MA6641 Flight Performance & Dynamics

Asst. Prof. Yongki Go

Steady Straight and Level Flight Performance

(Cruise Performance)
Steady Straight Level Flight
 EOM for 3D point-mass flight:
 In local vertical plane:
mV  T cos  D  W sin 
mV    [T sin   L] cos  W cos
 In local horizontal plane:
mV  cos  [T sin   L] sin
 For steady straight level flight:
 Straight level condition:       0
 Steady: V    0
 Horizontal plane EOM is all zero
only vertical plane EOM matters
EOM for Steady Straight Level Flight
 EOM for steady straight level flight become:
L
T xb 0  T cos  D
D 
V 0  T sin  L  W
W zb
 Engine thrust angle  is often small for conventional
aircraft in steady straight level flight
 Hence it is reasonable to assume that the engine thrust
direction is aligned with the flight direction (  0 )
L
xb T D
D
T V L W
W
zb
Thrust Required
 What is the thrust required (TR ) to maintain steady straight
and level flight at a given airspeed V and altitude h ?
 Assume the drag polar of the aircraft is known
 Step-by-step procedure to find TR
 For the given V, calculate CL from: L
W
L  W   V SCL
D T
1
2
2
  CL  V
q S W
q
 Calculate CD from the drag polar:
CD  CD0  KCL2

 Calculate TR using: L

TR  D  qSCD D T
V
W
Thrust Required Curve
 Typical TR curve:

Also called
drag curve

(TR )min

V(TR )min

Note: there is a certain airspeed at which TR is minimum

Example: Thrust Required Calculation (1)
 Plot the thrust required curve for a Gulfstream airplane with
weight of 73,000 lb at 30,000 ft altitude. Airplane data:
S=950 ft2, AR=5.92, CD0  0.015 , and K=0.08.
Drag polar: CD  CD  KCL2  0.015  0.08CL2
0

Step-by-step calculation:
1. Choose: V  500 ft/s
2. From ISA table, at 30,000 ft:   8.9068  104 slug/ft3
W 2(73,000)
CL   4
 0.69
qS (8.9068  10 )(500 )(950)
2

3. From drag polar:

CD  0.015  0.08(0.69)2  0.053
4. T  D  q SC  1 (8.9068  104 )(500)2 (950)(0.053)  5617 lb
R  D 2

Repeat the 4 steps above for other V

Example: Thrust Required Calculation (2)

Note the increase in CL as the airspeed becomes slower

Stall Speed
 At the stall limit: L
D T
V
CLmax W

L  W  21 Vstall
2
SCLmax
2 W 1
αstall Vstall 
  S CLmax
 Vstall depends on altitude (via  ), wing loading W S, and CLmax
 Vstall increases with increasing altitude

 Vstall increases with increasing wing loading

For the same W, need larger wing area S to get lower stall
speed
 Vstall decreases with increasing CLmax
 CL is the only aerodynamic parameter that affects Vstall
max
Breakdown of Thrust Required
 Breakdown of TR : TR  D  qSCD0  qSKCL2
Zero-lift drag Drag due to lift
(parasite drag) (induced drag)
2
CL 
W KS  W 
TR  D  qSCD0   
q S q  S 

Vstall At low speeds, TR is mainly to counter

induced drag.
At high speeds, TR is mainly to counter
parasite drag
Minimum Thrust Required (1)
D D
TR  D  W  W
W L
W W
or TR  
L D CL CD

V(TR )min  V( L D )max For aircraft with fixed weight W:

TR decreases as L/D increases
Reminder: L/D or CL /CD is a measure
of aerodynamic efficiency

TR is minimum when L/D or

CL /CD is maximum
Minimum Thrust Required (2)
L CL CL
 For parabolic drag polar:  
D CD CD0  KCL2
 The condition for maximum CL CD :
d (CL CD ) C  KC 2
 2 KC 2


