Science 3rd Quarter Reviewer

LESSON 1: Plane Mirrors

➢ Types of Mirrors
1. Plane Mirror
- Flat
- Occasionally has lines on one side to indicate the backside of the mirror
2. Curved/Spherical Mirrors
➢ Concave - inward
➢ Convex - outward

➢ Properties of Light
1. Reflection
- How light behaves in mirrors
- Bouncing off of light
➢ Specular / Regular Reflection
- Occur on smooth surfaces
- 1 direction of reflection
➢ Diffused Reflection
- Occur on rough surfaces
- Light rays are scattered in many directions
2. Refraction
- How light behaves in lenses
- Bending of light
 LAW OF REFLECTION

➢ Parts
1. Incident Ray
- Cause of reflection
- Ray that strikes the surface
2. Reflected Ray
- Nonexistent without the Incident Ray
3. Normal
- fixed position
- Always between the 2 Rays (ir and rr)
- Always perpendicular/creates a right angle from the mirror
- Each side from the Normal is 90° in total
4. Angle of Incidence the angle between
5. Angle of Reflection the incident/reflected ray

● Measurement of Incident Ray and Reflected Ray are always the same
● Right Angle or 90 degree - general definite answer from normal mirror

INCIDENT RAY/ANGLE = REFLECTED RAY/ANGLE (i=r)

Ex. Angle AD (Angle of Incidence) = 27°
Angle DC (Angle of Reflection) = also 27°
Angle DO & DP (Normal to Mirror) = 90°
27° Angle AO = 90° - 27° = 63°
Angle AO = Angle CP, therefore, CP = 63°
O 63° 63° P

Angle of Incidence = 30°

Angle of Reflection = 30°
30° Normal = Always 90°
Normal to Mirror = 90° - 30° = 60°
60° 60°

➢ Image Formation of PLANE MIRRORS

- Upright, same, not inverted

General Properties
L - Location : distance of image and object (di=do)
O - Orientation : upright If O is upright,
S - Size : size of image and object (si=so) T is automatically
T - Type : Virtual VIRTUAL

➢ Locating Image
- Uses the Ray Diagram
- The Incident Ray starts from the two
Points of an object
- Reflects towards the observer/eye
- Reflection ray extends to the back of the
Mirror, creating the image at the same size & distance

➢ How To?
1. Start with the 2 incident rays and form them from the top and bottom of the image
to the mirror.
2. Place the reflected rays and extend to the back of the mirror to create the object
3. Plot the object through the help of the rays
4. Don't forget to draw the arrows

LESSON 2: Curved Mirrors

Curved Mirror
- Curved reflecting surface
- Involves incident and reflected rays
- Its surface is a section of a sphere
➢ Concave - inward; “cave”, it opens sa object
➢ Convex - outward
- The two types of curved mirrors can interchange (convex can be concave vice
versa) depending on the placement of the object

3 Types of Ray (signifies the direction of the incident ray)

1. Center of Curvature Ray
2. Focal Ray
3. Principal Ray
 - If the object is somewhat being surrounded by the mirror = concave
- If the object is somewhat “outside” of a mirror = convex

➢ General Properties
L - Location : distance of image and object (di>do) or (di<do)
O - Orientation : upright or inverted If O is upright,
S - Size : size of image and object (si=so) T is automatically
T - Type : Virtual or Real VIRTUAL

*Concave mirrors can form both virtual & real images

*Convex mirrors can only form virtual images

➢ Parts of a Curved Mirror

Center of Curvature - point in the center of the sphere from which the mirror was
sliced
Focus - point between the vertex and the center of curvature
Vertex - point on the mirror’s surface where the principal axis meets the mirror
Principal Axis - line passing through the center of the sphere & mirror
Radius of Curvature - distance from the vertex to the center of curvature
Focal Length - distance from the mirror to the focal point

➢ Types of Rays & Ray Diagram

● Concave
Principal Ray draw the rays
Focal Ray in this order
Center of Curvature Ray

1. Principal Ray
- Starts from the top of the object
- Goes towards the mirror, parallel to the principal axis
- Reflects down, through the focal point

2. Focal Ray
- Starts from the top of the object
- Goes towards the mirror, through the focal point
- Reflects parallel to the principal axis (opposite of the Principal Ray)
- F = R/2
3. Center of Curvature Ray
- Starts from the top of the object
- Goes through the center of curvature
- Reflects back on itself, hence the two arrows going towards one another
- Optional, but necessary when the principal ray is not applicable

➢ How to form?
1. Create incident ray from top to mirror
2. Pass through the focal point that can be seen inside the mirror
3. From the top, pass through the focal and through the mirror to extend inside the
mirror
4. Plot the object formed
 ● Convex
Principal Ray
Focal Ray

