 1
The bending moment is constant along the

length of the bar.
,,,.----··-· Therefore, the solution of the problem can
M ./· ,,,· --i-- M be obtained by use of equation(***):
I
. . under compatibility equation.
I . '
'· ,, C!ri: For a and b as inner and outer radius
respectively with a tmit width w.
Pio llclty: olul/o,u o/ PlmrlcilyProblems /111D Polar Coordinate Plast /city - Teachlna Nores
♦ hu l, 1111ul111 rn11di1in11. that is at ,. =

a und r = b,stress a-,. = 0. That means the c<rncavc
u11d 1.:011vcx ho1111d11ry:uc lice frn11111or111alstresses.
rr,. = I ,J
I'
= /\ + tJ(l + 2logur) + 2C]/J = O;
-- : ;
, f,
-
,. (/,. ,, L a.
rr,., ,·=11-
u
/\ + U ( 1 + 2log •.a) + 2C = 0...........................................(i)
1)I2/\ + 8(1 + 2/ogcb) + 2C = 0........................................(ii)
♦ I111l!i;rat• 101o1 1·J'' cr l,/. == 0 and f 11
<Tonlr == -M mcnns that the normal stress at ends gi•ve
u 11 u
rise to couple1110111c11tM.
2 11
J1' rr,, rd,·==
rr
J'' u
Ll i),-
'. rd.r = jd¢,lb -
c)r Cl
t a iJI/JiJr dr = 1°1/Jjb -
ora
l lb= -M;
a
Since: t-):q;-,:,li = A ('- - - I) + B{(b -

2
a)+ 2(blu9cb - alogea)} + 2C(b - a);

l ur 11 /1 a
l,
nlr == J\ {(0a J")- loge} + B{(b - a)+ bloyeb(2 - b) - alogea(2 +a)}+
f (I r5: ()
C{2(/J - u.) - (112 - a.2)) = -M......................................................(iii)

• 13ccallsc orsymmetry, 110 shearstress r,.0 = 0 ,it the boundary, no tangential forces
applied. Substituting cqn(i). (ii) and (iii) we get values of constants/\, 13, C and Das:
A = -'1-Ma2b2log. ; B = {(h2 - a2) + 2(b2logcb - a2logea)} ;
" N
a-. = -4- /
1
{
1
a
b
2 2
b + b2log - + a2log - r a} •
•
r N
-rl2og e -a eb er '
2 2
bo-.o= M{ a b
-4-
2 a1- 2 2 2 }
N
--log-+ b log -+ a log -+ (b - a ) •
,-2 ea e b er '
T,-o= 0;
This gives the stress distribution satisfying the boundary conditions for pure bending and
represents the exact solution of the problem provided the distribution of the nom1al forces at the
ends is given by above equations for a-,., O-e and Tre•
Lecture Noles by: Dr. E11g. l'i11.f Koec/1 Page 55 of70

Plasticity:Solutions of Plasticity Problems In 1D Polar Coordinate Plasticity-Teaching Notes
(g) Bending of Curved Bar with Force at End Analysis:

The bending at x-direction MN is proportional
to sin 0 and the nonnal stress a0 according to
elementary theory ofthe bending ofcurved bar.
Assuming that this holds also for exact
solution, the assumptions which the results will
satisfies the CJ'o aJso satisfy the equation of
compatibility should be proportional to sin 0:
+!!_)
(ar2 ·(a2 +!a¢)=o
r ar ar2 r
• ar
From 4th order differential equation(**)
a
- +- -
4
2 a 3
¢ 1 a 2
1 a
y
or4 r ar3 ---+--=O

2 2 r ar r ar '
3
Taking =/(r) sin0 and substitute to the above 4th order differential equation,fir) must satisfy
the following differential equation:
This equation can be transferred to a linear differential equation with constant coefficients
and its general solution is:
f(r) = Ar 2
+ s.!.+
r
Cr+ Drlog r
• In which are A, B, C and Dare consta11ts of interpretation detennined by boundary

conditions. Substituting equation f (r) for the stress fimction and using the general
fonnula:
a ¢ 2 a ( 2 1)
a-, =1 - -+1 - - = 2Ar-B- +D- sin0,·
1" ar r2 as
2
r 2
r r 2
CJ'e =-a ¢ =(6Ar + B-, 2

