Dr.

AdelFathy

MM390
Fundamentals of Materials
Processing Technology
(FMPT)
3 Credits

METAL FORMING

Dr. Prashant Dixit

Dept. of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering,
National Institute of Technology, Andhra Pradesh

Email : padixit2755@gmail.com
Mob : 7972501452

Metal Forming
• Large group of manufacturing processes in which Material Properties in Metal Forming
plastic deformation is used to change the shape of
metal workpieces
• Desirable material properties:
• The tool, usually called a die, applies stresses that  Low yield strength and high ductility
exceed yield strength of metal • These properties are affected by temperature
• The metal takes a shape determined by the geometry  Ductility increases and yield strength
of the die
decreases when work temperature is
Plastic Deformation
• Stresses Processes
to plastically deform the metal are usually raised
compressive
• Operations that induce shape changes on the
 Examples:
workpiece byrolling,
plastic deformation under forces applied
forging, extrusion
by varioussome
• However, tools forming
and dies.processes
 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)
 Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)
 Still others apply shear stresses

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Material Behavior in Metal Forming

ultimate Material behaviour in metal forming
tensile
strength
 There are two different types of stress–
yield strain curves: (1) Engineering stress–strain
strength
and (2) True stress–strain.
 The engineering stress and strain in a
tensile test are defined relative to the
original area and length of the test
specimen.
 The true stress and strain in a tensile test
are defined relative to the instantaneous
Fig. strain-stress diagram for mild steel area and length of the test specimen.

Engineering Stress and strain

Material behaviour in metal
forming …cont’d
 Engineering stress

 Engineering strain

Fig. Tensile test

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True stress True strain

 True stress is calculated by dividing load  If the total deformation is divided in to a large
with instantaneous area of cross section number of small intervals, true strain is the sum
of all the strain increments

Flow Stress Average Flow Stress

• Plastic region of stress-strain curve is primary
interest because material is plastically deformed Determined by integrating the flow curve equation
between zero and the final strain value defining
• In plastic region, metal's behavior is expressed by the range of interest
the flow curve:  
 Y f d  0 K d
n
• For most metals at room temperature, strength
increases when deformed due to strain hardening Yf  0
 
• Flow stress = instantaneous value of stress required n1
to continue deforming the material K K n11
Yf  
 (n  1) n 1
f Y  Kn
K n
where Yf = flow stress, K = strength coefficient; and Yf 
1 n
n = strain hardening exponent
strain where Y f = average flow stress; and  = maximum
l strain during deformation process
dl l
  
l
l
 ln
l 0
0

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• In the flow curve for pure
aluminum, the strength coefficient
= 175 MPa and strain-hardening
exponent = 0.20. In a forming
operation, the final true strain =
0.60. Determine the flow stress
and average flow stress that the
metal experienced.
Temperature in Metal Forming
• Any deformation operation can be
accomplished with lower forces and power at
elevated temperature
• At elevated temperature
n  0
Yf  Yf  K
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
 1.Cold working
 2.Warm working
 3.Hot working
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Temperature in Metal Forming
• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve
depend on temperature
• Both strength and strain hardening are
reduced at higher temperatures
• In addition, ductility is increased at higher
temperatures
1.Cold Working
• Performed at room temperature
• Many cold forming processes are important
mass production operations
• Minimum or no machining usually required
• These operations are near net shape or net
shape processes
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Disadvantages of Cold Forming

Advantages of Cold Forming
• Higher forces and power required
• Better accuracy, closer tolerances • Surfaces of starting workpiece must be free
of scale and dirt
• Better surface finish
• In some operations, metal must be annealed
• Strain hardening increases strength and
to allow further deformation
hardness
• In other cases, metal is simply not ductile
• No heating of work is required
enough to be cold worked
• Grain flow during deformation can cause
desirable directional properties in product

Fundamentals of Metal Forming

2.Warm Working Advantages of Warm Working

• Lower forces and power than in cold

• Performed at temperatures above room
working
temperature but below recrystallization
temperature • More intricate work geometries possible
• Warm working: T/Tm from 0.3 to 0.5, where • Need for annealing may be reduced or
Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) eliminated
for metal

