Alferid Hussin Shifa

11/8/2021
Prof. Makhlouf

Homework 1
Ch2: 1, 3, 5, 6, 13, 14, 18, 21, 31, 34, 51, 59, 64, 67, and 76

Ch4: 2, 3, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 22, 24, 31, 32, and 34

1. Distinguish between engineering stress and true stress?

- Engineering stress is the stress define as the ratio of applied load to the original cross
P
section area of a given object. The equation that defines Eng. stress, is define as σ = ,
A0
where P is the applied force and A0 is the original area. In the other hand, true stress is
the stress defined as the ratio of the applied force to the instantons cross-sectional area of
P
given object. The equation that defines true stress, is define as σ = , where A is the
A
instantaneous cross-sectional area.

2. Describe the events that take place when a specimen undergoes a tension test. Sketch a
plausible stress–strain curve and identify all significant regions and points between them.
Assume that loading continues up to fracture.
- When a specimen undergoes a tension test, it goes through a variety of changes. The
specimen will initially elongate lineally with respect to the load applied to it, which is
known as linear elastic behavior. At this instance, the affect is not permeant, where the
specimen will revert to its original shape once the load is removed. However, if we are
increasing the load beyond a point where the elongation becomes a permanent, plastic
deformation occurs. Where the elongation is no longer exactly proportional to the load
applied to the specimen. This stress level is referred to as the yield stress of the material.
Also, the specimen will eventually reach the maximum stress level after which they begin
to neck and, and then fracture. Breaking or fracturing point is where the test ends.
3. In the equation σ = Kn, which represents the true stress–strain curve for a material, what is
the significance of the exponent n?
The exponent n represents the strain hardening or work hardening exponent, and this
value usually constant. The strain hardening capacity of the material is represented by
this exponent, which expresses the rate of increase in strain for a given stress-strain curve
of a specimen.
4. What is strain-rate sensitivity, and how is it measured?
- Strain-rate sensitivity is the slope of the strain-rate hardening curve. Strain-rate
hardening occurs when increasing the strain rate on a material also increases its strength.
The strain-rate sensitivity exponent is denoted by m, and it’s obtained from a log-log
plots. This relationship can be defined as σ =C ϵ̇ m, where C is the strength coefficient and
ϵ̇ is the true strain. Some typical range of m for metal are up to 0.05 for cold working and
0.05 to 0.4 for hot working.

5. Differentiate between stress relaxation and creep.

- Creep represents a permanent stretching of the material under a load. This typically
occurs to nonmetallic materials such as thermoplastic and rubber. There is no temperature
requirement at which creep can occur. Where in the other hand stress relaxation is just the
reduction of the stress experienced by a material under load over a period of time, despite
the dimension remaining constant.

6. Describe the difference between elastic and plastic behavior.

- An elastic behavior is a typically temporary elongation or stretching of material, where
once the load is removed the material returns back to its normal dimension. A plastic
behavior represents a permanent elongation or other deformation a material experiences
after the stress exerted by a load reaches a tipping point.
7. What is Hooke’s law? Young’s modulus? Poisson’s ratio?
- Hooke's law essentially states that the elongation of an elastic material is in direct
proportion to the force applied or load-stress applied to the material. This ratio will give
us a linear relationship known as Young's modulus (or modulus of elasticity) denoted by
E. This relationship is the modulus of elasticity representing the stress on the elastic area
σ
of a given material. It can be defined as E= , higher E value will represent a stiffer
e
material.
- The Poisson ratio is the absolute value of the ratio of lateral stress to longitudinal stress,
and it denoted by letter v.

8. Why does the fatigue strength of a specimen or part depend on its surface finish?
- Fatigue strengths depend on its surface finish, because a good surface finish will reduce
the decarburization surface pits that form due to corrosion and subsequent stress cracking
in a finished product.

9. With a simple sketch, explain whether it is necessary to use the offset method to determine
the yield stress, Y, of a material that has been highly cold worked.

- From the above stress strain diagram, it is clear that offset method is not necessary since
the curve have a diverse change in slope on its stress-strain curve occurring at the yield
point.

10. If a material (such as aluminum) does not have an endurance limit, how then would you
estimate its fatigue life?
- For materials without endurance limits, we can specify a certain number of cycles before
failure occurs. This will give us a good estimate of the material fatigue life, so we will be
able to stop it before reaching the life expectancy. We can perform a cyclic stresses test
 to measure the accumulated damage in a part before fracture and identify that cycle
number.