D0 L L
0 0 C  K C 2

 
2 D0 L
dCL CD0  KCL 2

CL CD is maximum when parasite drag = induced drag

Vstall

(L/D)max

V( L D )max
Minimum Thrust Required (3)
 At maximum CL CD :
CD0
CD0  K C 2
L
CL 
Vstall K
 CL   CL  1
     
(L/D)max
2 
 CD max  CD0  KCL max 4CD0 K

V( L D )max (TR )min  W 4CD0 K

At the minimum TR condition:

L  W  21 V(2L D )max S CD0 K
1
 2 W K  2

V(TR )min  V( L D )max  

  S CD0 
 
Example: Minimum Thrust Required Condition
 For the Gulfstream in the previous example, calculate the
minimum thrust required and the velocity at which it occurs.
Note: W=73,000 lb, h=30,000 ft, S=950 ft2, AR=5.92
CD0  0.015, K  0.08
(TR )min  W 4CD0 K  73,000 4(0.015)(0.08)  5,058 lb
1
 2 W K  2

V(TR )min   
   S CD 
 0 
1
 2 73,000 0.08  2

  631.2 ft/s

4 
 8.9068  10 S 0.015 
Problem 5.1
 An aircraft with a drag polar CD = 0.012 + 0.2 CL2 has a
wing area of 70 m2 and weighs 178,000 N. What is its
(L/D)max and at what speed (in m/s and knots) is this
achieved in standard sea level conditions? What if the
aircraft weight decreased to 133,500 N? 1 knot = 0.514 m/s
 Answer:
L
 At W = 178,000 N:    10.2
 D max
V( L D )max  92.05 m/s  179.09 kts
L
 At W = 133,500 N:    10.2
 D max
V( L D )max  79.715 m/s  155.09 kts
Variation with Weight and Altitude
 TR will vary with weight and altitude as illustrated
below:

Vstall

Vstall Vstall Vstall

Speed Stability (1)
 Stability: tendency to maintain initial equilibrium condition
after small perturbation
stable unstable

neutral
 Let’s examine aircraft in steady straight and level flight at
airspeed lower than V(TR )min L
D T
Small increase in V V 
W

Reduction in drag (T  TR )

Further increase in V
Speed is unstable in this region
Region where V  V(TR )min region of speed instability
Undesirable to fly in this region
Speed Stability (2)
 Let’s examine aircraft in steady straight and level flight at
L
airspeed higher than V(TR )min D T
V
Small increase in V W


Increase in drag (T  TR )

Decrease in V
Speed is stable in this region
Region where V  V(TR )min region of speed stability
Prefer to fly in this region
Speed Stability (3)


Note:
There are two V
associated with each TR
for TR  (TR )min :
one is in the speed
instability region and the
other is in the speed
stability region
Thrust Available vs. Thrust Required
 Thrust Required ( TR ) is affected by airframe:
 Geometry (airfoil, wing planform, fuselage, etc.) LD
 Size (wing area, weight, etc.) W S
 Configuration (flaps up/down, gears up/down, etc.) LD
 Thrust Available ( TA ) is mainly determined by the
propulsion/powerplant of the aircraft
 Engine type affects TA significantly
 Airframe also has some effects to TA due to interaction
between airframe and powerplant
 For conventional aircraft, this interaction effect is usually small
 Therefore for conventional aircraft, we can assume that TA is
due to powerplant only
Typical Thrust Available Curves
 Typical curve of TA for propeller-driven and jet-propelled
aircraft at specific altitude:
Often used simplification:
approximation
TA • Propeller-driven aircraft:
approximation
PA is constant
PA
jet PA  TA V TA 
V
TA is inversely proportional toV
• Jet-propelled aircraft:
TA is constant in subsonic region
V
Thrust Available
 At specific altitude, TA depends on the throttle setting
 The largest is T at full throttle (TA )max
A