Broken lines = extension of the reflected

ray

1. Principal Ray
- Starts from the top of the object
- Goes towards the mirror, parallel to the principal axis
- Reflects upwards, diagonally
- Its extension goes through the focal point
2. Focal Ray
- Starts from the top of the object
- Goes towards the mirror, diagonally
- Reflects parallel to the principal axis
- Extends back, still parallel

*For every image formation (mirror or lens), the intersection of the rays or
extensions is the topmost point of the image since the rays always start from the
top of the object

LESSON 3: Lenses

- Formed by connecting two spherical transparent surfaces

- Property of light: Refraction - light bends through lenses

➢ Types of Lenses
1. Convex lenses
- Bulging outward
- AKA Converging Lenses - rays converge after falling on the lens
2. Concave Lenses
- Curved inward
- AKA Diverging Lenses - rays diverge after falling on the lens
 Converge
Diverge

➢ Parts of Curved Lenses

/ vertex

● 2F - twice the distance of F

➢ Types of Rays & Ray Diagram

● Convex Principal Ray Draw the rays
Focal Ray in this order
Center of Curvature Ray
 1. Principal Ray
- Starts from the top of the object
- Goes to the lens, parallel to the principal axis
- Refracts / bends down to the focal point on the right side
2. Focal Ray
- Starts from the top of the object
- Goes to the lens, diagonally, through the left focal point
- Refracts / bends parallel to the principal axis
3. Center of Curvature Ray
- Starts from the top of the object
- Goes through the vertex of the lens
- Optional, necessary when the focal ray is not applicable

● Concave Principal Ray

Focal Ray
Center of Curvature Ray

1. Principal Ray
- Goes towards the lens, parallel to
the principal axis
- Refracts upwards, diagonally
- Its extension goes through the
left focal point
2. Focal Ray
- Goes towards the lens, diagonally, to the angle that leads to the right focal point
- Refracts parallel to the principal axis on the other side
- The ray’s extension goes through the right focal point

LESSON 4: Coordinated Functions

➢ Endocrine System
- “Chemical messenger system”
- Organs are pertained to as “glands”
- Composed of several glands that
produce hormones
- For development and growth
- Key system out of the 3 body systems
since all of the glands are there / every other
parts of the systems are there
 - For nervous: Brain mainly the hypothalamus
- For reproductive: Ovary, Testes, Pituitary, and Hypothalamus

~ Major Glands
- Produce hormones

1. Ovary
- Produces Estrogen
Develops secondary sex characteristics in females
Plays an important role in the menstrual cycle
- Produces Progesterone
Thickening of the endometrium
2. Pancreas
- Produces Insulin
Normalizes high sugar levels
- Produces Glucagon
Normalizes low sugar levels
3. Kidneys
- Produces Adrenaline
“Fight or flight response” at the height of emotion
Deals with the heart

4. Testicles / Testes (Testis - singular)

- Produces Testosterone
Develops secondary sex characteristics in males
Responsible for the Adam's apple, voice change, etc.

5. Thymus
- Produces Thymosin
Stimulates production of immune cells (T Cells
protect bodies from foreign invaders)
6. Thyroid
- Produces Thyroxine
Regulates metabolism

7. Pituitary Gland (Anterior & Posterior)

- Produces Oxytocin
Happy / feel good hormone / Dopamine
Stimulates contractions for labor & lactation
8. Pineal Gland
- Produces Melatonin
Regulates the sleep cycle wake/sleep cycle / circadian
rhythm

9. Hypothalamus
- Produces Gonadotropin - Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
Produce LH (Luteinizing Hormone) and FSH (Follicle
Stimulating Hormone) which make testosterone in
males and Estrogen & Progesterone in females

➢ Nervous System
- Major organ: Brain
- Control center of the body

~ Basic Functions:
➢ Receives Information to be able
➢ Sends to control our body
➢ Processes

~ 2 Main Parts of the Nervous System

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Made up of the brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System ((PNS)
- Consists of the neurons & nerves that form the communication
network between CNS and the body parts
● Neurons - single form of nerve cell
● Nerves - bundles of neuron
● Nerve Cells -
- Building block / basic unit of communication in the
NS
~ 3 Types
1. Sensory Neuron - Receives Information
2. Interneuron - Processes Information
3. Motor Neuron - Causes Actions
Parts of a Neuron
1. Dendrites
- Finger-like cells present on the end of a neuron
- Increases the surface area available for
receiving incoming info
- Receiving or input portions of a neuron
- One the two branches of a neuron
2. Axon
- One the two branches of a neuron
- Carries nerve impulses away from the Cell
Body to be received by other neurons
- Sends info to & from the Cell Body to the
dendrites of other neurons or to other body
tissues, such as muscles
- Connects with other neurons / receptors (5
senses)
3. Myelin Sheath
- Protection of Axon
- Helps speed nerve transmissions
4. Nucleus
- Provides energy / primary source of energy for
the Cell Body
- Controls the cell’s activities and contains the
cell’s genetic material
5. Cell Body / Soma
- Housing of the nucleus

