BME FM Chapter 6 Viscous Effect

BME II/II, FM: Viscous effects
FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter Six: Viscous effects
For: By:
BME II/II Raj Kumar Chaulagain
Department of Automobile and Mechanical Engineering Lec., Mechanical Engineering
Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU Department of Automobile and Mechanical Engineering
Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU
CHAPTER OVER VIEW

1. Reynold’s experiment
2. Shear stress and velocity gradient
3. Frictional loss in pipe flow
4. Laminar flow between parallel plates
5. Laminar flow in circular pipe
6. Boundary layer flow over flat plate
7. Force on immerged body
8. Drag force on flat plate due to B.L.
9. Head losses in pipe flow
a. Major loss and Moody diagram
b. Minor loss
2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 2

1. REYNOLD’S EXPERIMENT
• Apparatus for Reynold’s experiment:

• Tank containing water at constant head
• Small tank containing liquid dye (sp. Wt. as water)
• A long and uniform glass tube with bell mouth entrance and valve at exit.
• When velocity of flow was varied by regulating the valve, following result were
obtained.
• Head loss due to friction  flow velocity
• hL v n (n varies 1.75-2)

Laminar Flow:
• Fluid particles move along the smooth path in layers, with one layer
sliding smoothly over an adjacent layer.
Turbulent Flow:
• The fluid particles move in very irregular paths, causing an exchange of
momentum from one portion of the fluid to other portion
To determine weather the flow is laminar or turbulent Reynold gave Reynold’s no.
• Re = Inertia force / viscous force
• Re = Fi /Fv =  A v2 / (  v/D A) =  v D / 

• Re<2,000- flow is laminar

• Re>4,000- flow is turbulent, in between is transition flow.
• In engineering practice, Re high Re medium Re low
• most flow conditions are turbulent. Conversing Straight Diverging
• The pipe diameter is much larger than 25 mm. Flow Flow Flow
• Laminar flow is found only in viscous flow. Rough Flow Smooth Flow
• Laminar cases are studied because to derive theories simple and accurate relation.

2. SHEAR STRESS AND VELOCITY GRADIENT
• Newton’s law of viscosity is given for one-dimensional flow by

𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝑦𝑥 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
• Velocity gradient is max. close to the boundary that results max. shear stress near
boundary and vice versa.

3. FRICTIONAL LOSS IN PIPE FLOW
• For a horizontal pipe flow condition, applying , Bernoulli’s equation:
• Frictional force = Frictional Resistance per unit area per unit velocity (f’)* wetted area* V2

3. FRICTIONAL LOSS IN PIPE FLOW
f’= f.ρ/2, where f is Darcy coeff. Of friction, then
This is Darcy-Weisbach equation for major

loss in pipe flow.
𝜆⋅𝐿⋅𝑣 2
Also written as ℎ𝑓 =
2𝑔𝑑
Where λ = 4f is the friction factor.

4.VISCOUS FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

• Forces acting on fluid element
𝑑𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝 × Δ𝑦 × 1
𝜕𝑝
𝑑𝐹𝐶𝐷 = −(𝑝 + Δ𝑥)Δ𝑦 × 1 t
𝜕𝑥
𝑑𝐹𝐵𝐶 = −𝜏 × Δ𝑥 × 1
𝜕𝜏
𝑑𝐹𝐴𝐷 = (𝜏 + × Δ𝑦) × Δ𝑥 × 1
𝜕𝑦
• Combining all forces and dividing by Δ𝑥Δ𝑦 following equation is obtained.

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏
=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
• This is the pressure gradient in the direction of motion of the fluid is equal to the shear gradient normal to the direction of motion.