TA

Full throttle jet

Partial throttle

Full throttle
Partial throttle propeller-driven

V
Maximum Airspeed (1)
 At specific altitude, high-speed intersection of (TA )max and TR
determines maximum steady level airspeed Vmax
 Note that since (TA )max and TR vary with altitude, Vmax also

varies with altitude

TA ,TR

(TA)max, jet Graphical

approach of
finding Vmax
TR

Vmax, prop Vmax, jet V

Maximum Airspeed (2)
 Analytical approach to Vmax:
TR  (TA )max
2
KS  W 
qSCD0     (TA )max
q  S 
Solving for V:
1
 [(T )  2

A max W ](W S )  (W S ) [(TA )max W ]  4CD0 K

2

Vmax  
  CD0 
 

 Vmax increases when:

 (TA )max W increases
 W S increases
 CD0 and/or K decreases
Example: Maximum Airspeed Calculation (1)
 Suppose each of the two engines of the Gulfstream in the
previous example can produce maximum thrust at sea
level of 13,850 lb. Calculate Vmax at sea level and at
30,000 ft if the thrust variation is assumed to follow
T T0   0 
0.6

Note: CD0  0.015, K  0.08, W S  73,000 950  76.84 lb/ft

2

At sea level:   0.002377 slug/ft3

(TA )max W  2(13,850) 73,000  0.3795
1
 [(T )  2

A max W ](W S )  (W S ) [(TA )max W ]  4CD0 K

2

Vmax   
  CD0 
 
 1,273.6 ft/s
Example: Maximum Airspeed Calculation (2)
At 30,000 ft:   8.9068  10
4
 slug/ft3
(TA )max  (TA )0  0 
0.6

 2(13,850)(8.9068  104 0.002377)0.6  15,371lb

(TA )max W  15,371 73,000  0.2106

1
 [(T )  2

A max W ](W S )  (W S ) [(TA )max W ]  4CD0 K

2

Vmax   
  CD0 
 
 1,534.6 ft/s
Effect of Drag Divergence on Vmax
 In the transonic regime and beyond it is essential to include
the drag-divergence effects to arrive at realistic Vmax
prediction

CDo

Wave Drag

Profile Drag

Mcrit MDD M
Power Required
 Power required (PR ): necessary power to maintain steady
straight and level flight at a given airspeed V and altitude h
 Just multiply thrust required (T ) with velocity V
R 

 Step-by-step procedure to find PR

 For the given V, calculate CL from: L
W
L  W   V SCL
D T
1
2
2
  CL  V
q S W
q
 Calculate CD from the drag polar:
CD  CD0  KCL2

 Calculate PR using: L

PR  TRV  DV  qSCD V D T

V
W
Power Required Curve
 Typical PR curve:

(PR )min

V( PR )min

Note: there is a certain airspeed at which PR is minimum

Power Required Details
W
PR  TRV  V (1)
CL CD
In steady straight and level flight:
L  W  21 V2SCL
2W
V  (2)
 SCL

2W 3CD2
Substituting (2) into (1) yields: PR 
 SCL3
PR inversely proportinal with CL3 2 CD
(PR )min occurs when CL3 2 CD is maximum
Minimum Power Required (1)
 For parabolic drag polar: CL3 2 CL3 2

CD CD0  KCL2

To find maximum: 
12 32

d (CL3 2 CD ) (CD0  KCL ) 32 CL  CL (2KCL )
2

0

dCL (CD0  KCL )
2 2

CD0  31 K CL2
CL3 2 CD is maximum or PR is minimum when
the parasite drag equals 1/3 the induced drag
34
C 32
 1  3 
 L
 
 CD max 4  KCD1 03 
At the (PR )min condition: 1
 2 W K  2

L W   V
1 2
S 3CD0 K V( PR )min  
2  ( PR )min   S 3CD0 
 
Minimum Power Required (2)
 Relation between V( PR )min and V(TR )min
1 1
 2 W K  2
 2 W K  2