Fundamentals of Metal Forming Fundamentals of Metal Forming

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3.Hot working
 Hot working (also called hot forming) involves
deformation at temperatures above the
recrystallization temperature.
 Recrystallization temperature for a given metal is
about one-half of melting point on absolute scale.
 In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat
above 0.5Tm.
 Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level.
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Advantages of Hot Working
• Work part shape can be significantly altered
• Lower forces and power required
• Metals that usually fracture in cold working can
be hot formed
• Strength properties of product are generally
isotropic
• No strengthening of part occurs from work
hardening
Fundamentals of Metal Forming
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Hot working
 However, the deformation process itself generates
heat, which increases work temperatures in localized
regions of the part.
 This can cause melting in these regions, which is
highly undesirable.
 Also, scale on the work surface is accelerated at
higher temperatures.
 Accordingly, hot working temperatures are usually
maintained within the range 0.5Tm to 0.75Tm
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Disadvantages of Hot Working
• Lower dimensional accuracy
• Higher total energy required (due to the
thermal energy to heat the workpiece)
• Work surface oxidation (scale), poorer surface
finish
• Shorter tool life
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Conventional metal Forming

Processes
Bulk Deformation Processes

These processes involve large amount of plastic

deformation. The cross-section of workpiece
changes without volume change. The ratio of
cross-section area/volume is small.
In sheet metalworking operations, the cross-
section of workpiece does not change. The ratio
of cross-section area/volume is very high.

Bulk Deformation Processes

• Characterized by significant deformations

Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling (b) forging
(c) extrusion (d) drawing
and massive shape changes
• "Bulk" refers to workparts with relatively
low surface area-to-volume ratios
• Starting work shapes include cylindrical
billets and rectangular bars
• These processes involve large amount of
plastic deformation. The cross-section of
workpiece changes
• without volume change. The ratio cross-
section area/volume is small.

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1. Rolling Rolling…cont’d
 The high investment cost requires the mills to
 Rolling is a deformation process in which the
be used for production in large quantities of
thickness of the work is reduced by compressive
standard items such as sheets and plates.
forces exerted by two opposing rolls.
 The rolls rotate to pull and simultaneously
squeeze the work between them.
 Most rolling processes are very capital intensive,
requiring massive pieces of equipment, called
rolling mills, to perform them.
Fig. The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

Rolling…cont’d
 Most rolling is carried out by hot working, called
hot rolling, owing to the large amount of
deformation required.
 Hot-rolled metal is generally free of residual
stresses, and its properties are isotropic.
 Disadvantages of hot rolling are that the product
cannot be held to close tolerances, and the surface
has a characteristic oxide scale.

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Flat rolling and its analysis

Flat rolling and its analysis
…cont’d
 Flat rolling involves the rolling of slabs, strips,
sheets, and plates—work parts of rectangular
cross section in which the width is greater than the
thickness.
Fig. Side view of flat
rolling, indicating before  In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two
and after thicknesses, work rolls so that its thickness is reduced by an amount
velocities, angle of contact called the draft (d).
with rolls, and other
features.  Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the
starting stock thickness, called the reduction (r).

Flat rolling and its analysis Flat rolling and its analysis
…cont’d …cont’d
 There is a limit to the maximum possible draft that
d  to  t f 
can be accomplished in flat rolling with a given

d  coefficient of friction μ, defined by:
r 
to  d max   2 R
 Coefficient of friction in rolling depends on
 When a series of rolling operations are used, lubrication, work material, and working
reduction is taken as the sum of the drafts divided by temperature (μ=0.1 for cold, μ=0.2 for warm,
the original thickness.
μ=0.4 for hot).
 In addition to thickness reduction, rolling usually
increases work width.

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Flat rolling and its analysis Flat rolling and its analysis
…cont’d …cont’d
 Roll force (F)  Torque (T) can be estimated by assuming that the roll
force is centered on the work as it passes between the
rolls, and that it acts with a moment arm of one-half
the contact length L.
 The power (P) required to drive each roll is the product
of torque and angular velocity in J/s. Angular velocity
 Where, w is the width of the work being rolled is 2πN, where N (rev/min) rotational speed of the roll
(mm), and L is length of contact between rolls and T  0.5FL 
work (mm). 
P  T  4 NT (for two rolls) 

Example Configurations of rolling mill

Two high Three high Four high
 A 300-mm-wide strip 25-mm thick is fed through a
rolling mill with two powered rolls each of radius =
250 mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22
mm in one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The
work material has a flow curve defined by K = 275
MPa and n =0.15, . Determine:(a) roll force, (b) roll
torque, and (c) power required to accomplish this
operation.