A. Velocity distribution
𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏 𝑑 𝑑𝑢
= = (𝜇 ) • Applying boundary conditions
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
y=0 u=0 and y=t u=0
1 𝜕𝑝 𝑑 2 𝑢 1 p
=
𝜇 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑦 2 c1 = − 2 ( x )t
𝑑𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝 c 2
=0
= 𝑦 + 𝑐1
𝑑𝑦 𝜇 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑝
1 𝜕𝑝 2 𝑢=− ( ) 𝑡𝑦 − 𝑦 2
𝑢= 𝑦 + 𝑐1 𝑦 + 𝑐2 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥

B. Ratio of maximum to average velocity

𝑡
1 𝜕𝑝
𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤, 𝑄 = න 𝑉 ⋅ 𝑑𝐴Ԧ = න 𝑦 2 − 𝑡𝑦 . (𝑑𝑦 × 1)
𝐴 0 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑝
or, 𝑄 = − 12𝜇 𝑡3
𝜕𝑥
𝑄 1 𝜕𝑝 𝑡 3 1 𝜕𝑝 2
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒, 𝑢 = = − =− 𝑡
𝐴 12𝜇 𝜕𝑥 1 × 𝑡 12𝜇 𝜕𝑥
1 𝜕𝑝 2
max. 𝑣 𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑡/2 ⇒ 𝑢𝑚𝑎𝑥 = − 𝑡 1 𝜕𝑝
8𝜇 𝜕𝑥 {Since, 𝑢 = − ( ) 𝑡𝑦 − 𝑦 2 }
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥
u max
= 3u / 2
C. Drop in pressure head for a given length

𝜕𝑝 𝑝2 − 𝑝1 −Δ𝑝
= =
𝜕𝑥 𝐿 𝐿
𝑄 𝑡 3 Δ𝑝
= 1 𝜕𝑝
𝐿 12𝜇𝐿 {𝑄 = − 12𝜇 𝑡3}
𝜕𝑥
12𝜇𝑢𝐿
Δ𝑝 =
𝑡2
D. Shear stress distribution

𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝜏 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 1 𝜕𝑝 1 𝜕𝑝
= = (𝜇 ) 𝑢 = − ( ) 𝑡𝑦 − 𝑦 2 𝜏 = − ( ) 𝑡 − 2𝑦
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥

Example 1: Determine pressure gradient, the shear stress at the two horizontal
parallel plates and the discharge per meter width for the laminar flow of oil viscosity
2.4525Ns/m2 with a maximum velocity of 2m/s between two horizontal parallel
fixed plates which are 100mm apart.

5. VISCOUS FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPE
▪ In laminar flow the paths of individual particles of fluid do not cross, so the flow
may be considered as a series of concentric cylinders sliding over each other –
rather like the cylinders of a collapsible pocket telescope.
▪ Lets consider a cylinder of fluid with a length L, radius r, flowing steadily in the
center of pipe.
Figure Cylindrical of fluid flowing steadily in a pipe


• The fluid is in equilibrium, shearing forces equal the pressure forces.
• Shearing force = Pressure force
𝜏2𝜋𝑟𝐿 = Δ𝑃𝐴 = Δ𝑃𝜋𝑟 2
Δ𝑃 𝑟
𝜏=
𝐿 2 (linear nature) (1)
• Taking the direction of measurement r (measured from the center of pipe), rather than the use of
y (measured from the pipe wall), the above equation can be written as;
(2)
𝑑𝑢𝑟
• Equating (1) with (2) will give: 𝜏 = −𝜇
𝑑𝑟
Δ𝑃 𝑟 𝑑𝑢
= −𝜇
𝐿 2 𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑢 Δ𝑃 𝑟
=−
𝑑𝑟 𝐿 2𝜇
2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain,15


• In an integral form this gives an expression for velocity, with the values of r = 0 (at the pipe
center) to r = R (at the pipe wall)
Δ𝑃 1 𝑟=𝑅
𝑢=− න 𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝐿 2𝜇 𝑟=0
𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 Δ𝑃
𝑢𝑟 = − (parabolic nature) (3)
4𝜇 𝐿
where P = change in pressure

L = length of pipe
R = pipe radius
r = distance measured from the center of pipe
• The maximum velocity is at the center of the pipe, i.e. when r = 0.