V(TR )min   V( PR )min  

  S CD0    S 3CD0 
   
14
 1
V( PR )min    V(TR )min
3
V( PR )min  0.76V(TR )min

Airspeed for minimum PR is lower than airspeed for minimum TR

Min Thrust Required vs. Min Power Required

PR

(PR )min

V( PR )minV(TR )min
 Example: Minimum Power Required Calculation
 Calculate the minimum power required and the velocity at
which it occurs for the Gulfstream in the previous example
at 30,000 ft and 73,000 lb.
Note: S=950 ft2, AR=5.92, CD0  0.015, K  0.08
34
C  1  3   CD2 
2
 1 
32
 L
   10.83  3     8.526  10
3
 13 
 CD max 4  KCD0   CL max  10.83 

2W 3CD2 2W 3  CD2 
PR  (PR )min   3 
 SCL3  S  CL min
2(73,000)3 (8.526  103 )
 4
 2 . 8  10 6
ft  lb/s
(8.9068  10 )950
1
 2 W K  2

V( PR )min    479.6 ft/s

  S 3CD0 
 
Front and Back Sides Power Region
 Region where V  V( PR )min back side of power curve
 Region where V  V( PR )min front side of power curve

Due to speed stability

back side front side reason, flying on the
back side of the power
curve is undesirable
Typical Power Available
 Typical curve of PA for propeller-driven and jet-propelled
aircraft at certain altitude:
PA approximation Often used simplification:
• Propeller-driven aircraft:
propeller-driven P is constant in the V region
A 
approximation of interest
• Jet-propelled aircraft:
TA is constant in subsonic region
V PA  TA V
PA varies linearly with V
Graphically, PA is straight line
with gradient TA passing
through the origin
Variation with Weight and Altitude
 As with TR, weight and altitude will affect PR
Power Available
 At specific altitude, PA also depends on the power setting
 The largest is P at full throttle (PA )max
A

jet
PA Full power Partial power
Full power
propeller-driven
Partial power

V
Maximum Airspeed from Power Available
 At specific altitude, high-speed intersection of (PA )max and PR
determines Vmax
 Note that since (PA )max and PR vary with altitude, Vmax also

varies with altitude

Propeller-driven Jet
Minimum Airspeed
 We have learnt that high-speed intersection between PR ( TR)
and (PA )max ((TA )max ) curves corresponds toVmax
 Does low-speed intersection between PR (TR ) curve and
(PA )max ((TA )max ) curves correspond to minimum airspeed Vmin?
 It may, but more likely it is not
 Aircraft usually stalls before reaching this low-speed
intersection
Hence Vmin is usually determined from the condition when
the aircraft starts to stall
CL  CLmax
Vmin  Vstall

2 W 1
Reminder: Vstall 
  S CLmax
High-Lift Devices for Lowering Stall Speed
 To avoid stall during low speed flight (e.g. takeoff & landing
phases), high lift devices (e.g. flaps, slats, etc.) are utilized
to increase CL (to lower Vstall)
max
Problem 5.2
 An aircraft with CD0 = 0.020 and K = 0.12 is flying at h =
10 km and M = 0.8. If the aircraft has a wing area of 37.5
m2 and its mass is 11,300 kg:
 What is its drag coefficient and how much drag is it
generating?
 If the aircraft is in steady straight and level flight, how much
thrust is its engine producing?
 What is the power required for this flight situation?
 If its CLmax = 1.8, what is its stall speed at that altitude?
 Answer:
 CD  0.0274 D  12218.55 N
 T = 12218.55 N
 PR = 2,928,542 W
 Vstall  89.125 m/s
Problem 5.3
 A turboprop airplane has a mass of 16,330 kg and a wing
area of 45 m2. The drag polar of this airplane is CD = 0.014
+ 0.05 CL2. It is capable of reaching a maximum speed of
269 m/s at sea level. If the power available is assumed to
be independent of flight speed, calculate the maximum
power available of the airplane.
 Answer: (PA)max = 7511098.9 W