Cluster mill Tandem Rolling Mill

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 Reading assignments:
 Thread Rolling
 Ring Rolling
 Gear Rolling
 Roll Piercing
Extrusion …cont’d
 However, a limitation is that the cross section of the
extruded part must be uniform throughout its length.
 Extrusion is carried out in various ways.
 One important distinction is between direct
extrusion and indirect extrusion.
 Another classification is by working temperature:
cold, warm, or hot extrusion.
 Finally, extrusion is performed as either a
continuous process or a discrete process.
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Dr.AdelFathy
2. Extrusion
 Extrusion is a compression process in which the work
metal is forced to flow through a die opening to
produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
Direct extrusion
 It is also called forward extrusion.
 A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram
compresses the material, forcing it to flow through
one or more openings in a die at the opposite end of
the container.
 As the ram approaches the die, a small portion of the
billet remains that cannot be forced through the die
opening. This extra portion, called the butt, is
separated from the product by cutting it just beyond
the exit of the die.
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Direct extrusion …cont’d Direct extrusion …cont’d

 One of the problems in direct extrusion is the significant
friction that exists between the work surface and the walls
of the container as the billet is forced to slide toward the
die opening.
 This friction causes a substantial increase in the ram force
required in direct extrusion.
 In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by the
presence of an oxide layer on the surface of the billet.
 This oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded product.
Fig. Direct extrusion.

Direct extrusion …cont’d

 The starting billet in direct extrusion is usually round

in cross section, but the final shape is determined by
the shape of the die opening.
 Obviously, the largest dimension of the die opening
must be smaller than the diameter of the billet.

Figure 3.8 - (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow

cross-section; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross- sections

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Indirect extrusion Indirect extrusion …cont’d

 It also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion.
 The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the
opposite end of the container.
 As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced
to flow through the clearance in a direction opposite to
the motion of the ram.
 Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the
container, there is no friction at the container walls, and Fig. Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section
the ram force is therefore lower than in direct extrusion. and (b) a hollow cross section.

Indirect extrusion …cont’d Extrusion …cont’d

 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the  Reading assignments:
lower rigidity of the hollow ram and the difficulty in
 Cold extrusion,
supporting the extruded product as it exits the die.
 Indirect extrusion can produce hollow (tubular) cross  Warm extrusion,
sections.  Hot extrusion,
 In this method, the ram is pressed into the billet, forcing  Continuous extrusion, and
the material ram and take a cup shape.
 Discrete extrusion.
 There are practical limitations on the length of the
extruded part that can be made by this method. Support
 Impact extrusion
of the ram becomes a problem as work length increases.  Hydrostatic extrusion

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Analysis of extrusion Analysis of extrusion …cont’d

 The diagram assumes that both billet and  Extrusion ratio (reduction ratio), rx:
extrudate are round in cross section. A 
rx  0 
Af 

A
  ln rx  ln 0 
Af 
Fig.  Under the assumption of ideal deformation (no
Pressure and other friction and no redundant work), the pressure (p)
variables in direct applied by the ram to compress the billet through
extrusion. the die opening can be computed as follows:

Analysis of extrusion …cont’d Analysis of extrusion …cont’d

p  Y f ln rx
 In fact, extrusion is not a frictionless process, and
the previous equations grossly underestimate the
strain and pressure in an extrusion operation.
 Friction exists between the die and the work as the
billet squeezes down and passes through the die
opening.
 In direct extrusion, friction also exists between the
container wall and the billet surface.
 The effect of friction is to increase the strain
experienced by the metal.
 Thus, the actual pressure is greater than that given
by above Eqn, which assumes no friction.
 Various methods have been suggested to calculate
the actual true strain and associated ram pressure in
extrusion.

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Analysis of extrusion …cont’d
 Estimating extrusion strain:
 x  a  b ln rx
Where εx = extrusion strain; and a and b are
empirical constants for a given die angle.
 Typical values of these constants are: a = 0.8 and b
= 1.2 to 1.5 for axisymmetric extrusion.
 Values of a and b tend to increase with increasing
die angle.
 Ram force in indirect or direct extrusion is
simply pressure p multiplied by billet area
Ao. Power P required to carry out the
extrusion operation is simply ram force times
ram velocity.
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Analysis of extrusion …cont’d
The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion can be
estimated based on Johnson’s extrusion strain formula
as follows:
p  Yf  x
 In direct extrusion, the effect of friction between
the container walls and the billet causes the ram
pressure to be greater than for indirect extrusion.
 2L 
p  Yf   x  
 Do 
Example 1
 A billet 75 mm long and 25 mm in diameter is to be
extruded in a direct extrusion operation with
extrusion ratio rx = 4.0. The extrudate has a round
cross section. The die angle (half angle)=90. The
work metal has a strength coefficient =415 MPa,
and strain-hardening exponent = 0.18. Use the
Johnson formula with a = 0.8 and b = 1.5 to
estimate extrusion strain. Determine the pressure
applied to the end of the billet as the ram moves
forward.
Dr. Adel Fathy