11. A paper clip is made of wire 0.5 mm in diameter. If the original material from which the wire
is made is a rod 25 mm in diameter, calculate the longitudinal engineering and true strains
that the wire has undergone during processing.
Given data, d i=25 mm , d f =0.5 mm
Find, l f , l i ,e eng , ϵ

- We know that as a material undergoes a plastic deformation, the rod volume remains
constate, so
V f =V i

π π
∗l ∗d 2= ∗l ∗d 2
4 f f 4 i i

2 2 l f d 2i 252
l f ∗d =¿ l i∗d
f i => = = =2500
l i d 2f 0.5 2

lf
=2500 => l f =2500 l i
li

- Engineering strain

∆ l l f −l i 2500 l i−l i
e eng= = = =2500−1=2499
li li li

- True strain

lf 2500l i
ϵ =ln () (
li
=ln
li )
=ln ( 2500 )=7.824

12. You are given the K and n values of two different metals. Is this information sufficient to
determine which metal is tougher? If not, what additional information do you need?
- No, the K and n values aren’t sufficient enough to determine which metal is tougher
because those two values only provide us with rough idea of the curve and information
about the elastic region of the material. To determent the toughness of the material we
 need the area under the entire curve, and to determine that we need the fracture point (the
fracture stress and strain point).

13. A metal has the following properties: UTS = 70,000 psi and n = 0.20. Calculate its strength
coefficient, K.
Given data, UTS=70,000 psi , n=0.2
Find, σ , K

- The true area at the necking point can obtained by

A0
ln ( )
A neck
=n=0.2 , so Aneck = A0 e−0.2

- And we know that the max load P is equal to

P=σ A neck=σ A 0 e−0.2

P σ A 0 e−0.2 UTS
- Also, to we know that UTS ¿ = =σ e−0.2 => σ = =
A0 A0 e−0.2
70000
=85498.19
e−0.2
- We know that UTS occurs at necking point, and we know that the necking strain is
corresponding to the strain hardening exponent. So,
σ 85498.19
σ =k ϵ n=k nn => k = n= =117964.39 psi
n 0.20.2
14. A metal has a strength coefficient K = 100,000 psi and n = 0.25. Assuming that a tensile-test
specimen made from this metal begins to neck at a true strain of 0.25, show that the ultimate
tensile strength is 59,340 psi.

Given data, K=100,000 psi , n=0.25

Find, UTS
- From the previous problem we know that P=σ A neck=σ A 0 e−n, and we know that
σ =k ϵ n=k nn , so
P σ A 0 e−n n n −n 0,25 −0.25
UTS ¿ = =σ e =k n e =100000∗0.25 e =55069.53 psi
A0 A0

15. List and explain the desirable mechanical properties of (a) an elevator cable, (b) a paper clip,
(c) a leaf spring for a truck, (d) a bracket for a bookshelf, (e) piano wire, (f) a wire coat
hanger, (g) the clip for a pen, and (h) a staple.
 a. An Elevator cables is primarily meant to raise high loads and to support large
weights, so they must be able to withstand a lot of tension. To withstand the
enormous amount of tension, the wires must be constructed to be durable. Therefore,
desirable mechanical properties should be higher modulus Toughness, and higher
fatigue limit.

b. A paper clip is a metal wire bent into a loop with the primary trait of being strong
enough to keep a stack of papers firmly in place. Paper clips are sturdy and robust, as
well as flexible, and can be extended by moving one end. Therefore, paper clip
should be somewhat durable and flexible, and hardness and strength aren't necessary
very important mechanical properties. So higher resilience is desirable.

c. A leaf spring should be strong enough to support a truck's hefty loads. Generally, a
leaf spring is employed as a suspension system as well as to support the truck's jerks
and large loads. As a result, it must be built to withstand enormous weights and
must be extremely robust, flexible, and strong. So it must have a very big tensile
strength and impact Strength

d. A bookshelf should be strong enough to hold a stack of books, therefore it can be

made of cemented brackets or wood with a high modulus of toughness. As a result,
they should be able to withstand high loads or absorb energy until it breaks.

e. A piano wire is a rust-resistant string made primarily of brass. To withstand the

sudden impact of keystrokes, the wire should have a high ductility.
f. To support the weight of clothes, a wire coat hanger is typically composed of plastic
or steel. As a result, increased hardness, toughness, and elasticity modulus are highly
desirable.

g. A pen clip is often constructed of steel with a low hardness because it is used to hang
a pen inside a pocket.  A little Hardness and high Resilience would be sufficient.

h. A staple, like a paper clip, is used to hold a stack of paper together. As a result, it
must have a high degree of plasticity and resilience because the staple must bend and
remain in that state indefinitely.

16. What is a solid solution?

- A solid solution is a solid-state solution of one or more solutes in a solvent.

