BAME FMMC Chap 1 F Prop N Stat

BAME III/II, FMMc: Fluid properties and fluid statics
FLUID MECHANICS
AND MACHINES
Chapter one: Fluid properties and fluid statics
For: By:
BAME III/II Raj Kumar Chaulagain
Department of Automobile and Mechanical Engineering Asst. Prof., Mechanical Engineering
Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU Department of Automobile and Mechanical Engineering
Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU
November, 2022
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
➢Definition
➢Properties of fluid
➢Vapour pressure and Cavitation
➢Types of fluid
➢Pressure at a Point
➢Pressure variation in static fluid
➢Pressure measurements using manometers
➢Centre of pressure and Forces on different surfaces
➢Buoyancy and stability
12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 2

DEFINITION OF FLUID
➢The matters in the world are classified in three states: solid, liquid and gas.
➢The gas and the liquid are called fluid.
➢The solid object will no change inside the a closed container
➢The liquid will change its shape to conform to that of the container and will take
on the same boundaries as the container up to the maximum depth of the liquid.
➢Fluid mechanics: the behavior of fluids at rest and in motion.

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
1. Density
• The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of

the substance.
• It can be expressed in different ways.
1.A Mass Density, ρ: mass of substance per unit volume, kg/m3
1.B Specific Weight/weight density, w: weight per unit volume (= ρg)
1.C Specific volume : volume per unit mass, m3/kg
1.D Specific gravity, S: ratio of weight density of a substance to some standard weight density.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆𝑝. 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑆𝑝. 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
• Example 1: calculate the density, specific weight, and weight of one litre of petrol
of specific gravity = 0.7.

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
2. Viscosity
• It is the property of a fluid, due to cohesion and interaction between molecules,
which offers resistance to shear deformation.
• Different fluids deform at different rates under the same shear stress.
• Fluid with a high viscosity such as syrup, deforms more slowly than fluid with a
low viscosity such as water.
• Where τ = shear stress

• μ = coefficient of dynamic viscosity
• du/dy= velocity gradient

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
• Unit of viscosity:
• Kinematic Viscosity (stoke), v: ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.

• Units: square metres per second, m2/s

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
• Example 2: Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25cm apart, the space between
them being filled with oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if
upper plate is moved with a velocity of 2.5m/s.
• Given,

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
3. Surface tension, σ :
• It is defined as the tensile force acting on the surface of liquid in contact with gas
or on the surface between two immiscible liquids such that the contact surface
behaves like a membrane under tension.
• The surface tension of a liquid results from an imbalance of intermolecular
attractive forces, the cohesive forces between molecules.
• The value of σ depends on the pair of fluids in contact and the temperature.
• Unit: MKS-kgf/m, SI- N/m
• Meniscus: Water upward (blue), Mercury downward (black)
• Capillary action, rise or fall

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
3.1 Surface tension on droplet,

P= 4σ/d
3.2 Surface tension on hollow droplet,

P= 8σ/d
3.3 Surface tension on liquid jet,

P= 2σ/d

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
Example 3. find the surface tension in a soap bubble of 40mm diameter when the
inside pressure is 2.5N/m2 above atmospheric pressure.
Given,
For hollow bubble,

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
4. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus
• Compressibility = 1/K

PROPERTIES OF FLUID
• Vapour pressure
• A change from the liquid state to gaseous state is known as vaporization.
• It occurs because of continuous escaping of the molecules through the free liquid surface.
• In a closed vessel, accumulated vapours due to vaporization exert pressure on the liquid
surface known as vapour pressure.
• It is the pressure on which liquid converts to vapour.
• Liquid may boil even at ordinary temp., if the pressure above the liquid surface is reduced so
as to be equal or less than the vapour pressure of the liquid at that temp.
• Cavitation
• It takes place in flowing fluid in closed condition.
• It is the phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles of a flowing fluid in a region where the
pressure of liquid falls below vapour pressure and sudden collapse in region of higher
pressure.
• These causes cavities on metallic surfaces through pitting action.

TYPES OF FLUID
Newton’s Law of Viscosity,
1. Ideal fluid
2. Real fluid
3. Newtonian fluid
4. Non-Newtonian fluid
5. Ideal plastic
6. Elastic solid

Pressure at a Point
• An important and unique property of

hydrostatic pressure is reflected in Pascal’s
law, which states that:
“Intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at
rest is same in all directions.”
• Assuming fluid element acting with
different forces is as shown in figure.
• The fluid at rest, so there are no shearing
forces, and is acting at right angles to the
surfaces.

Pressure at a Point
• In equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is zero.

