HYDROPLANING - TOO MUCH WATER ON THE RUNWAY?

INTRODUCTION

The fast majority of takeoffs and landings is conducted on dry runways.

Only a small portion is conducted on wet or flooded runways. Statistics
show that the likelihood of a runway excursion during takeoff or landing is
much higher on wet or flooded runways than on dry runways. Extreme loss
of tyre braking can occur during rejected takeoffs and landings of aircraft on
wet or flooded runways. As a result the stopping distance increases
significantly which could exceed the available runway length. Also loss of
control is possible leading to runway veeroffs. Therefore hydroplaning of
aircraft tires has been studied for many years. The majority of the current
knowledge on hydroplaning was obtained in the 60’s mainly by NASA
studies. Since then new tire types like radial tires were introduced for
aircrafts. This article will mainly discuss the hydroplaning from an aviator’s
point of view.

WHAT IS HYDROPLANING

Aquaplaning, also known as hydroplaning, is a condition in which standing

water, slush or snow, causes the moving wheel of an aircraft to lose contact
with the load bearing surface on which it is rolling with the result that braking
action on the wheel is not effective in reducing the ground speed of the
aircraft.
A layer of water builds up beneath the tyre in increasing resistance to
displacement by the pressure of the wheel. Eventually, this results in the
formation of a wedge between the
runway and the tyre. This resistance
to water displacement has a vertical
component which progressively lifts
the tyre and reduces the area in
contact with the runway until the
aircraft is completely water-borne.

In this condition, the tyre is no longer capable of providing directional

control or effective braking because the drag forces are so low.

CASUAL FACTORS OF HYDROPLANING

Aquaplaning can occur when a wheel is running in the presence of water; it

may also occur in certain circumstances when running in a combination of
water and wet snow. Aquaplaning on runway surfaces with normal friction
characteristics is unlikely to begin in water depths of 3mm or less. For this
reason, a depth of 3mm has been adopted in Europe firstly as the means to
determine whether a runway surface is contaminated with water to the
extent that aircraft performance assumptions are liable to be significantly
affected. Once aquaplaning has commenced, it can be sustained over
surfaces and in water depths which would not have led to its initiation.
In the case of the most common type of aquaplaning, called dynamic
aquaplaning (see below), a simple formula (Horne's formula) exists for
calculating the minimum groundspeed for initiation of this type of
aquaplaning on a sufficiently wet runway based upon tyre pressure where
V = groundspeed in knots and P = tyre inflation pressure in psi:

V = 9 x √P

This formula is based upon the validation of hydrodynamic lift theory by

experimental evidence. For many modern tires the constant maybe closer
to 6 or 7 rather than 9. With a typical tyre pressure of about 150 psi, √P will
be 12.25 so aquaplaning is possible down to about 70 knots. The effect of
the relationship demonstrated is that most jet aircraft, even relatively small
ones, have a significant ‘window’ for the initiation of dynamic aquaplaning
during a landing near to the maximum approved weight and an even larger
one in the case of a high speed rejected take off. It assumes that tyre
pressure and tread depth are both within allowable limitations.

TYPES OF AQUAPLANING

 Dynamic aquaplaning is that which does not begin unless the

groundspeed as given by Horne’s formula above is exceeded. It
leaves no physical evidence on tyre or runway surface.

 Viscous aquaplaning arises in the same way as dynamic

aquaplaning, but only on abnormally smooth surfaces such as
touchdown zones contaminated with excessive rubber deposits,
where it may begin and continue at any ground speed. Typically, a
 small amount of water may mix with a surface contaminant. a
significantly thinner layer of contaminant is required in the event of
viscous aquaplaning, compared to that required for dynamic
aquaplaning. It too leaves no physical evidence on tyre or runway
surface.

 Reverted rubber aquaplaning occurs when the heat of friction from

a locked wheel in contact with the surface causes the rubber to revert
to its un-cured state and 'boils' the surface moisture into steam. The
pressure of the steam raises the centre of the tyre off the surface
whilst the edges remain in contact, forming a seal that temporarily
traps the steam. The tyre will show clear evidence of rubber reversion
and the runway surface will be clearly marked with the path of the
wheels as a result of ‘steam pressure cleaning’ beneath the tyre. This
is the only type of aquaplaning which leaves physical evidence on the
runway surface. It was much more common before anti-skid units
became widespread and usually only occurs to aircraft so fitted if an
emergency brake, which is applied directly rather than through the
anti-skid units, is used.