17. What are the conditions for obtaining (a) substitutional and (b) interstitial solid solutions?
 - To form a substitutional solid solution, two metals must satisfy Hume Rothery rule.
Where the two metals must have atomic radii difference less 15% and must have similar
crystal structure.
- To form a interstitial solid solutions the solvent metals must have an atom that has more
than one valence and the atomic radius of the solute to be less 59% of the solvent.

18. What is the difference between “eutectic” and “eutectoid”?

- A eutectoid is a phase or material which transforms from a single solid phase into a two
solid phase alloy after reaching a certain temperature. Where a eutectic is a phase or
separate material that is more readily melted than the rest or comparable materials.

19. What is tempering? Why is it performed?

- Tempering is the process of heating a metal or glass to a specific temperature depending
on its composition and then cooled at a prescribed rate. We us this process to reduce
brittleness, increase ductility and toughness and reduce the residual stresses.

20. What are precipitates? Why are they significant in precipitation hardening?
- A precipitate is an insoluble solid that emerges from a liquid solution. The emergence of
the insoluble solid from solution is called precipitation. This will occur when the solution
contains more solute than its maximum solid solubility in the solvent. And, precipitation
hardening, is a type of heat treatment that is used to for hardening and strengthening of
nonferrous alloys. It is called precipitation hardening as it makes use of solid impurities
or precipitates for the strengthening process. This process is done by either heating it or
keeping it at stored at lower temperatures so that precipitates are formed.

21. What is the difference between natural and artificial aging?

- Aging is a process of strengthening of an alloy by applying heat. Natural aging occurs
when the aging process takes place at room temperature for a period of time. Artificial
aging occurs when the aging process is carried out at a temperature higher than room
temperature. To further minimize particle contaminants and strengthen the system,
artificial aging will induce this heat treatment beyond what would otherwise be expected
in the system.

22. Describe the characteristics of ferrite, austenite, and cementite.

- Ferrite is a solid solution of body centered cubic iron and it’s a soft and ductile solution.
One important characteristic to note is its magnetic characteristics.
- Austenite is face centered cubic structure that are denser solution than ferrite. This
material are ductile at elevated temperature with good formability.
- Cementite is a compound that is iron carbide with slight carbon content (6.67%). Unlick
the other two material, this compound is very brittle, but hard.
23. You may have seen some technical literature on products stating that certain parts in those
products are “heat treated.” Describe briefly your understanding of this term and why the
manufacturer includes it.
- Heat treatment of an alloy is a series of heating and cooling events aimed at improving
the mechanical qualities like as hardness, wear resistance, and strength.

24. Describe the engineering significance of the existence of a eutectic point in phase diagrams.
- The eutectic point in any alloy is the point where the melt temperature is the lowest.
From an engineering perspective, a eutectic point will determine the composition of
particular solders to find the right combination of strength, conductivity, and melting
point.

25. What is the difference between hardness and hardenability?

- Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to indentation or scratching, and
hardenability is the capability of an alloy to be hardened by heat treatment. Hardness is
measured by Hardness test, like Brinell or Rockwell’s hardness test, while hardenability
is defined by Jominy End Quench test.
26. Describe the characteristics of (a) an alloy, (b) pearlite, (c) austenite, (d) martensite, and (e)
cementite.
-
27. How does the shape of graphite in cast iron affect its properties?
-
28. Design a heat-treating cycle for carbon steel, including temperature and exposure times, to
produce (a) pearlite–martensite steels and (b) bainite–martensite steels.
-
29. Using Fig. 4.4, estimate the following quantities for a 75% Cu–25% Ni alloy: (a) the liquidus
temperature, (b) the solidus temperature, (c) the percentage of nickel in the liquid at 1150◦C
(2102◦F), (d) the major phase at 1150◦C, and (e) the ratio of solid to liquid at 1150◦C.
a. Based on the graph we know the liquidus temperature for 58cu-42ni and 67cu-33ni
and use those two values to rough estimate for 75cu-25ni. Which roughly 2210 ◦F
(1210 ◦C)
b. Using the value for 50Cu-50Ni and 42Cu-58Ni, the solidus temperature is roughly
2060 ◦F (1126.7 ◦C)
c. It roughly 15% nickel
d. The major phase is solid
e. The ratio is roughly 1.6

30. A typical steel for tubing is AISI 1040, and one for music wire is 1085. Considering their
applications, explain the reason for the difference in carbon content.
- AISI 1085 steel has a higher carbon content, than AISI 1040 steel. Having a higher
carbon content give the material a higher yield strength. High yield strength in music
wire is essential so it can be pulled into high tension to obtain pitch. Where in the other
hand lower carbon content material is much more ductile and suited to resistance many
post-manufacture deformation processes. Where tubing undergoes many processes to
configure desirable shape, so low carbon content is much more preferable.