+ D 1- ) sine;
ar 2 r r
r. =-1--a
2 -¢ =-( 2Ar-B2-+D-1) cos0;
le T arae r
2
From the conditions that the outer and in11er boundary of the bar are free from external forces,
that is at r = a and r = b, stress Oj- =
0 and Tre = 0. That means:
2A - B 2...+ D =0 and ZA b - B-
2
+D-
1
=0
a2 a b2 b
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius K,nch Page 56 of70
Plasticity:Solutions of Plasticity Problems In 1D Polar Coordinate Plasticity-Teaching Notes
Plasticity: Two-Dlmerulonal Plastic Flow Plasticity- Teaching Notes
• Two-Dimensional Plastic Flow Problems

► Equilibrium equations:
a iyx
a(J x - + !· = 0
- +ax ay
i). ,y ,.=O
-+a'x
+Fy -
ay ax •
-
aa,+. 1 a,ru
--
+ rrr -0
-1 - + · . =0
11 F ,
iJ r r iJO T
2. +a,,.u+ 2 + F 0.=. 0
•
1· a11 ao r
► Compatibility equations:
a \
-aoy = axay
2 2 .x oxa2 ry --
- +
a
2
1a ) (a24, 1a )
( ar2+ rar • ar2+ ar = 0
a44,
-+4 ra
2 3
,p 1 a2 1 a
--3 --2-+2 - -= 0
3
a1· r ar r r ar
ar·
The general solution to this problem; using Mathematica is:
; For no body forces:
• , Boundary conditions:
Fx= crxl + 'xym
J.. Stress function Airy's:
► For no body forces (Airy's function): a2

1
xy
=--- -
axay'
-a+2 - a2)(a a24') a\ a4*
2 +- -- +
+ - a 4, i.
+2 -4 -
( ax2 al al ax2- ax ax2ay2 ay4
Plasticity: Two-Dimensional Plostlc Flow Plasticity-Teaching Notes
Exam pie 3: A thick cylinder of internal radius I00 mm and external radius 150 mm is
subjected to an internal pre ure of 6N/mm2. Detem,ine the variation of radial
and the hoop stress in the cylinder wall.
. o/11tio11: Let a=I00 mm, b =150 mm, p =6N/mm2=6MN/m2
r (mm) 100 110 120 130 140 150
•
o-r( /mm2) -6.0 -4.1 -2.7 -1.6 -0.7 0
2
o-o( /111111 ) 15.6 13.7 12.3 10.8 10.J 9.6
I 6 ,---,-- --.---.-..---.- ----.- -.
14
.
.
Ha•l
• ----------
E • ·
z
..
10
-; H
6 -•- r., Radial stress

v3
-•- s. !loop tress
L
C.
" l
-·
0
::C
..
--
] (J
.,, .1 --■
- ----■
•----•-
·
-6
Dhlancr from Surface (mm)
Example 4: A curved bar of radius 250 mm and outer radius 300 mm is subjected to a
concentrated force of 200 N applied at the end of the bar. Detennine the stress in the
bar at a radius of270 mm and angle of 45°.
Solution: Let a =250 mm, b =300 mm, P =200 N, 0=45°, r =270 mm.
!!. = (2502-3002) + (2502+3002)109e

N = (a2-b2) + (a2+b2)log ea 300
250
= 304·'
O"r = P
2b2 - { r +a- -1(a2+b2
} sin0 = -9.65 N/mm 2
- )
N r2 r
O" =- P { 3r -- a2bz
1 a 2+b2)} s.m0= -9.73 Nimm-">
- (
-
o N r2 r
rr 0 =- - p {
r + -
2
2
a b
- -1(a2+b2)} cos0 =9.65 N/rrun2
N rz r
Plasticity: Two-Dimensional Plastic Flow Plasticity- Teaching Notes
E crcisc I: Use a free-body diagram approach to show that in polar coordinates the
equilibrium equations are
acrr
-ar
+ 1 a ,
- - +r
ro C !r
- -' =
-C!O
O·
r a0
a1r o + _a: ao+ 2 tro= O·

ar r a0 r '
Exercise 2: Develop the above equations for equilibrium in polar coordinates by transfonning
the Cartesian equation usmg
x = rcos B;y = rsin 0
•
Exercise 3: Show that the kinematic (strain-displacement) relations in for polar coordinates
can be written
::a. u0+ ur
ra0 ,-'
_ 1 aur+ auo uo
Yr0 - ; a0 ar --;-;
Assignment-': Consider a cantilever having a narrow rectangular cross section of tmjt width
bent by a force P applied at the end. The upper and lower edges are free from
load, and shearing forces, having resultant P, are distributed along the end x=O.
p •
y
Show that stresses are given by:
Pxy
Uz =-. J --1
<111 = 0
.. Pl
-r-%11 = - 12 (ct - y2)
where moment of inertia I for the beam is:

= .: c3
3
Leet ure Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 61 of 70
Plasticity: Slip-line Field Theory Plasticity- Teaching
Notes
• The Slip-Line Field Theory

Slip-line.field theo,y: Is a systematic method of determining stress fields and associated
velocity fields in perfectly plastic bodies obeying the Mises (or Tresca) yield criterion in
plane strain developed in the I 920s by Prandtl, Hencky, Mises and others, and generalized by
Mandel [1962] to include other yield criteria and plane stress.
A convenient way to establish the necessary relations for the stress field in a plastic region is
with the help of the definitions ,., =; (cr1+ cr2) and r = ½ (cr1 - cr2), in conjunction with the yield
condition. We introduce the Mohr's circle relations
CT11 = n + r sin 20, CT22 = 11- r sin 20, a12 = -r cos 20................(*)
•
where 0 is the angle from the x1 axis to one of the principal shear directions, namely the one
along which the maximum shear stress r is directed to the left when one is facing the outer
nom1al (see Figme below). This direction will be called the seco11d shear direction, and a
line having this direction locally everywhere will be called a second shear line. Tbe other
shear direction (shear line) will be called the first.
When equations(*) are substituted into the equilibrium equations:
CT1 I.I+ CT12.2 = 0, CT1:u + CT22.2 = 0,
the resulting equations are, upon substitution of r = h(n),
•
II
I
a22
ao
t
a12
!
n II
au
---------------------xi
(a) (b)
First (I) and second (II) shear-line directions i11 the (a) Mohr's-circle and (b) physical planes
The above figure upon evaluation gives a characteristic equation:
(1- h'2)2'A.2 -4r2cos220-4r2sin220-4r2h'2
yielding the eige11values:
'A.=+ 2r
- J(1-h12)
Plasticity: Slip-line Field Theory Plasticity- Teaching
Notes
The roots are real if and only if lh'I 1; the problem is hyperbolic if lh'I< 1, parabolic
when lh'I = I, and elliptic when lh'I> I.
Referring to the examples of the yield condition, the plane-stress problem for the Mises
criterion is hyperbolic only when lnl < 3k/2, parabolic when lnl = Jk/2, and elliptic when lnl >
31J2; this last condition occurs when
!.< + ""1 < 2

