Non-Destructive Testing

Discontinuities

Unit – 2
Discontinuity
• Materials structure composed of atoms and molecules, and
provides an impervious barrier to external environment

• Defects, are discontinuities, considered to have the potential

to challenge the reliable and safe operation of a component

• Identified discontinuities are evaluated as either rejectable or

nonrejectable conditions
Geometrical Surface Discontinuities
• Geometrical discontinuities: are surface discontinuities. In
engineering structures, these discontinuities are unacceptable
because they degrade the component performance or
durability below the expectations of design, and they challenge
the operability, reliability, and life of a component

• i.e. Notches, gouges, scratches, pitting, and weld undercutting

Materials Science
• Engineering materials always possess some relatively small
geometric discontinuities, many of which are acceptable

• Examples of discontinuities include voids, inclusions, laps,

folds, cracks, chemical segregation, and sudden changes in
microstructure
Evaluation of Discontinuities
• A primary goal of nondestructive examination of engineering
materials is to determine whether or not the continuity and
homogeneity of a component are adequate for its use

• The evaluation of discontinuities usually is made in reference

to a design basis and generally includes a code or rule-based
criteria for acceptance and rejection
Characterization of Discontinuities
• Inherent discontinuity generated originally within alloy materials

• Primary processing discontinuity occurs in first forming stage

• Secondary processing discontinuity occurs subsequent stages

• Service discontinuities created during the use of components

• Discontinuities and may be introduced in ores, during

production of alloys, or during subsequent forming steps
Origination of Discontinuities
• Small amounts of the slags are often retained within the metals
during primary production and become incorporated in alloys

• Slag impurities trapped in alloys are usually specified and

controlled below allowable limits, known as nonmetallic inclusion

• Inclusions in steel often are composed of the silicates and

sulfides. Manganese added to steel to strengthen iron
Discontinuities Due To Castings
• Solidification shrinkage may induce cracking of the casting

• Shrinkage voids is unfilled regions due to entrapment of melt

• Shrinkage porosity is distribution of a few small voids

• Porosity is leakage paths through pores

• Gas evolution is a porosity due to soluble gas in liquid alloys

• Hot cracking is a tearing occurs due to tensile stresses

• Scab is a surface discontinuity has a rough and porous texture

Castings and Discontinuities
• Casting of alloys results in the change of a metallic liquid
solution into a crystalline solid alloy

• Casting is also the starting point for many discontinuities in

components. And all engineering alloys are crystalline solids

• Casting volume is less than the melt volume after the liquid
changes to a crystalline solid is called solidification shrinkage
Cracks and Discontinuities
• Crack is a discontinuity of material

• Cracking is basically occurring due to lack of fusion, lack of

penetration, during casting operations or welding operations

• Most commonly cracks arise from cyclic tensile stresses. These

cracks are fatigue cracks
 Welding and Discontinuities
• Slag inclusion occurs in shielded metal arc (SMAW) welding

• Solidification crack caused by casting operation

• Heat-affected –zone (HAZ) area had undergone changes in

materials properties due to high temperatures

• Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) is to relieve the residual

stresses in a weld and to make beneficial changes in microstructure
 Corrosion
• Corrosion is electrochemical process which attacks materials by
degradation and discontinuities

• A common surface discontinuity caused by corrosion is pitting

• Pitting damage is potentially deleterious. The rough surface of the

pitting is a ready initiation site for fatigue cracking in components
that are subjected to cyclic tensile loads
 Fatigue Cracking
• A fatigue crack will propagate on the plane(s) of maximum tensile
stress. Fatigue is macroscopic plastic deformation with no change
of shape associated with the crack propagation

• Conditions of thermal cycling may cause stresses due to differential

contraction and expansion of the cooled and heated surface
compared to the bulk of a component
 Creep
• High-temperature operation of alloys for long periods of time may
give rise to an operationally induced cracking called creep cracking

• The catastrophic failure due to high-temperature creep is usually a

relatively low ductility failure characterized by a thick-lipped rupture

• The cracks are usually preceded by discontinuities in the form of

creep voids, which are small and distributed
 Brittle Fracture
• Brittle fracture occurs with limited ductility which is usually
catastrophic in nature and nearly emanates from a discontinuity

• The formation of martensite in steel is an example of

embrittlement caused by microstructural changes in an alloy

• Ferritic steels change toughness and ductility as per temperature,

and becoming "glass-like" below a critical transition temperature
 Geometric Discontinuities
• Geometric discontinuities are often due to cracking and failure

• These discontinuities may be created by deficiencies in the

design, manufacture, operation, and repair of a component:
– Notch: is an open and sharp relief in the surface of a component

– Gouge: is a shallow grooves, cuts on a surface

– Galling: is a metrological bonding of surface under pressure and tearing

Video Session 1

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szFFiQGDS7Y

• How Fabrication Process Cause Discontinuity

Exercise 1
• Question:
List 5 causes fabrication process can be major contributor to
discontinuity originating?

• Submittal instruction:

Submit answer to Dropbox in eConestoga

Video Session 2

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4iL2_GMkyz4

• Manufacturing processes and discontinuity

Exercise 2
Question:
List 5 causes behind discontinuities originating in manufacturing
processes?

• Submittal instruction:

Submit answer to Dropbox in eConestoga

Discussion 4
• Question: answer the following:

Share your experience with discontinuities:

• Reasons and causes of originating the discontinuities

• Steps to cope with discontinuities

• Submittal instruction:

Submit answers to eConestoga discussion section