Summing forces in the x-direction:
δz
δz

Pressure at a Point

Pressure at a Point
• From above two equations,

• This proves that Pressure at any point is the same in all directions.
• This is known as Pascal's Law and applies to fluids at rest.

Pressure variation in static fluid
• When the fluid velocity is zero, called the hydrostatic condition, the pressure
variation is due only to the weight of the fluid.
• The pressure variation at any point in fluid at rest is obtained by the hydrostatic
law which states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward
direction must be equal to the specific weight of fluid at that point.



Example 4. An open tank contains water upto depth of 2m and above it an oil of sp.
Gr. 0.9 for a depth of 1m. Find the pressure intensity at interface of two liquids and
at bottom of the tank.

Pressure measurements
• System of measurement:
1. Absolute pressure sys.: measured above
absolute zero or complete vacuum.
2. Gauge pressure sys. : measured above
atmospheric pressure shown by instruments.
• Vacuum pressure = Atm. pressure – Absolute

pressure
• Absolute pressure = At. Pressure + Gauge
pressure

Pressure measuring devices
Mechanical devices Manometers

(uses fluid balancing by spring/ dead weight) (uses fluid by balancing fluid column)
Bellows Dead weight Bourdon tube Diaphragm Simple Differential
• A manometer is a piece of clear (glass or plastic) tubing filled with a liquid of known density,
situated next to a scale for measuring distance.
Applications of manometer
• Specific pressure monitoring applications
• Visual monitoring of air and gas pressure for compressors.
• Vacuum equipment and specialty tank applications such as medical gas cylinders,
fire extinguishers.
• In power plants, mercury absolute manometer have been used to check condenser
efficiency by monitoring vacuum at several points of the condenser
• Used for the research of atmosphere of other planets.
• More applications: whether studies, research labs, gas analysis, medical equipment
etc

Advantages of Manometers Limitations of a manometer

• Easy to fabricate and relatively inexpensive; • Usually bulky and large in size.
• Good accuracy; • Being fragile, get broken easily.
• High sensitivity; • Readings of the manometers are affected by
changes in temperature, altitude and gravity.
• Require little maintenance;
• A capillary effect is created due to surface
• Not affected by vibrations;
tension of manometric fluid, and
• Specially suitable for low pressure and low
differential pressures; and • For better accuracy meniscus has to be
measured by accurate means.
• Easy to change the sensitivity by affecting a
change in the quantity of manometric liquid in
the manometer.

Manometers
1. Simple 2. Differential
Single Upright U- Inverted

Piezometer U-tube
column tube U-tube

1.A Piezometer
• Piezometer is one of the simplest forms of manometers.
• It can be used for measuring moderate pressures of liquids.
• The setup of piezometer consists of a glass tube, inserted in the
wall of a vessel or of a pipe.
• The tube extends vertically upward to such a height that liquid
can freely rise in it without overflowing.
• The pressure at any point in the liquid is indicated by the height
of the liquid in the tube above that point.
• In the figure, the pressure at point A is given by the formula:
PA = ρ g h1 where ρ is the density of the liquid

1.B U-tube manometer

• A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U shape,
one end of which is connected to a point at which pressure is
to be measured and the other end remains open to the
atmosphere.
• The tube contains a liquid whose specific gravity is greater For Gauge pressure
than that of the liquid whose pressure is to be measured.
• For gauge pressure: PA + ρ1 g h1 = ρ2 g h2
PA = g (ρ2 h2 - ρ1 h1)
• For vacuum pressure: P1 + ρ1 y g + ρ2 x g = 0
P1 = - ( ρ1 y g + ρ2 x g )
For Vacuum pressure

1. C Single column Manometer

• Modified form of U tube manometer with a reservoir cross
sectional area almost 100 times that of the tube is connected
to one of the limbs of the manometer.
• Due to large cross sectional area of the reservoir, for any
variation in pressure, the change in the liquid level of the
reservoir will be negligible and hence the pressure is given
by the height of the liquid in the other limb.
• Fall of heavy liquid in the reservoir will cause a rise of heavy
liquid in the right limb.
A δh = a h2 δh = a h2 / A

• In case of vertical, Pressure above datum line Z-Z:
ρ2 g (δh + h2) = ρ1 g (δh + h1) + PA
PA = δh( p2 g – p1 g)+ h2 ρ2 g- h1 ρ1 g
PA = a h2 / A [p2 g – p1 g] + h2 ρ2 g – h1 ρ1 g
• As the area A is very large compared to a, hence the ratio a/A is
very small and can be neglected.
• Then PA = g(h2 ρ2 - h1 ρ1)
• In case of inclined tube, Pressure at A is given by

PA = h2 ρ2 g – h1 ρ1 g = S sinѲ ρ2 g – h1 ρ1 g (h2 = S sinѲ)
Due to inclination, it is more sensitive than vertical.