2 - a2
For the Tresca criterion, the problem is hyperbolic when!nl < k and parabolic when lnl k;
the elliptic case does not arise.
•
In plane strain, /J' = 0 for both criteria with the associated now rule when the elastic
strains can be neglected, and therefore the problem is hyperbolic throughout the plastic
domain.
The same is true for Mohr-Coulomb criterion with the appropriate flow rule, since h' = - sin
. where rp is the angle of internal friction.
The eigenvector corresponding to l = 2r sec is given by dxz = - cot _(0.!_ ),and will be
dx1 2
called the first or ri clwracteristic, while the eigenvector corresponding to).= -2r sec is
given by :::: = tan(0 +; ), and will be called the second or /I characteristic.
In the case of the von Mises and Tresca criteria in plane strain, the characteristic directions
coincide with the shear directions and are orthogonal. In general, the characteristics of the
two
families intersect at an angle.: rr ±; they coalesce into a single family when
2
=.:rr that is, in
the parabolic case.
Defining the dimensionless variable w by
w= J
cos <fJ(n)d
2h(n) n
we may write the characteristic relations, following Mandel [1962), as •
•
dw = d0 along a first characteristic,
dw = -d0 along a second characteristic.
Note that w = in the classical case, and
Zk
cv = - co;<fJ ln ( 1 - ; tan ¢)
for the Mohr-Coulomb material, yielding the preceding value in the limit as - 0, with c = k.
Lecture Notes hy: Dr. Eng. Pius K<1ecl1 Page 63 of70
Plasticity:Slip-line Field Theory Plostlclty- Teaching Notes
Many practical problem can be solved by means of slip-line fields containing straight
slip lines. Thus. if one slip line (clrnrncteri·tic) ofa given family is straight, then all the slip
lines of that fo111ily 111ust be traight.
Families of straight slip li11cs arc of three typcs: (a) parallel, (b) meeting al a point, and (c)
forming an e11vclope a shown below.
•
(11) (b) (c)
f-a111ilies of straight slip lines: (a) con tant-stati..f:ield; (h) centered fan; (c) non-centered
fan with cnvelorc.
{ti) Crmslant-.,·talc.fielrl: /\. rcgion in which the slip line of one family are straight and parallel
is called a region of cons1c1111.,·1a1e, since state of sire is uniform.
following Mandel( 1962) characteristic relation ofangular O and dimensionless variable w is:
80 8rv. Thus, since() is constant. ii follows that w is constant as well, and therefore that
the state of stress is uni form.
While the stress components are constant, the velocity components arc not necessarily so.
(h) Centered fan: If the slip lines ofone family arc straight and meet at a point, then tho e ofthe
other family must be concentric circular arcs.
OJ is constant along all the straight lines, while along the circular arc of the fan. drv - ±d0,
n
depending on whether the arcs are a or characteristics. If the O difference between the two
constant-slate regions is .10, then this is just the angle subtended by the bounding lines of
•
the fan, and .0.w = ± 0.
(c) No11-cenleredfar, wit!, enre/ope: /\.n envelope of slip line is also called a limiting line. and a
family of straight slip lines fom1ing an envelope is called a 11011ce11teredfa11; the
envelope i called the hasc curve of the fan.
A limiting line cannot be in the interior of the pla. tic region, and therefore must form a part
of either the boundary of the body or of the rigid-plastic boundary.
Friction and internal Oow constraints can be included in slip-line theory, so upper-bound
approximations arc obtained that provide more conservative estimates of the forces needed
in deformation. The following will outline some ofthe basic ideas.
Consider plane strain in the 1-3 plane, with no strain in the 2-direction. There is a
Poisson stress in the 2-dircction, given by;
1
£2=0=i;Jo2- v(o1+(n)]
Lecture Noles hy: Dr. £11,:. Pi11.f Koech Page 64 of70
Plasticity: Slip-line Field Theory
S1•t1 e 1·=-
1 • 1
mpast1c• I ow.
l2
l
CT;=- (01 4 CT.1)
The hydrostatic co1111onent rstn:ss i: then

1 t
/J =: to1 Cl;+ =:-\CTI cr.,- CJ:
CJ.1) )
Hence the Poisson stress cr: in thl.' z1._•rn-strain din.·cti 11 is the an:rafe of the ,)thl.'r tW1._) stn.'.ssc:
01and o.,. and als l'Qual tl th<.' hydr1._)Static rn111po11e111l rstres·1 .
Strc-s state c:m be specified in tcnn • 1f the maximum shc:ir str1._'SS, \\ hich i::; just k clu1in)! plastic
liow. and the superimposed hydro t:11ic pressureµ:
Since the shear stres· is equal to k cwrywhcn.'. the I mhk111 is one ofdetc1111i11i11:::the
directions of k (the direction of maximum shear. along which slip nc ·urs). :ind nrngnitu k
The graphical technique im· Ires sketching line· that lie along the directi1ns ork. Since
l)f/.
•
maximum shear stresse act on two onhog nal planes. there will he two sets l1t'tl11._•se li111._•s.
always perpendicular to one another and rcle1Ted to as o-lines and 0-li111._•s. The dir1._'\:tio11of
thes1._• lines is specified by an inclination angle .
Any convenient inclination can be used r r the =-0 llat11111. amt idrntifi ·ati 11 llf n- y-·lines
is such as to make the shear stress I o·itire according to tlw us11:1l i'.t 11\'enti 111.
As pres~ure p rnrie· from point to point. there is a com spo11di11 \'ari:1tio11Lr the an k \ t!
in-n by the He11cky equations a·:
p + '2k¢ = Ci = c nstant. alon!! an n-linc