➢ Reproductive System
- Production of Gametes (Reproductive Cells - Egg or Sperm)
- Fertilization & Development of a new individual
- Production of Reproductive Hormones
- Responsible for procreation/offspring

~ Male Reproductive System

- Secretion / Production of Male Sex Hormones
- Production of sperm cells
- Transfer of sperm cells
 ● Spermatogenesis - Production of sperm

FEEDBACK MECHANISM OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE

(closed loop that maintain internal balance)

releases FSH = Inhibin

LH = Testosterone
LH & FSH are made - plays important
role in inhibition

then transported to the

● LH - Luteinizing Hormone
● FSH - Follicle Stimulating Hormone
● Inhibin - hormone
● Inhibit - to stop / prevent
● Secretion - production

In Summary:
- The Hypothalamus releases GnRH to the Anterior Pituitary Gland
- GnRH stimulates the AP Gland to produce LH & FSH
- LH & FSH are transported to the testicles to undergo spermatogenesis
- LH goes to the leydig cells that trigger the release of testosterone for inhibition
- while FSH goes to the sertoli cells for production of sperm cells for
spermatogenesis
- Sperm is indeed produced, but the hormones: Inhibin and Testosterone also are
- The two hormones produced prevent secretion of GnRH, LH, and FSH to
normalize hormone levels and achieve Homeostasis (internal balance)
~ Female Reproductive System
- Production of female sex cells
- Production of female sex hormones
- Receiving sperm cells from the male
- Nurturing the development of and providing nourishment for the new individual
- Has positive and negative feedback

● The Menstrual Cycle

- Process / preparation for pregnancy or menstruation
- Typically 28 days long
- Continues even after the bleeding has stopped
- Has 4 phases

20 - 30’s = 31 days
Teen’s = 45 days
Normal = 28 days

FEEDBACK MECHANISM FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

releases

are created
& sent to the ovary
LH - responsible
for ovulation
FSH - 1st one to
these 2 hormones release out of
the 2
are produced
into the uterus

1. The hypothalamus releases GnRH to the AR

2. AR releases FHS to the ovary to produce Estrogen
3. High level of estrogen stops the production of FHS
4. Estrogen stimulates hypo to produce GnRH to produce LH
5. Once LH is produce, is stimulates the production of progesterone
6. High level of progesterone inhibits the production of LH
7. Progesterone is responsible for the thickening of the endometrium
➢ Phases of the Menstrual Cycle
1. Menstruation Day 1-7
- Different from the menstrual cycle as it is just a part of the cycle
- Commonly known as period
- 1st day: Endometrium (uterus lining) sheds & bleeding has started
- Normal duration: 3 - 7 days
- Begins when an egg from the previous cycle wasn’t fertilized
- Endometrium (protects eggs) sheds as it is no longer needed
- Twice a month = super abnormal, may lead to being anemic
- Experience cramps, headache, fatigue and nauseous

2. Follicular Phase Day 8-13

- Stimulates follicles
● Follicle
- Fluid-filled sac inside ovary
- Holds one egg per cycle
- Stimulates estrogen for ovulation
- Starts on the first day of menstruation
- Pituitary Gland releases FSH which stimulates the growth of eggs in
the ovaries
- Follicles & Estrogen are stimulated as it prepares an egg to be
released

3. Ovulation Day 14
- Roughly midway through the cycle (≈ 14th day)
- An egg is released from the ovaries to the fallopian tube
 - Egg ruptures once the follicle is mature
- Woman is most fertile
4. Luteal Phase Day 15-28
- Development of Corpus Luteum (matured form of follicle)
- releases progesterone for endometrium
- Endometrium is thick & ready for fertilized egg to implant
- Ovaries make progesterone which helps regulate the cycle and prepare
the uterus for pregnancy
- Not Pregnant: Endometrium will break down and result in
menstruation instead of protecting a fertilized egg = the cycle
repeats until menopause

DAY 1
- The thick lining of the uterus breaks down and flows out slowly

DAY 3-7
- The uterus lining gradually begins to thicken up again
- The uterus lining is thick and waiting for a fertilized egg

Day 14
- Woman is most fertile
- The release egg is traveling down the fallopian tube to be fertilized

DAY 28
- The uterus lining begins to gradually thicken up again