𝑅 2 Δ𝑃
𝑢
4𝜇 𝐿 max
• It can be shown that the mean velocity is half the maximum velocity, i.e. V=Umax/2
Figure: Shear stress and velocity distribution in pipe for laminar flow
• The discharge may be found using the Hagen-Poiseuille equation, which is given by the
following; Δ𝑃 𝜋𝐷4
𝑄=
𝐿 128𝜇 (4)
• The Hagen-Poiseuille expresses the discharge Q in terms of the pressure gradient ,
diameter of pipe, and viscosity of the fluid.
𝑑𝑃 Δ𝑃
=
𝑑𝑥 𝐿
• Pressure drop throughout the length of pipe can then be calculated by

8𝜇𝐿𝑄
Δ𝑃 =
𝜋𝑅 4 (5)

6. BOUNDARY LAYER
• When real fluid past a solid body/boundary, a layer of fluid continues the
contact with the solid boundary surface due to presence of viscosity creating
new stream lines.
• This layer of fluid cannot slip away from the boundary surface.
• The solid boundary may be stationary or moving.
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6. BOUNDARY LAYER
• The velocity of the flowing fluid increases gradually from zero at the boundary
surface to the velocity of the main stream.
• This region of existing velocity gradient is known as boundary layer and the
theory dealing BL is Boundary layer theory.
• The large variation of velocity in a relatively small distance, exists large
velocity gradient (du/dy) normal to the boundary surface.
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6. BOUNDARY LAYER
• Away from the boundary layer this retardation due to the presence of viscosity is
negligible and the velocity there will be equal to that of the main stream.
• Zone 1: The resistance due to viscosity is confined only in the boundary layer, the
shear stress exists.
• Zone 2: The fluid outside the boundary layer may be considered as ideal, the shear
stress doesn’t exist.
For a BL, the velocity

distribution is parabolic.
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6. BOUNDARY LAYER
Types of boundary layer:
Up to Reynold’s No.
5x105 the flow is
laminar for plate.
Figure: Flow over a plate
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6. BOUNDARY LAYER
1. Laminar boundary layer:

• Near the leading edge of the surface of the plate, where the thickness is small, the
flow in the boundary layer is laminar though the main flow is turbulent.
• The length up to which the LBL exists is laminar zone.
2. Turbulent Boundary layer:

• The layer after the transition zone, the boundary layer is turbulent and continues to
grow in thickness known as TBL.
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6. BOUNDARY LAYER
3. Laminar Sub-layer:
• This is the region in the turbulent boundary layer zone, adjacent to the solid
surface of the plate.
• In this zone, the velocity variation is influenced only by viscous effects.
• Thickness of boundary layer, δ (measured in vertical direction) is the distance from
the boundary in which velocity reaches 99% velocity of the free stream.
• Thickness of BL increases with the distance from the leading edge as more and
more fluid is slow down by the viscous boundary, become unstable and breaks
into turbulent boundary layer over a transition region.
23
6. BOUNDARY LAYER
Separation of Boundary layer

• The existence of boundary layer is due to the exchange of momentum from one
layer to another that goes on decreasing resulting the boundary layer not in contact
with solid body.
• This phenomenon is known as separation of boundary layer separation.
• The separation point is called point of separation.
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6. BOUNDARY LAYER
Effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer development
25
6. BOUNDARY LAYER
Effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer development

• So far, we have assumed zero pressure gradient in the flow direction across the
flat surfaces considered.
• In the curved surface, there is the presence of pressure gradient dp/dx which
effectively means a du/dx term, i.e., the flow stream velocity is seen to vary as
show in the figure.
• If pressure is decreased, boundary layer thickness tends to reduce.
• If pressure is increased, boundary layer thickness rapidly increases and gets
separation.
26
6. BOUNDARY LAYER
Example: Flow separation on bifurcation of

blood vessel:
• This aspect occurs due to momentum of fluid
flow before the junction.
• The fluid velocity before the separation point
moves the fluid toward the inner walls (V shape
of daughter vessels, Fig. 2.10).
• After the junction, the pressure gradient will be
positive and it results in a flow separation from
the wall.
• This character is known as the adverse pressure
gradient.
27
6. BOUNDARY LAYER
Prevention for separation of boundary layer:

Separation of BL is undesirable, so need to avoid it through various methods.
1. Suction of the slow moving fluid by a suction slot.
2. Supplying of additional energy from a blower/pump.
3. Providing a bypass in the slotted wing.
4. Rotating boundary in the direction of flow.
5. Providing a small divergence in the diffuser.
6. Providing guide blades in the bend.
7. Providing a trip wire ring in the laminar region for the flow over a sphere.
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7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES

• In engineering fields there are various problems which involve the fluid around
the submersed bodies.
• In such problems either a field may be flowing around submerged stationary body
or body may be flowing through a large mass of stationary fluid.
• Examples:
• Motion of very small objects such as sand particles in air or water.
• Large bodies such as airplane, submarines, automobiles, ships etc moving
through air or water
• Structure such as buildings and bridges etc which are submerged in air or
water.
29

• A body wholly immersed in a real fluid may be subjected to two kinds of forces.
• Drag force :
• The component of force in the direction of flow on a submerged bodies is called drag force
(FD).
• Lift force :
• The component of force in the perpendicular to the flow is called the lift force (FL).
30

• Symmetrical body moving through an ideal fluid at a uniform velocity, the
pressure distribution around a body is symmetrical and resultant (FD and FL)
force acting on the body is zero.
• Symmetrical body moving through an real fluid at a uniform velocity, FD

exist, no FL.
• The production of lift force requires asymmetry of flow, while drag force exists
always.
31

• It is possible to create drag without lift but impossible to create lift without drag.
• The fluid viscosity affects the flow around the body causes the force on the body
accordingly;
• At low Reynolds' Number the fluid is deformed in very wide zone around the
body causing pressure force & friction force.
• As Reynolds' Number increases, viscous effects are confined to the boundary
layer causes predominant the friction force on the boundary.
32

Expressions for Drag & Lift
Pressure and friction forces on in elementary surface of an immersed body
33

• Consider a body held stationary in a stream of real fluid moving at a uniform
velocity U.
Let θ = inclination of the tangent to the small element dA with the direction of
flow.
• Then the force acting on dA of the surface of the body can be considered to have
two components, tangential component dA (called shear force).
• And normal component pdA (called pressure force) acting along the directions
tangential and normal to the surface respectively.
34

• The summation of component of the forces acting over the entire surface of the
body in the direction of fluid flow is drag force, FD and perpendicular to fluid
flow is lift force, FL.
• FD =  pdA sin  +   dA cos 
A A
0
• FL =  dA sin  −  pdA cos

A
0
A
• Here,  pdA sin 

A
is called the pressure drag and
  dA cos 
A
0 is called the friction drag or skin / shear drag.
• The contribution of shear stresses to the lift may be neglected since shear
stresses are small as compared.
35

Pressure Drag and Friction Drag:
• The contribution of pressure drag and friction drag to the total drag depends on
the flowing parameters.
• characteristics of fluid
• shape of body
• orientation of the body immersed in the fluid.
• When the plate is held at an angle with the direction of flow, the total drag will
be equal to the sum of pressure drag and friction drag.
36

1. When a thin plate is placed parallel to the direction of flow the pressure drag will
be zero & the total drag is entirely due to shear stress, thus equal to friction drag.
2. When the same plate is held with its axis normal to flow direction the friction
drag will be zero. In this case the total drag is due to the pressure force only.
37

Calculation of the drag and the lift forces:
• For the body moving through a fluid density  at a uniform velocity U, the mathematical
expression for the calculation of the drag and the lift forces are given by
• FD = (CD ρAV2)/2. and FL = (CL ρAV2)/2
Where, CD = coefficient of drag
CL = coefficient of lift
A = characteristics area
= area projected on a plane perpendicular to the relative motion of the fluid, in
the case of calculating FD.
= area projected on a plane perpendicular to the direction lift force, in the case of
calculating FL.
38

Example : Experiments were conducted in a wind tunnel with a wind speed of 50km/hr on flat plate
of size 2m long and 1m wide. The density of air is 1.15kg/m3, the co-efficient of lift and drag are 0.75
and 0.15 respectively. Determine:
a. The lift force
b. The drag force
c. Magnitude and direction of resultant force
d. Power exerted by air on the plate
Here, A=2x1= 2m2
U= 50km/hr = 13.89m/s
ρ = 1.15kg/m3
CD = 0.75 and CL = 0.15
39

a. FL = (CL ρAV^2)/2 = 166.4 N
b. FD = (CD ρAV^2)/2 = 33.28 N
c. 𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹 2 𝐷 + 𝐹 2 𝐿 ) = 170 N
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐹𝐿 /𝐹𝐷 ) = 78.7º
d. Power exerted by air on the plate,
P = FD . U = 462.3w (where, N m/s = w)
40