HOW TO AVOID HYDROPLANING

It is first important to be aware of wet conditions and runway characteristics at
your destination. Has it rained at your destination? Should you be expecting to
land on a wet runway? Is your expected runway grooved? Be aware that
grooved runways do not eliminate hydroplaning, but rather can serve to
reduce it to a manageable level. The grooved texture provides better drainage
and traction, but wet grooved runways
should still be approached with caution.
Plan also for a “firm” touchdown, to put
the tires solidly against the pavement.
An astute pilot should also ensure
before the flight that there is sufficient
runway available in wet conditions
based on the Pilot Operating
Handbook.

Secondly, in wet conditions, your touchdown speed should be as low as is

safely possible. This lowers the chances of dynamic hydroplaning occurring.
After the nosewheel is lowered to the runway, moderate braking should be
applied. Again, proper braking technique is essential, as heavy braking and
locking up the tires will only make you more susceptible to hydroplaning. The
brakes should be applied firmly until reaching a point just short of a skid. At
the first sign of a skid, the pilot should release brake pressure and allow the
wheels to spin up before moderately applying brakes again.

If you suspect hydroplaning is occurring, you may raise the elevator and utilize
aerodynamic drag to decelerate to a point where the brakes become effective.
Pulling back on the yoke or stick improves your chances of penetrating the
layer of water by increasing drag on the aircraft, which slows it and
accumulates weight on the main gears.
Directional control should be maintained at all times with the rudder.
Maintaining directional control with a lack of runway traction becomes
significantly more sensitive, so be sure to avoid over-correcting. In a
crosswind, if hydroplaning occurs, expect the aircraft to weathervane into the
wind while simultaneously sliding downwind. If possible, divert to a more
suitable airport as a form of risk management.

EXAMPLE ACCIDENTS AND INCIDENTS

 B744, Bangkok Thailand, 1999 - On 23 September 1999, a Boeing 747-

400 being operated by Qantas on a scheduled passenger service from
Sydney Australia to Bangkok overran Runway 21L during an attempted
night landing in normal visibility and came to a halt substantially intact
320 metres beyond the runway end.
  E135, George South Africa, 2009 - On 7 December 2009, after a
relatively normal touchdown at destination in unexceptional daylight
conditions, an EMB 135 being operated by South African Airlink on a
scheduled passenger flight from Cape Town to George failed to
decelerate normally and overran the end of the runway resulting in
major damage to the aircraft and injuries to 7 of the 30 passengers on
board and to all three aircrew.

 E145, Hannover Germany, 2005 - On 14 August 2005, an Embraer 145

being operated by British Airways Regional on a scheduled passenger
flight from Birmingham to Hanover overran the wet landing runway by
160 metres in normal visibility after flying a daylight ILS approach with
the approach lights visible from about 4 nm.

ACTIONS TO AVOID HYDROPLANNING

• Touch down as close to the approach end of the runway as possible, to

maximize available landing distance.

• Plan a “firm” arrival, to put the tires solidly against the pavement. Don’t try to
“grease it on” if the runway is wet.

• Lower the nose or tail wheel as soon as possible to maximize steering

capability. But don’t push the wheel down and cause the airplane to
wheelbarrow, or set off a pilot induced oscillation.

• Avoid applying brakes at or above the NASA critical speed for your airplane.
Land at a speed and with remaining runway distance that permits coming to a
stop with little or no braking.
 • Divert to a more suitable airport if a wet runway is combined with a
significant crosswind.

Some pilots advocate retracting flaps to put more weight on the wheels,
increasing braking and directional control. Attempting to retract flaps during
the landing roll is a common cause of inadvertent landing gear retraction in
retractable gear airplanes, however, so I recommend against this practice in
retractable gear airplanes.

CONCLUSION