p - '2k¢ = ( 2 = coinant. alone a /'-line •
Hence, pressure can be detennine from cutYature of the slipline:-. tKe the c nstant is km wn. •
The slip-line field must obey ce11ain constraints at boundaries:
1. Free mface. : Since there can bt! no slres• nonnal to a frt'e surface, we can put o.i= 0
there and then
p = k. cr1 = -p - k = -2/..:.
Hence the pressure is known to bt! just the shear yield strcnfth at a free surface. Funherm
1re, sincethe directions normal and tangential to the'urfacc nrc principal directi 11s. the
din:cti ns of maximum shear must be inclined at 45° to the surface.
2. Friclionfoss surface: The shear stress must be zero ta.ngcntinl to a frictionkss surface.
which again means that the tangential and nonnal directions mnst be principal dirc·tions.
Hence the slip lines must meet the urface at 45°. Howe,er, there will in gcncrnl be n stn:ss
acting nonnal to the surface so cn;t.O and thns p will not be equal to k.
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech
Pl.istlcity:Slip-line Field Theory Plostlclty- Teaching Notes
3. l'crfrctll' rrJ11r:,h s11r(acc: If the friction is so high as to prevent any tangential motion at
the mfoce, the shearing must be maximum in a direction that is also tangential to the
surface. One set of lip lines must then be tangential to the surface, and the other set
nomial to ii.
Some Applic11tions of Slip-line Fields:
Some simple applications ofslip-line fields consists of constant-state regions and centered fans:
kfctal-Fon11i11g /Jroble111s
Metal-forming processes that approximate plane-strain conditions (for which slip-line
theory can be used to generate upper bounds 011the forming forces) include forging,
indentation, and cutting of wide strips, as well as continuous processes such as extrusion,
drawing and rolling.
(a) lmle11tatio11:
• Consider a flat indenter of width b being pressed into a semi-infinite block, with
negligible friction.
Slip-line construction for a Oat indentation at the botlom ofa flat trench.
Since sliplines must meet indenter surface at 45°, we can draw a triangular flow field
ABC. Since all lines in this region are straight, there can be no variation in the pressurep,
and the field is one of "constant state."
••
The field must extend to the free surfaces adjacent to the punch, so that downward motion
under the punch can be compensated by upward flow adjacent to it. Two more triangular
regions ADF and BEG are added that satisfy the boundary conditions at free surfaces, and
these are cormected to the central triangular regions by "fans" AFC and BCG. Fans are very
useful in slip line constmctions; they are typically centered on singularities such as points A
and B where there is no defined nonnal to the surface.
The pressure on the punch needed to establish this field can be determined from the
sliplines, and this is one of their principal uses. Since BE is a free surface, c,3 =Othere and p
= k. Pressure remains constant along line EG since is unchanging, but as
decreases along the curve GC (the line curves
clockwise), the pressure must increase according to the Hencky equation.
At poi11t C it has rotated through y -'Tt/2 so the pressure there is
pc+2k¢ =pc+2k (-;) =constant= pa=k

pc =k (1 + 1r)
T11e pressure remains unchanged along lines CA and CB, so the pressure along the punch
face is also k( I + 1t). The total stress acting upward on the punch face is therefore
Plasticity: Slip-line Field Theory Plasticity-Teaching Notes
cr, = p+ k = 2k (1 + D
The ratio of punch pressure to the tensile yield strength 2k is
: = (1 +;) = 2.571
The factor 2.571 represents the increase over the tensile yield strength caused by the
geometrical constraints on the flow field under the punch.
The Brinell Hardness Test is similar to the punch yielding scenario above, but uses a hard
steel sphere instead of a flat indentor. The Brinell hardness /-f is calculated as the load applied to
the punch divided by the projected area of the indentation. Analysis of the Brinell test differs
•
somewhat in geometJy, but produces a result not much different than that of the fiat punch:
.!!.. 2.8 -2.9