8. DRAG FORCE ON FLAT PLATE DUE TO B.L.
• The drag force on the plate can be known if the velocity profile near the plate is
known.
• Shear stress is given by,
• Drag force or shear force on a small distance ∆x is given by
∆FD= 𝜏0 .∆x.b (where b is the width of plate)

• The drag force must be equal to rate of change of momentum over the distance ∆x.
• For this, consider ABCD as a control volume of fluid over ∆x.
• Now mass entering through AD, =
𝛿
‫׬‬0 𝜌 ∗ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝐵𝐿 ∗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑦
𝛿
=‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦
• Again mass leaving through BC,
𝜕
= Mass through AD + (mass through AD). ∆x
𝜕𝑥
𝛿 𝜕 𝛿
=‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦 + (‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦). ∆x
𝜕𝑥


• From continuity equation, 𝑚ሶ 𝐴𝐷 + 𝑚ሶ 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑚ሶ 𝐵𝐶
• Or, mass rate entering DC, 𝑚ሶ 𝐷𝐶 = 𝑚ሶ 𝐵𝐶 − 𝑚ሶ 𝐴𝐷
𝛿 𝜕 𝛿 𝛿
=‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦 + (‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦). ∆x - ‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝛿
= (‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦). ∆x
𝜕𝑥
Now calculating momentum flux through Control Vol.
• Momentum flux entering through AD,
δ
=‫׬‬0 momentum flux through strip of thickness dy
δ
=‫׬‬0 mass rate through strip x velocity
δ δ
=‫׬‬0 ρ. u. b. dy. u = ‫׬‬0 ρ. u2 . b. dy

• Momentum flux leaving side BC,

𝛿 𝜕 𝛿
= ‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢2 . 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦 +
𝜕𝑥
(‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢2 . 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦). ∆x
• Momentum flux entering side DC,
= mass rate through DC x velocity
𝜕 𝛿 𝜕 𝛿
= (‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦). ∆x. U = (‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑈. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦). ∆x
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
• Rate of change of momentum of Control Vol., = ∅𝐵𝐶 − ∅𝐴𝐷 − ∅𝐷𝐶
𝛿 𝜕 𝛿 𝛿 𝜕 𝛿
= ‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢2 . 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦 + (‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢2 . 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦). ∆x - ‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢2 . 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦 - (‫׬‬0 𝜌. 𝑢. 𝑈. 𝑏. 𝑑𝑦). ∆x
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝛿
= 𝜌𝑏 {‫׬‬0 ( 𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑈)𝑑𝑦}. ∆x
𝜕𝑥

• The total external force in the direction of rate of change of momentum,

= - 𝜏0 .∆x.b
• According to the momentum principle,
𝜕 𝛿
• - 𝜏0 .∆x.b = 𝜌𝑏 {‫׬‬0 ( 𝑢2 − 𝑢𝑈)𝑑𝑦}. ∆x
𝜕𝑥
𝜕 𝛿 𝜕 𝛿𝑢 𝑢
• 𝜏0 = 𝜌 {‫׬‬0 ( 𝑢𝑈 − 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑦} = 𝜌𝑈 2 {‫׬‬0 (1- ) dy}
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝑈 𝑈
𝜏0 𝜕 𝛿𝑢 𝑢
• = { ‫׬‬ (1- ) dy}
𝜌𝑈 2 𝜕𝑥 0 𝑈 𝑈
𝜏0 𝜕θ 𝛿𝑢 𝑢
• = [𝑎𝑠 θ = ‫׬‬0 (1- ) dy] = momentum thickness
𝜌𝑈 2 𝜕𝑥 𝑈 𝑈
• This is the equation known as Von Karman momentum integral equation for
Boundary Layer.