Example 5. A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe

line which is in excess atmospheric pressure. The right limb of the manometer
contains mercury and is open to atm. The contact between water and mercury is in
the left limb. Determine the pressure of water in main line if the difference in level
of mercury in the limbs of U-tube is 10cm and the free surface of mercury is in level
with the center of pipe. Also sketch the arrangement.
Solution:
For water,

Pressure at B

Example 6. A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe

in which fluid of sp. Gr. 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing. The other end
of the manometer is open to atm. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe if the difference
of mercury level in the two limbs is 40cm and height of fluid in the left from the
center of pipe is 15cm below.

2. A Up-right U-tube differential manometer:

• It consists of the bent tube with ends connected to two different points of a pipe or
two different pipes and gives the reading of the pressure difference between these
two points.
• It is suitable for the high pressure difference range and here the manometric fluid
of higher specific gravity than the measurand fluid is used.
• Equating the pressure:

2. B Inverted U-tube differential manometer:

• Inverted configuration is suitable for low pressure difference range and the
manometric fluid used is of lower specific gravity than that of the measurand
fluid.
• The air cock is used to release the compressed air.
• Equating the pressure:

Example 7. A differential manometer is connected at two points A and B of two

pipes as shown. The pipe A contains liquid of sp. Gr. 1.5 while pipe B of 0.9. The
pressure at A and B are 1kgf/cm2 and 1.8kgf/cm2. Find the difference in mercury
level in the differential manometer.

Example 8. An inverted differential manometer is connected to two pipes A and B

which convey water. The fluid in manometer is oil of sp. Gr. 0.8. Find the pressure
difference between A and B for the configuration shown.

Total Pressure and Center of Pressure
• In case of fluid being rest, the shear surface. This is for submerged case and
stress on it is always zero, then the surfaces may be
forces on fluid particles are due to • Horizontal
• Pressure of fluid normal to surface • Vertical
• Self weight • Inclined
• Curve
• Total pressure is the normal force
exerted by a static fluid on a surface
either plane or curved when the fluid
comes in contact with the surfaces.
• Center of pressure is a point of
application of the total pressure on the
Force on submerged surfaces
A. Plane horizontal surface

B. Plane vertical surface

B.1. Total Pressure Force
• Consider a strip of thickness dh and width b at a depth of

h from free surface of liquid as shown in fig.


B. 2 Center of pressure (h*):

Principle of moments: The moment of the resultant force about an axis is equal to the sum of
moments of the components about the same axis.


Example 9. A rectangular plane surface is 2m wide and 3m deep. It lies in vertical

plane in water. Determine the total pressure and position of center of pressure on the
plane surface when its upper edge is horizontal and following surface condition.
a. Coincides with water surface.
b. 2.5 m below the free water surface
Solution:
Given, Width of the plane surface, b= 2m
Depth of the plane surface, d= 3m



C. Inclined surface




Example 10: A circular plate 3m is immersed in water in such a way that its greatest
and least depth below the free surface are 4m and 1.5m. Determine the total pressure
on one face of the plate and position of the center of pressure.


Archimedes Principle
Buoyancy force:
• When a body is immersed in fluid, an upward force is exerted by fluid on the body
which is known as force of buoyancy or buoyant force or buoyancy.
Center of Buoyancy:
• The point through which the force of buoyancy is supposed to act.
• As the buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced
by the body, the center of buoyancy will be the cg of the fluid displaced.

Archimedes’ principle:
• It states that the up-thrust experienced by a
submerged or floating body is always equal to the
weight of the liquid that the body displaces.
• If the body is completely submerged, the volume of fluid
displaced is equal to the volume of the body.
• If the body is only partially submerged, the volume of the
fluid displaced is equal to the volume of the part of the
body that is submerged.

Example 11: A body 1.5x1x2 m3 weights 1962 N in water. Find its weight in air.
What will be its sp. gr.?

Principle of floatation
• The law of floatation is an application of Archimedes' principle.

• The displaced volume of the fluid is equal to the volume of the object which is immersed in the
fluid.
• When the weight of the object is greater than the upthrust, then the object will sink in the fluid.
• When the weight of the object is equal to the upthrust, then the object is balanced making the object float.
• So, the principle of floatation states that when a body floats with its volume partially above the
liquid surface, the quantity of the liquid displaced by the body is equal to the quantity of the
submerged portion of the body.
• As the body is in equilibrium, the buoyant force acting on the body must be equal to its weight.