cry
This relation is very useful in estimating the yield strength of metals by simple nondestructive
indentation hardness tests.
(b)Forging am/ C11tti11g:
The simultaneous application of identical flat punches to a strip of finite thickness, may be
used to model forging, with the bottom punch representing the anvil and the top punch the
forging tool.
Similarly, the cutting of a snip of metal with a wirecutter-like tool can be described a
the simultaneous indentation by a pair of identical wedge-shaped indenters located
opposite each other as show belov,r_
-0-
•
w (a)
Forging (b) Cutting
The solution of both problems was studied by Hill [1953]. For the cutting problem Hill
showed that when the plastic region has not yet reached the foundation, the slip-line field is
the same as for the semi-infinite domain.
Lecture Notes hy: Dr. Eng. Pius Koecl, Page 67 of 70
Plasticity: Slip-line Field Theory Plasticity-Teaching Notes
When, however, the plastic region extends through the thickness of the strip, a different
mode of deformation takes over: piling up ceases, and the material on either side of the plastic
region moves rigidly outward; the slip-line field is shown below.
21,...-
t t
• (a) Cutting
Slip-line fields for cutting and forging

2a
(b) Forging
For the forging problem, the slip-line field is shown in Figure (b). A triangular dead-metal
region attaches itself to the punch, and indentation proceeds as in the cutting problem,
provided that h < 8.74a, where his the half-thickness of the strip and a the half-width of the
punch.
When h = 8.74a, it can be shown that the punch pressure is p = 2k (1 + ),as for the semi
infinite domain. It follows that for h > 8.74a the zone of plastic defonnation does not go through
the strip and the pressure remains at this value.
(c)Drawing mu/ Extrmio11:
Drawing and extrusion are processes in which a billet of material is forced to flow through a
• die shaped to produce the required cross-section.
• Dl
·c Extruding
metol
Pressure pad
(a) (b)
(c)
Drawing and extrusion: (a) drawing; (b) direct extrusion; (c) reverse extmsion.
Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Piu.vKoech Page 68 of70
Plasticity:Slip-line Field Theory Plortkity- Teaching Notes
Figure below illustrates a solution due to Hill [1948c) describing frictionless extrnsion
through a square dje with 50% reduction. The slip-line field consists the two centered fans
OAB and OA' B'; because of symmetry, only OAB need be considered.
A
l
I
I
- -r -+--
I (b)
I
I
(a)
Extrnsion: (a) frictionless extrusion through a square die with 50% reduction;
(b) slip-line field for two-thirds reduction.
Since exit sjjp line OA is a line ofconstant stress, 011 must varush identically on it in order
for extruded metal to its left to be in equilibrium, and 012 = 0 because the line fonns an angle
•
of 45° with the x-axis. The yield criterion requires J<Jd = 2k, and, since the sheet is being
compressed, it follows that cr22 = - 2 k. Eqnations (<J11 = n + r sin 20, cr22 = n - r sin 20, <J12
= -r cos 20) (see
page 30) with n = 2 km and r = k, accordingly require that w =_.!_and 0 = on OA.
2 4
1l1e characteristic relations can now be used to detennine the state along AB. Since the fan
3n 1
subtends 90°, 0 = ,and w = (1 + rr). Thus, we have 011 = -(2 + n) k, a22 = -Jt k, and cr12
4 2
= O on AB. The average value o-f011 along OAB is thus equal to the extrnsion pressure;
A simple slip-line field for a reduction of.: as shown in Figure (b), and leads to an extrusion
3
pressure of
Plasticity: Exercise Plastlcity-Teachlng Notes
E:rnmple: Consider a cantilever beam with the homogeneous fourth-degree polynomial.
$4 =ax 4
4
+ b4x3y + c4x2y2 + d4xy3 + e4y4;
Solution: To solve above equation, let the values of: 3a4 + c4 + 3e4 = 0
The stTesses are obtained as:
a2
uX = -ay2
4
=2c4 +6 d 4xy +12e4y, 2•
x2
a2 4 2 b 2
Uy axz 12a4X + 6 4Xy + 2c4y ;
=
- az 4 - b 2 4 d 2.
fxy- oxoy - - 3 4X - C4Xy- 3 4Y ,
These can be used for the end-loaded cantilever beam with width b along z axis, depth
2a and length L. If all coefficients except d4 are taken to be zero, then:
Uy= O;
This will give a parabolic shear traction on the loaded end, but also a uniform shear
traction r"Y = - 3d4a2 on top and bottom. These can be removed by superimposing
unifonn shear stress •xy = + 3d4a2, thus:
•xy = 3d4(a2 - y2)

