GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS

Geol 221: Geomorphology

Outline
I. Geomorphic Systems
II. Geomorphic Models
III. Form/Morphometry
I. Geomorphic Systems
• A system composed of various
components/variables that interact with one
another to form a regular and connected whole.

• A change in any of the variables will tend to cause

readjustments of the landform and as well as the
process/es.
A hillslope as a system, showing storages (waste mantle), inputs (e.g. wind
deposition and debris production), outputs (e.g. wind erosion), throughputs
(debris transport), and units (channel, valleyside slope, interfluve).
Review:

What are isolated, closed, and

open systems?
These systems are also considered
dissipative systems, which means that
irreversible processes resulting in the
dissipation of energy (generally in form of
friction or turbulence govern them).
Cont.

Classifying Geomorphic Systems

Two conceptions of systems are important in
geomorphology (Hugget, 1985):

1. Systems as Process and Form Structures

2. Systems as Simple or Complex Structures

Cont.

1. Geomorphic Systems as Form and Process Structures

Four kinds of geomorphic system may be identified under
this classification:
a. Form or Morphological Systems
b. Process Systems
c. Process-form Systems/Process-response systems
d. Control Systems
Cont.

a. Form or Morphological Systems

✓ are sets of form variables deemed to interrelate in a
meaningful way in terms of system origin or system function.
✓ Form elements includes the size, shape, or physical
properties of a landform
Cont.

b. Process Systems
✓ also called cascading or flow systems
✓ Defined as interconnected pathways of transport of energy
or matter or both, together with such storages of energy
and matter as may be required (Strahler, 1980)
Cont.

c. Process-form/Process-response Systems
✓ comprise an energy-flow system linked to a form system in
such a way that system processes may alter the system form
and, in turn, the changed system form alters the system
processes
A cliff and talus slope viewed as (a) a form system, (b) a flow or cascading system,
and (c) a process–form or process–response system.
 What is a negative and positive
geomorphic feedback?

Answer:
Negative feedback occurs when a change in a system
sets in motion a sequence of changes that eventually neutralize
the effects of the original change, so stabilizing the system.
Positive feedback relationships are characterized by an original
change being magnified and the system being unstable.
Feedback relationships in geomorphic systems. (a) Negative feedback in
a valley-side slope–stream system. (b) Positive feedback in an eroding
hillslope system.
Cont.

d. Control Systems
✓ are process–form systems that interact with humans. They
include managed rivers, coasts with sea defenses, and some
caves
Cont.

2. Geomorphic Systems as Simple or Complex Structures

Three main types of system are recognized under this
classification:
a. Simple Systems
b. Complex but disorganized system
c. Systems of a complex and organized nature
Cont.

a. Simple Systems
✓ A set of variables connected together and acting upon each
other according to certain laws as a system.
✓ E.g., A few boulders resting on a talus slope is a simple
system.

a. Complex but Disorganized Systems

✓ A vast number of objects interact in a weak and haphazard
way.
✓ E.g., the countless individual particles in a hillslope mantle
could be regarded as a complex but rather disorganized
system.
Cont.

c. Systems of Complex and Organized Nature

✓ objects are seen to interact strongly with one another
✓ E.g. A hillslope represented as a process–form system
could be placed into this category. Other examples
include soils, rivers, and beaches.
Cont.

System Hierarchy: the Scale Problem

• A big problem faced by geomorphologists is that, as the size
of geomorphic systems increases, the explanations of their
behavior may change.
• A similar problem applies to the time dimension i.e., the
results of short-term studies to explain how geomorphic
systems (that have history that goes back centuries, millennia,
or even millions of years) will change over long periods is
beset with difficulties.
II. Geomorphic Models
• a geomorphic model is a simplified representation
of some aspect of a real landform
• It is an attempt to describe, analyze, simplify or
display a geomorphic system (Strahler, 1980).
Cont.

Types of Geomorphic Models (Hugget, 1993)

Cont.

1. Hardware Model
➢ simplest model which involves a change of scale to represent
the system.
➢ There are two kinds of this model:
a. Scale (Iconic) Models
- are miniature, sometimes gigantic, copies of a certain
geomorphic system
b. Analogue Models
- are more abstract scale models such as maps and
remotely sensed images.
Cont.

2. Conceptual Model
➢ are initial attempts to clarify loose thoughts about the structure
and function of a geomorphic system. They often form the
basis for the construction of mathematical models.
3. Mathematical Model
➢ translate the ideas encapsulated in a conceptual model into
the formal, symbolic logic of mathematics.
➢ Three chief classes of this model assist the study of
geomorphic systems:
a. Stochastic Models
b. Statistical Models
c. Deterministic Models
Cont.

a. Stochastic Models
- have a random component built into them that describes a
system, or some facet of it, based on probability.
b. Statistical Models
- the random components represent unpredictable fluctuations
in laboratory or field data that may arise from measurement error,
equation error, or the inherent variability of the objects being measured
c. Deterministic Models
- are conceptual models expressed mathematically and
containing no random components. They are derivable from physical
and chemical principles without recourse to experiment.
III. Form
The two main approaches to form in geomorphology
are description (field description and morphological
mapping) and mathematical representation
(geomorphometry).
Cont.

Field Description and Morphological Mapping

➢ The mapping of landforms is an art (Dacombe and Gardiner,
1983; Evans, 1994).
➢ Morphological mapping attempts to identify basic landform
units in the field, on aerial photographs, or on maps.
Geomorphometry
➢ A branch of geomorphology concerned with quantitative study of the
form of the land surface (see Hengl and Reuter, 2009).
➢ It is an important component of terrain analysis and surface modelling.
➢ Its specific applications include measuring the morphometry of
continental ice surfaces, characterizing glacial troughs, mapping sea-floor
terrain types, guiding missiles, assessing soil erosion, analyzing wildfire
propagation, and mapping ecoregions (Pike 1995, 1999).
Digital Elevation Models (DEM)
➢ It is an ordered array of numbers that represent the spatial
distribution of elevations above some arbitrary datum in a
landscape (Moore et al. 1991, 4).
➢ Topographic elements of a landscape can be computed
directly from a DEM.
Remote Sensing
➢ Measurement of some property of an object by a
recording device that is not in physical contact with
the object.

➢ Two components:
➢ Data collection system = Sensor
➢ Platform to carry the sensor

➢ Remotely sensed data can be derived from sensors

on satellites or on aircrafts.
Stereoscope
Aja!