Examples of Floatation
• Ships:
Though the density of the materials used in ship is greater than the density of water, the structure of the ship is made
such that it displaces more volume of water than it does in solid form. The construction of ship makes it floating as it
is hollow inside it.
• Iceberg:
Density of ice is lower than the density of water. So, it floats in sea with certain volume out of water level.
• Submarine:
Submarine can float as well as sink in sea water. When water is filled up in its water tanks, the submarine becomes
heavy and sinks down in sea. When water is forced out of the tanks by high air pressure through valves, the ship can
float in sea.
• Balloons:
A hydrogen filled balloon is lighter than air and the air forces up it to a height where weight of balloon is equal to
the upthrust of air there.

• In the figure caption, notation P is for density.

Meta center and Metacentric height
Meta center:
• It is the point at which the line of action of the force of buoyancy will meet the normal
axis of the body when the body is given a small angular displacement.
• The body starts oscillating about this point when the body is tilted by a small angle.
Meta centric height:

• The distance MG, distance between the meta center of a floating body and the center of
gravity of the body.

Determination of Metacentric height experimentally

• When w1 is moved towards right, the vessel is tilted then G and B is shifted to G1
and B1.
• Under equilibrium condition,
Moment caused by the shifting w1 through x = Moment caused by shifting of
c.g.

Example 12: A pontoon of 15696 kN displacement is floating in water. A weight of

245.25 kN is moved through a distance of 8m across the deck of pontoon, which
tilts the pontoon through an angle 40. Find the meta centric height of the pontoon.

Conditions of Equilibrium
• Floating or submerged bodies such as boats, ships etc. are sometime acted upon by
certain external forces.
• Some of the common external forces are wind and wave action, pressure due to
river current, pressure due to maneuvering a floating object in a curved path, etc.
• These external forces cause a small displacement to the body which may overturn
it.
• If a floating or submerged body, under action of small displacement due to any
external force, is overturn and then sank, the body is said to be in unstable.

• Otherwise, after imposing such a displacement the body restores its original
position and this body is said to be in stable equilibrium.
• Therefore, in the design of the floating/submerged bodies the stability analysis is

one of major criteria.
• The relative position of the center of gravity and buoyancy of a body determines
the stability of a sub-merged body.

Stability of a Sub-merged body:

• Stability of a balloon, W submerged in air is compared with position of B and G.
S.N Equilibriu Position of B wrt G Remarks
. m
A Stable Upper, W = Fb Balloon returns to original position
B Unstable Lower, W = Fb Balloon does not return to original position
C Neutral Same, W = Fb Same point

Stability of a floating body:

• Stability of an object (W) floating in water is compared with position of M and G.
S.N Equilibriu Position of M wrt G Remarks
. m
A Stable Upper, W = Fb Object returns to original position
B Unstable Lower, W = Fb Object does not return to original position
C Neutral Same, W = Fb M at CG point

Example 13: A solid cylinder of diameter 4m has a height of 4m. Find the meta centric height of the
cylinder if the sp. Gr. Of the material of cylinder = 0.6 and it is floating in water with its axis vertical.
State whether the equilibrium is stable of unstable.


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BAME FMMC Chap 1 F Prop N Stat

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BAME III/II, FMMc: Fluid properties and fluid statics

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 2

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 3

• The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a unit volume of

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑤 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 4

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 5

• Where τ = shear stress

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 6

• Kinematic Viscosity (stoke), v: ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass density.

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 7

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 8

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 9

3.1 Surface tension on droplet,

3.2 Surface tension on hollow droplet,

3.3 Surface tension on liquid jet,

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 10

For hollow bubble,

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 11

4. Compressibility and Bulk Modulus

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 12

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 13

Newton’s Law of Viscosity,

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 14

• An important and unique property of

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 15

• In equilibrium, the sum of the forces in any direction is zero.

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 16

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 17

• From above two equations,

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 18

Pressure variation in static fluid

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 19

Pressure variation in static fluid

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 20

Pressure variation in static fluid

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 21

Pressure variation in static fluid

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 22

• Vacuum pressure = Atm. pressure – Absolute

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 23

Pressure measuring devices

Mechanical devices Manometers

Bellows Dead weight Bourdon tube Diaphragm Simple Differential

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 25

Advantages of Manometers Limitations of a manometer

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 26

Single Upright U- Inverted

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 27

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 28

1.B U-tube manometer

For Vacuum pressure

1. C Single column Manometer

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 30

• In case of inclined tube, Pressure at A is given by

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 31

Example 5. A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of water in a pipe

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 32

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 33

Example 6. A simple U-tube manometer containing mercury is connected to a pipe

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 34

2. A Up-right U-tube differential manometer:

12/20/2022 By: Asst. Prof., R. K. Chaulagain, Thapathali Campus, IOE, TU 35