The constant d4 is detennined by requiring that:
P = b L:-'xydy = -3b d4 L:(a -

2
y2)dy
•
hence:
• And the solution is:
=p-xy
4 4ab
3P
( 3- -l );
a2
<rx =- 2a3b xy; a. 3P ( 2

Txy =- 4aJ b a - y ;
O· =
nd
. . b(2a)3 2a3 b
y '
We observe that the moment of area for the rectangular cross-section 1s / = -- = --·
12 3 '
2
hence this solution agrees with the elementary beam theory solution.
Plasticity: Exercise Plastlcity-Teachlng Notes

MPE 422 - Plasticity by DR Eng Koech Pius

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MPE/MPEN 422 : PLASTICITY

Instructor Room E-mail Time

• The Flow Curve for Ideal Materials: -

when o > Oy (plasticity) £ = £ e+ &P

&p = E;- &e = (:s -½)(j,

• Elastic-Linearly Hardening model, where the tangential modulus is assumed to be constant:

• Ramberg-Osgood which is a nonlinear smooth single expression:

Lecture Notes by: Dr. E11g. Pius Koec/1 Page I of70

• True Stress and True Strain

Force balance on small element of specimen

If initial cross-sectional area Ao and initial

Necking begins at points M'and M.

Engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain curves.

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 2 of70

Tme stress, O"r= K &?; true strain, £r= In (:J = In (:J.

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 3 of 70

_log(415 MPa)-log(1035 MPa)

Lecture Noles hy: Dr. Eng. PiuJ Koech Page 4 of 70

• Invariants of Stresses and Strain

Stress components acting on parallelepiped.

• y - aXlS : lyx, O'y, lyz,

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 5 of 70

Clnx = O"xxf + Tyxm + Tzxn

This can be written in= matrix

( O"xx- O"nn)l + fyxm + Tzxn =0

Txzl + Tyzm + ( O"zz- O"nn)11 =0

We also know that: 12 + m2 + n2 = 1.

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page6 of70

If this determinant is expanded, we get a cubic equation:

- ( a xa ya z + 2 r xy T yz r zx- ( ax ry2z + a yrz2x + a z r 2xy))- - 0

/2= 0102 + Oz03 +0301

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. PiuI Koecl, Page 7 of70

• Deviatoria/ and spherical stress tensor are given as:

• Spherical strain tensor: Y.,z 2c1-;x-7

where &rn =;(Bx+ By+ Bz)

l1e = Ejj = Ex+Ey+E2j

l2e =; (Eijtij-EiiEjj) =; [(E + E + Ei)- ( ExEy+ExEz+ EyEz) + 2 (r + Yz+ y )]

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 8 of70

Practical approach of solving principal stresses of cubic equation:

• Using direction cosines Method:

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koec/1 Page 9 of70

/1 = Ox + o·y + a z = 200 + 0 + 500 = 700 :MPa

/1 = 136.6 + 63.4 + 500 = 700 :MPa

500 500 -400 l

/1 =Ox+ ay + az = 500 + -300 + -1000 = -800 :MPa

12 = crxcry + crycrz + O"z<:rx -( r;y + r}1 + r x) = (-350,000)-(500,000) =-850,000

Principal stresses are given hy:

a - l1a + lzaµ- /3=0

• Using Newton-Raphson Method:

0 1-u2) ±J(i 1-"'2/ +4{(!1-uz)u2-12}

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koecl, Page 11 of70

11 =Ox+ Oy+02 =-19 + 4.6 +-8.3 = -22.7 MPa

(a) Principal slresses are given by: a - I1 <J" + I2 <Jp" I3 = 0

Using direction cosines Method:

R)2 = S3 = 10.6863 = 1,220.249

a = cos-1 (; ) = cos-1(0.2002) = 78.45°

a3 = 2Scos(f+ 240°)+ /1=-9.00I MPa

Ai= (ay - a1)( oz - o 1)- r}2 = (4.6 - 11.623)(-8.3 - 11.63) -11.8 2 =

Ki= (At+ Bt +Cl)½= (0.679 2 + -17.5282 + -10.162 2)½ = 20.272

Lecture Notes by: Dr. Eng. Pius Koech Page 12 of70

a2 = A2 + B2 + cz = (-10)2 + ( ) 22+ ( ) =10200 = 728.57 (MPa)z

Therefore, cosines angles for shear stress would be:

zCOS-l (0.595) = 53.5°