Drag force & Thrust force

Physics of Flight 2/2

prof.dr.ir. Jacco M. Hoekstra

Three Forces on an Aircraft
Aerodynamic force

Direction of airspeed

Thrust

Weight
Four Forces Lift
on an Aircraft

Direction of airspeed

Drag Thrust

Weight
Four Forces Lift
on an Aircraft
Constant speed, constant altitude:

Equilibrium of forces

Lift = Weight
Drag Thrust Thrust = Drag

Weight
Four Forces Lift
on an Aircraft
Constant speed, constant altitude:

Equilibrium of forces

L=W
Drag Thrust
T=D

Weight
Lift force √ What about the drag force?
Lift L Lift force depends on:

V = velocity (airspeed)
ρ = air density (as a result of altitude)
S = surface area wing
CL = shape of wing (lift coefficient)
α = angle of flow around wing

Drag D
1
L = CL V S
2

2
Drag force
Lift L Drag force depends on:

V = velocity (airspeed)
ρ = air density (as a result of altitude)
S = surface area wing
CD = shape of wing (lift coefficient)
α = angle of flow around wing
CD varies with
Drag D angle of attack alpha:
1
D = CD V S
2
CD = f(α)
2
Four Forces Lift
on an Aircraft
Speed causes lift and drag

Drag = cost
(countered by thrust)

Drag Thrust Lift = gain

(to counter weight)

What is ratio lift to drag?

Weight
Four Forces Lift
on an Aircraft
1
L = CL V S
2

2
Drag Thrust 1
D = CD V S
2

2
Weight
Four Forces Lift
on an Aircraft 1
L = CL V S
2

2
1
D = CD V S
2

2
Drag Thrust
L CL
 =
D CD
Weight
Four Forces Lift
on an Aircraft 1
L = CL V S
2

2
1
D = CD V S
2

2
Drag Thrust
L CL
 =
D CD
For all altitudes, speeds and wing areas!
Weight
Drag as a Function of Lift: Drag Polar

CL = 0.60
CD = 0.03
Forces on an Aircraft: Real Lift-Drag
Lift L
L CL
= = 20
D CD

Drag D Thrust T

Weight W
Forces on an Aircraft: Real Lift-Drag
Lift L
L CL
= = 20
D CD

Drag D Thrust T

Weight W
Forces on an
Aircraft: Real
Lift-Drag Lift L = 20 x D L CL
= = 20
D CD

Drag D W Thrust T
Development of wing cross sections
(airfoils)
Drag as a function of lift: Drag Polar
Drag = zero lift drag + constant x lift x lift

CD = CD 0 + k C 2
L

2
C
CD = CD 0 + L
 Ae
A = Aspect ratio = slenderness of wing
 Slender wings: better CL / CD

Boeing 747-400 Airbus 380 Glider

15 20 50
Glide ratio: Same factor can be multiplied by altitude to get range without thrust
What about thrust?
Wright Flyer required a non-existent
engine
• Engine: Wright 4-cylinder 12 - 20 hp water-cooled inline
• Weight 150 lbs, 200 lbs with fuel
 Wright Flyer required a non-existent
engine
“Even considering the improvements possible …… the gas
turbine could hardly be considered a feasible application
to airplanes, mainly because of the difficulty with the
stringent weight requirements.”
Gas turbine committee, US National Academy of Sciences
(1940)

Same statement is often heard today for new propulsion

and fuels!
The jet engine
High bypass engine
Why are modern engines so large

A. Less emissions

B. Less noise

C. Better fuel efficiency

 No power

Power
Force: Principle of all aircraft propulsion
Mass of air
flowing through
engine or propeller m m
Vin Vout
• Principle: accelerating air backwards (out of engine)
• Momentum: mass x speed
• Force by change in momentum per second
• Thrust is generated by difference of speed of air coming in and out of engine

T = m (Vout − Vin )
Propulsion Power delivered by thrust
force
• Power = work done per second

• Multiply thrust force by distance travelled per second

• Multiply thrust force by speed (velocity V),

to get the power used for propulsion:

Power = Force  speed P = T  V = T  Vin = m (Vout − Vin )Vin

Cost: Change in kinetic energy - energy

m m
Vin Vout
• Burning fuel to add motion energy by high temperature expansion.

• Change in kinetic energy per second:

1 1
Ekin per sec = mVout
2
− 2
mVin
2 2
Jet efficiency

• Efficiency of a jet engine, is gain per cost

gain Propulsion power P

= =
cost Extra kinetic energy ΔEkin 1
2
Jet efficiency

• Efficiency of a jet engine, is gain per cost

gain Propulsion power P

= =
cost Extra kinetic energy ΔEkin 1
2
 Jet efficiency

• Efficiency of a jet engine, is gain per cost

Propulsion power P m (Vout − Vin ) Vin

= 1 1
Extra kinetic energy ΔEkin mVout − mVin
2 2

2 2
 Jet efficiency

• Efficiency of a jet engine, is gain per cost

Propulsion power P m (Vout − Vin ) Vin

=
m (Vout − Vin )
Extra kinetic energy ΔEkin
1 2 2

2
 Jet efficiency

• Efficiency of a jet engine, is gain per cost

Propulsion power P m (Vout − Vin ) Vin

=
m (Vout − Vin )(Vout + Vin )
1
Extra kinetic energy ΔEkin
2
 Jet efficiency

• Efficiency of a jet engine, is gain per cost

Propulsion power P 2 m (Vout − Vin ) Vin

=
Extra kinetic energy ΔEkin m (Vout − Vin )(Vout + Vin )
 Jet efficiency

• Efficiency of a jet engine, is gain per cost

Propulsion power P 2 Vin

=
Extra kinetic energy ΔEkin (V
out + Vin )
 Jet efficiency

• Efficiency of a jet engine, is gain per cost

Propulsion power P 2
=  Vout 
Extra kinetic energy ΔEkin
 + 1
 Vin 

T = m (Vout − Vin )
Jet efficiency

For more efficiency,

2
it is better=to accelerate
V 
a lot of air a little
 bit,
out
+ 1
V
in 
than a bit of air a lot
A320 => A320 NEO B737 => B737 MAX
Summary (1/2)

• Efficient aerodynamics: more lift per drag

• Light weight => less lift => less drag

• Wings are extremely good at this: 20 x more lift

than drag

• Slender wings are more efficient (L/D can be 50!)

Summary (2/2)

• Work done is force times distance, so less drag => less work

• Thrust = drag, created by accelerating air backwards

• Better to accelerate a lot of air with a little extra speed, so more air
and less speed difference is better for efficiency

• A lot of air makes engines larger (and quieter)