Example 2
 A cylindrical billet that is 100 mm long and 40 mm
in diameter is reduced by indirect (backward)
Extrusion to a 15 mm diameter. Die angle = 90°. If
the Johnson equation has a = 0.8 and b = 1.5,And
the flow curve for the work metal has K = 750 MPa
and n = 0.15, determine: (a) extrusion Ratio, (b)
true strain (homogeneous deformation), (c)
extrusion strain, (d) ram pressure, and (e) ram
force.
Wire and bar drawing …cont’d
Fig.3.11 Drawing of bar, rod, or wire.
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Dr.AdelFathy
3. Wire and bar drawing
 In the context of bulk deformation, drawing is an
operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod,
or wire is reduced by pulling it through a die
opening.
 The general features of the process are similar to
those of extrusion.
 The difference is that the work is pulled through
the die in drawing, whereas it is pushed through
the die in extrusion.
Wire and bar drawing …cont’d
 Although the presence of tensile stresses is
obvious in drawing, compression also plays a
significant role because the metal is squeezed
down as it passes through the die opening.
 The basic difference between bar drawing and
wire drawing is the stock size that is processed.
 Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter
bar and rod stock, while wire drawing applies to
small diameter stock.
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Wire and bar drawing …cont’d
 Although the mechanics of the process are the
same for the two cases, the methods, equipment,
and even the terminology are somewhat different.
 Bar drawing is generally accomplished as a
single-draft operation—the stock is pulled through
one die opening.
 By contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of
several hundred (or even several thousand) feet of
wire and is passed through a series of draw dies.
Wire and bar drawing …cont’d
 In a drawing operation, the change in size of the work
is usually given by the area reduction in drawing, r,
A0  A f
r
A0
 In bar drawing, rod drawing, and in drawing of large
diameter wire for upsetting and heading operations,
the term draft d is used to denote the before and after
difference in size of the processed work.
d  D0  D f

Analysis of drawing Analysis of drawing …cont’d

 If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing,  Variables that influence draw stress (σd) are die angle
true strain and stress could be determined as follows: (α) and coefficient of friction at the work-die interface
A0 1  (μ). Thus,
  ln  ln
Af 1  r   d  Y f (1 
 A
) ln 0
 tan  Af
A 
  Y f ln 0
Af   ϕ is a factor that accounts for inhomogeneous
 Because friction is present in drawing and the work deformation which is determined as follows for a
metal experiences inhomogeneous deformation, the round cross section:
D
actual stress is larger.   0.88  0.12
Lc

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Analysis of drawing …cont’d
 Where D is average diameter of work during
drawing, mm; and Lc is contact length of the work
with the draw die mm.
 Values of D and Lc can be determined from the
following:
Do  D f Do  D f
D , and Lc 
2 2sin 
Example
 Wire of starting diameter = 2.5 mm is drawn
to 2.0 mm in a die with entrance angle = 15°
degrees. Coefficient of friction at the work-
die interface = 0.07. For the work metal, K =
205 MPa and n = 0.20. Determine: (a) area
reduction, (b) draw stress, and (c) draw force
required for the operation.
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Dr.AdelFathy
Analysis of drawing …cont’d
 The corresponding draw force F is then the area of the
drawn cross section multiplied by the draw stress:
 A
F  A f  d  A f Y f (1  ) ln 0
tan  Af
 The power required in a drawing operation is the draw
force multiplied by exit velocity of the work.
Forging
•It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed between two
dies, using either impact load or hydraulic load (or gradual load) to deform it.
•It is used to make a variety of high-strength components for automotive, aerospace,
and other applications. The components include engine crankshafts, connecting
rods,
gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts etc.
•Category based on temperature : cold, warm, hot forging
•Category based on presses:
impact load => forging hammer; gradual pressure => forging press
•Category based on type of forming:
Open die forging, impression die forging, flashless forging
In open die forging, the work piece is
compressed between two flat platens or dies,
thus allowing the metal to flow without any
restriction in the sideward direction relative to
the die surfaces.
Open die forging
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Open die forging

A simplest example of open die forging is compression of billet between two flat die
halves which is like compression test. This also known as upsetting or upset forging.
Basically height decreases and diameter increases.
Under ideal conditions, where there is no friction between the billet and die surfaces,
impression die forging homogeneous deformation occurs. In this, the diameter increases uniformly
throughout its height.
In ideal condition, ε = ln (ho/h). h will be equal to hf at the end of compression, ε will
flashless forging
be maximum for the whole forming. Also F = Yf A is used to find the force required for
forging, where Yf is the flow stress corresponding to ε at that stage of forming.