• Example 3: A plate of 600mm length and 400mm wide is immersed in fluid of sp.
Gr. 0.9 and kinematic viscosity of 10−4 m2/s. the fluid is moving with a velocity
of 6m/s. Determine:
a. Thickness of boundary layer
b. Shear stress at the end of the plate
c. Drag force on one side of the plate
𝑈𝐿 𝜌𝑈 2 4.91𝑥
Take 𝑅𝑒 = , 𝜏0 = 0.332 . , 𝛿= , CD = 0.007
𝜇 √𝑅𝑒 √𝑅𝑒


𝑈𝐿
• 𝑅𝑒 = = 3.6x10−4
𝜇
a. Thickness of boundary layer,
4.91𝑥
𝛿=
√𝑅𝑒
= 15.5mm
b. Shear stress at the end of the plate

𝜌𝑈 2
𝜏0 = 0.332 . = 56.6 N/m2
√𝑅𝑒
c. Drag force on one side of the plate,
FD = (CD ρAV2)/2 = 26.8N. (A = Lxb = 0.6x 0.4)

9. HEAD LOSSES IN PIPES
• In steady incompressible flow in a pipe the irreversibility are

expressed in terms of a head loss or drop in EGL.
• Head loss (hl):
• It is mainly due to the major loss and minor loss.
1. Major head loss (hf):
• It is due to f, L, v, D.
2. Minor head loss :
• due to pipe joints and obstructions.

A. MAJOR HEAD LOSS

Darcy Weisbach Equation:
• Darcy Weisbach determine experimentally a relation, called DWE
• hf = f L v 2 / 2 g D
• v = average velocity
• above equation is determined experimentally
• hf is determined by a manometer

Friction factor
• f = f (v, D, , , , ’, m)
• f = f ({vD/}, /D, ’/D, m) all are dimensionless.
• /D = relative roughness
•  = size of the roughness projection = absolute value of roughness
• ’ = Arrangement of the roughness projection, dimension of length
• m = form factor = It depends upon the roughness of the shape of the individual
roughness element = dimensionless

Smooth and rough pipe

• 1 = viscous sub layer
• Hydraulically smooth pipe if 16
• Hydraulically rough pipe if 1 0.3
• Neither completely rough nor smooth pipe if 0.3 1 6
• If irregularities (roughness) on any actual surface is such that the effect of
projection do not pierce through the various sub layer, the surface is hydraulic
smooth.
• f = f(Re), for smooth flow
• f = f (e/D, Re), for neither rough nor smooth flow
• f = f(e/D), for rough flow
Moody diagram
• Moody prepared a chart that has been plotted with the aid of the help of preceding
equations. The chart obtained gives the value of the friction factor for typical pipe.
• This chart for friction factor is also called as the moody chart.
• Friction factor chart is the graphical representation of the numerical value of

friction factor for closed conduits plotted which the help of the empirical
relationships obtained for the experimental results.


The chart shows that there are four Zones
• Laminar flow zone : (f = 64/Re)
• Critical range: (Where values are uncertain because the flow might be either
laminar or turbulent (f = 0.316/Re0.25)
• Transition Zone : Where f is function of both Re and e/D

• Complete turbulence zone : where f is independent of Re and depends solely upon
the relative roughness e/D. (f = F (e/D)

Steps to use friction factor Chart

• Find e/D (relative roughness) from the chart (suggested by Moody) for different
materials & manufacturing processes.
• Determine Reynold’s number, Re
• Take the point of e/D line with the corresponding value of Re.


Moody chart
Material Roughne
ss,
k (mm)
Glass smooth
Brass 0.002
Concrete
Smooth 0.04
Rough 2.0
CI 0.26
GI 0.15
Wrought 0.046
Steel
Commerc
ial 0.046
Riveted 3
f
• In practical cases, the value of may in error by + 5% for smooth pipes and by
+10% for rough pipes.
• For old pipes values of e may be much higher, but there is much variations in the
degree with which pipe roughness increases with age.
• Equation of moody diagram for 10-6 = e/d = 10-2 and 5,000 = Re = 108

Example 4: Find volume flow rate Q of water flowing on pipe of diameter 20-cm of
material with relative roughness 0.0006 when head loss found per kilometer is 12.2
m. Material Roughness,
k (mm)
Glass smooth
Brass 0.002
Concrete
Smooth 0.04
Rough 2.0
CI 0.26
GI 0.15
Wrought 0.046
Steel
Commercial 0.046
Riveted 3
Relative roughness same as previous problem

x
f = 0.019
Now use the Darcy-Weisbach equation to get V,

B. MINOR HEAD LOSSES

❖Minor losses are the losses due to the local disturbances of the flow in conduits
such as changes in cross-section, projecting gaskets, elbows, valves and other
similar obstructions.
❖In case of short pipe or channel the minor losses are taken as major quantity such
as in suction line of pump with strainer and foot valves.
❖Usually these losses are insignificant in comparison with the fluid friction in the
length considered.