In impression die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape that is given to the work
piece during compression, thus restricting the metal flow significantly. There is some
extra deformed material outside the die impression which is called as flash. This will
be trimmed off later.

In flashless forging, the work piece is fully restricted within the die and no flash is
produced. The amount of initial work piece used must be controlled accurately so
that it matches the volume of the die cavity.
Start of compression Partial compression Completed compression

In actual forging operation, the deformation will not be homogeneous as

bulging occurs because of the presence of friction at the die-billet interface. A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a
This friction opposes the movement of billet at the surface. This is called cold upset forging operation. The starting
barreling effect.
The barreling effect will be significant as the diameter-to-height (D/h) ratio of piece is 75 mm in height and 50mm in
the workpart increases, due to the greater contact area at the billet–die
interface. Temperature will also affect the barreling phenomenon.
diameter. It is reduced in the operation to a
height of 36 mm. The work material has a
flow curve defined by K = 350 MPa and n =
0.17. Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1.
Determine the force as the process begins,
Start of Partial Completed at intermediate heights of 62mm, 49 mm,
compression compression compression
and at the final height of 36 mm. At the
In actual forging, the accurate force evaluation is done by using, F = Kf Yf A by
considering the effect of friction and D/h ratio. Here, 0.4D
start assume strain as 0.002
K f  1
h
Where Kf = forging shape factor, μ = coefficient of friction, D = work piece diameter, h = work
piece height

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Typical load-stroke curve

in open die forging

Fullering Edging

Effect of h/D ratio on barreling:

Long cylinder: h/D >2 Cogging

Frictionless compression

Closed die forging
Closed die forging called as impression die forging is performed in dies which has the
impression that will be imparted to the work piece through forming.
In the intermediate stage, the initial billet deforms partially giving a bulged shape.
During the die full closure, impression is fully filled with deformed billet and further
moves out of the impression to form flash.
In multi stage operation, separate die cavities are required for shape change. In the
initial stages, uniform distribution of properties and microstructure are seen. In the final
stage, actual shape modification is observed. When drop forging is used, several blows
of the hammer may be required for each step.
The formula used for open die forging earlier can be used for closed die
forging, i.e.,
F = Kf Yf A
Where F is maximum force in the operation; A is projected area of the part
including flash, Yf is flow stress of the material, Kf is forging shape
factor.
Now selecting the proper value of flow stress is difficult because the strain
varies throughout the work piece for complex shapes and hence the
strength varies. Sometimes an average strength is used. Kf is used for
taking care of different shapes of parts. Table shows the typical values of Kf
used for force calculation. In hot working, appropriate flow stress at that
temperature is used.

Starting stage Intermediate Final stage with

stage flash formation
The above equation is applied to find the maximum force during the
operation, since this is the load that will determine the required capacity of
the press used in the forging operation.

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Flashless forging
Impression die forging is not capable of making close tolerance objects.
Machining is generally required to achieve the accuracies needed. The basic The three stages of flashless forging is shown below:
geometry of the part is obtained from the forging process, with subsequent
machining done on those portions of the part that require precision finishing
like holes, threads etc.

In order to improve the efficiency of closed die forging, precision forging was
developed that can produce forgings with thin sections, more complex
geometries, closer tolerances, and elimination of machining allowances. In
precision forging operations, sometimes machining is fully eliminated which is
called near-net shape forging.
In flashless forging, most important is that the work piece volume must
equal the space in the die cavity within a very close tolerance.
If the starting billet size is too large, excessive pressures will cause damage
to the die and press.
If the billet size is too small, the cavity will not be filled.

Because of the demands, this process is suitable to make simple and

symmetrical part geometries, and to work materials such as Al, Mg and their
alloys.

Coining is a simple application of closed die forging in which fine details in the
die impression are impressed into the top or/and bottom surfaces of the work
piece.

Though there is little flow of metal in coining, the pressures required to

reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are at par with other impression
forging operations.

Starting of cycle Fully compressed Ram pressure

removed and
ejection of part

Making of coin

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