• Minor loss in diverging flow is much larger than that in converging flow.
• Minor loss generally increases with an increase in the geometric distortion
of the flow.
• Though minor losses are usually confined to a very short length of path,
the effects may not disappear for a considerable distance downstream.
• Minor loss in laminar flow are insignificant.
• The losses may be represented either of the two ways.
• In terms of minor loss factor K.
• In terms of equivalent certain length of straight pipe (or in terms of the number
of pipe diameters)

1. Loss of Head at Entrance

• The loss of head as entrance is given by he = Ke v2/2g
• Where, v is the mean velocity in the pipe and Ke is the loss coefficient.
• The entrance loss is caused primarily by the turbulence created by the enlargement
of the stream after it passes through the section of vena contracta, which is formed
immediately after the edge of the entering mouth.
• The value of Ke is much more depended on the conditions at the entrance to the
pipe.


2. Contraction loss
2.1 Loss due to Sudden contraction
• The loss of head for a sudden contraction
• hc = Kc v2/2g
• suffix 1 : for upstream side, 2 for downstream.
D2 / D1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Kc 0.50 0.45 0.42 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.28 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.00
2
1
𝑘𝑐 = −1
𝐶𝑐

2.2 Loss due to Gradual contraction

• hc = Kc v2/2g
• With a smoothly curved transition a loss co-efficient Kc as small as 0.05 is
possible.
• For conical reducers a minimum kc of about 0.10 is obtained with a total cone
angle of 20 to 40 degrees.
• Larger total cone angles result in higher values of kc.


3.Expansion loss
3.1 Loss Due to Sudden Expansion
• The loss due to sudden expansion is greater than the loss due to a corresponding
contraction.
• In an expansion where the diverging paths of the flow encourages the formation
of eddies within the flow. And the separation of the flow from the wall of the
conduit induces pockets of eddying turbulence outside the flow region.
ℎ𝑒
2
𝑣1 − 𝑣2
=
2𝑔
• But, in converging flow there is a dampening effect on eddy formation and the
conversion from pressure energy to kinetic energy is quite efficient.


D1/D2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
K 1.00 0.87 0.70 0.41 0.15

3.2 Loss Due to Gradual Expansion:

• To reduce the expansion loss accompanying a reduction in velocity a diffuser may
be used.
• The loss of head will be some function of the angle of divergence and also of the
ratio of the two areas, the length of the diffuser being determined by these two
variables.
• The loss due to a gradual enlargement is

• hx= k’ (V1-V2)2/2g
• k’ is the function of cone angle of the diffuser.

4. Losses in Pipe Fittings

• The loss of head in pipe fittings may be expressed in terms of
• h = k v2/2g
• where, v is the velocity in a pipe of the nominal size of the fitting.
• Table below shows, values of loss factors for different pipe fittings
Type K
Exit (pipe to tank) 1.0
Entrance (tank to pipe) 0.5
90 elbow 0.9
45 elbow 0.4
T-junction 1.8
2/23/2024 GateBy:valve 0.25
Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali - 25IOE, TU
Campus, 70
• In the expression hb = Kb v2/2g

• Kb Depends on
• The radius of curvature, r,
• The diameter of the pipe, D
• Angle of bend
• Kb varies according to the value of r/D ratio for smooth pipe. For rough pipes Kb
depends on both the r/D ratio and e/D ratio.
• Sharp bends result in separation downstream of the bend.
• The turbulence in the separation zone causes flow resistance.
• Greater radius of bend reduces flow resistance


5. Loss in Bends and Elbows
• The centrifugal force on the particles near the centre of the pipe, where the
velocities are high, is larger than the centrifugal force on the particles near the
walls of the pipe, where the velocities are law because of this unbalanced
condition a secondary flow develops.
• This combines with the axial velocity to form a double spiral flow which persists
for some distance.
• Bend loss is not directly proportional to the angle of the bend.



6. Losses due to obstruction

• Loss is due to reduction in cross section area
A = area of pipe
a = area of obstruction
Cc = contraction co-efficient
2
𝑉2 𝐴
ℎ𝑜𝑏𝑠 = −1
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐 𝐴 − 𝑎
7. Losses at exit
𝑉2
• Loss is due to velocity at exit, ℎ𝑜 =
2𝑔


8. Loss in pipeline with pump
• In case of pump, the friction head is equivalent to same added lift, so that the effect is
the same as if the pump lifted the fluid a height .
• The power delivered by the pump is given by
• preq = gQ{Δz +ΣhL}
• p (req to run)= pdel+ p
• In case of the pump with nozzle,
the received kinetic energy of the
fluid is also accounted ie
• preq = gQ{Δz +ΣhL+v2/2g}
• p (req to run)= pdel+ p
• A pump gives an abrupt rise in EGL and HGL.

9. Loss in pipeline with turbine
• In case of the turbine, the power delivered to it is decreased by the friction loss in
the pipeline (penstock). And which is given by
• Pdel= gQ{Δz -ΣhL}
• p (Net del)= pdel - t
• A turbine gives an abrupt

Drop in HGL and EGL.

Example 5. When a suddenly contraction is introduced in a horizontal pipe line from 50cm to 25cm,
the pressure changes from 10,500kg/m2 to 6900kg/m2. Calculate the rate of flow. Assume co-
efficient of contraction of jet to be 0.65. Following this, if there is a sudden enlargement from 25cm
to 50cm and if the pressure at the 25cm section is as previous, what is the pressure at the 50cm
enlarged section?

• Solution:

• Bernoulli’s equation
Including contraction loss

• P4=78.5kPa


BME FM Chapter 6 Viscous Effect

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BME FM Chapter 6 Viscous Effect

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BME II/II, FM: Viscous effects

CHAPTER OVER VIEW

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 2

• Apparatus for Reynold’s experiment:

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 3

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 4

• Re<2,000- flow is laminar

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 5

2. SHEAR STRESS AND VELOCITY GRADIENT

• Newton’s law of viscosity is given for one-dimensional flow by

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 6

3. FRICTIONAL LOSS IN PIPE FLOW

• For a horizontal pipe flow condition, applying , Bernoulli’s equation:

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 7

3. FRICTIONAL LOSS IN PIPE FLOW

f’= f.ρ/2, where f is Darcy coeff. Of friction, then

This is Darcy-Weisbach equation for major

Where λ = 4f is the friction factor.

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 8

4.VISCOUS FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

• Combining all forces and dividing by Δ𝑥Δ𝑦 following equation is obtained.

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 9

4.VISCOUS FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 10

4.VISCOUS FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

B. Ratio of maximum to average velocity

4.VISCOUS FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

C. Drop in pressure head for a given length

D. Shear stress distribution

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 12

4.VISCOUS FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 13

5. VISCOUS FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPE

Figure Cylindrical of fluid flowing steadily in a pipe

5. VISCOUS FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPE

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain,15

5. VISCOUS FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPE

where P = change in pressure

• The maximum velocity is at the center of the pipe, i.e. when r = 0.

5. VISCOUS FLOW IN CIRCULAR PIPE

• Pressure drop throughout the length of pipe can then be calculated by

2/23/2024 By: Lec., R. K. Chaulagain,17

For a BL, the velocity

Types of boundary layer:

Figure: Flow over a plate

1. Laminar boundary layer:

2. Turbulent Boundary layer:

Separation of Boundary layer

Effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer development

Effect of pressure gradient on boundary layer development

Example: Flow separation on bifurcation of

Prevention for separation of boundary layer:

7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES

7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES

7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES

• Symmetrical body moving through an real fluid at a uniform velocity, FD

7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES

7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES

7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES

7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES

• FL =  dA sin  −  pdA cos

• Here,  pdA sin 

7. FLOW PAST SUBMERGED BODIES