Unit - 2 Analytic Geometry

Chapter 18
Vectors
“The secret of science is to ask the right questions, and it is the choice of problem more than
anything else that marks the man of genius in the scientific world.”
– Henry Tizard
Introduction
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In our day-to-day life, we use various terms like mass, length, time, distance, speed, area, volume,
density, temperature, energy, work, etc., whose measurement can be expressed in simple numbers
together with appropriate units of measurement. However, some quantities are tricky to deal with. For
instance, if you want to travel from one place to another, you will not only want to know how far apart the
two places are (i.e., the distance between them), but you will also need to know the direction that leads
e.
from one to the other. The physical quantity that combines distance and direction is called displacement.
The other physical quantities that also require direction are velocity, acceleration, force, weight, etc. This
leads us to the concept of scalar and vector quantities.
Let us consider the following two statements.
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(i) The mass of a body is 2 kg. (ii) The displacement of a body is 2 m.
In statement (a), we have complete information. To ask its direction is a meaningless question, so we
say that mass is a scalar. In statement (b), we have incomplete information because direction of the
displacement is not given. However, the statement that ‘The displacement of a body is 2 m towards east’
is meaningful and gives us complete information, so we say that displacement is a vector.
With this understanding, let us now study the exact definition of scalars and vectors. Later in this chapter,
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we shall study some basic concepts about vectors, various mathematical operations on vectors and some
important properties of vectors.
18.1 Scalars and Vectors
The physical quantities can be divided into the following two classes:
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Scalars: The quantities which have only magnitude but no direction are called scalars (or scalar
quantities), for example, mass, volume, density, time, distance, speed, work, temperature, angle, etc.
They are represented by single letters such as a, b, c, . . .
Vectors: The quantities which have magnitude as well as direction are called vectors (or vector
quantities), for example, displacement, velocity, force, etc. They are represented by single letters
C
with an arrow on them such as ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c, . . .

Let us now study some basic concepts about vectors.
18.1.1 Geometrical Representation of a Vector ⃗a
Geometrically, a vector can be represented by a directed line segment. A B
A directed line segment is a line segment with an arrowhead. The vector
−−→
shown on the right is denoted by AB (read as ‘vector AB’) or ⃗a (read as ‘vector a’). The starting point
A is called initial point or tail. The ending point B is called terminal point or head.
The length of the line segment AB indicates the magnitude of the vector ⃗a and the direction of arrowhead
indicates the direction of the vector ⃗a.
Remark 18.1 Magnitude of vector ⃗a is called modulus or absolute value of ⃗a and it is denoted by |⃗a|.
18.2Jai Shri Ram Bansal’s Mathematics – ISC XII
18.1.2 Types of Vectors
In this subsection, we shall discuss some important types of vectors.
Zero Vector / Null Vector: It is a vector whose magnitude is zero. It is denoted by ⃗0.
A zero vector cannot be assigned a definite direction, so we can regard a zero vector to be having
any direction.
Unit Vector: It is a vector whose magnitude is unity (i.e., 1 unit).
Equal Vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude and same direction.
If two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are equal, then we write ⃗a = ⃗b. If two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are unequal, then we
write ⃗a ̸= ⃗b.
in
⃗a ⃗c ⃗e
⃗b d⃗ f⃗
Figure 18.1 Figure 18.2 Figure 18.3
e.
In Figure 18.1, the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b have same magnitude and same direction, hence ⃗a = ⃗b.
In Figure 18.2, the vectors ⃗c and d⃗ have different magnitudes but same direction, hence ⃗c ̸= d.
⃗
In Figure 18.3, the vectors ⃗e and f have same magnitude but different directions, hence ⃗e ̸= f⃗.
⃗
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Coinitial Vectors: The vectors having same initial point are called coinitial vectors.
Collinear / Parallel Vectors: Two or more vectors are said to be collinear vectors if they are parallel
to the same line, irrespective of their magnitudes and directions.
Like Vectors: Two vectors are said to be like vectors if they have the same direction, irrespective of
their magnitudes.
Unlike Vectors: Two vectors are said to be unlike vectors if they have the opposite directions,
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irrespective of their magnitudes.
⃗a
⃗b
⃗c
⃗a ⃗b ⃗c d⃗ ⃗b
⃗a
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Figure 18.4 Figure 18.5 Figure 18.6

In Figure 18.4, the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are coinitial, as they have the same initial point O.
In Figure 18.5, the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are vectors, as they are parallel to the same line, but d⃗ is not collinear
C
to any of these vectors.

In Figure 18.1, ⃗a and ⃗b are like vectors, as they have the same direction.
In Figure 18.6, ⃗a and ⃗b are unlike vectors, as they have the opposite directions.
Negative of a Vector: Negative vector of a given vector ⃗a is a vector whose magnitude is same as
that of ⃗a but direction is opposite to that of ⃗a.
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
Negative vector of ⃗a is denoted by −⃗a. Negative vector of AB is BA and we write BA = −AB.
Free Vector: A vector that can be subjected to a parallel displacement without changing its
magnitude and direction is called a free vector.
Remark 18.2 (i) All the vectors defined above are free vectors. In this chapter, we shall deal only
with free vectors.
Section 18.1 Vectors Jai Shri Ram18.3
(ii) We have the following standard directions as shown in Figure 18.7:

(a) North (b) North-East
(c) East (d) South-East
(e) South (f) South-West
(g) West (h) North-West
(iii) Other directions, that are not included in the above list, can be denoted by giving the angle and
mentioning the correct orientation from the following list as shown in Figure 18.8:
(a) East of North (shown as ➊) (b) North of East (shown as ➋)
(c) South of East (shown as ➌) (d) East of South (shown as ➍)
(e) West of South (shown as ➎) (f) South of West (shown as ➏)
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(g) North of West (shown as ➐) (h) West of North (shown as ➑)
North
North
North-West North-East ➑ ➊
e.
◦
45
➐ ➋
West East West East
➏ ➌
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South-West South-East ➎ ➍
South South
Figure 18.7 Figure 18.8
(iv) North-East direction can also be denoted by 45 East of North or 45◦ North of East. Similarly, we
◦
can do for other directions.

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(v) 35◦ North of East is same as 55◦ East of North (see Figure 18.9).
(vi) 30◦ South of West is same as 60◦ West of South (see Figure 18.10).
North North
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55◦
35◦
West East West East
30◦
60◦
C
South South
Let us consider the following examples.

Example 1 Classify the following as scalar and vector quantities:
(i) Force (ii) Work (iii) Volume
(iv) Density (v) Energy (vi) Power
Solution: (i) Vector (ii) Scalar (iii) Scalar
(iv) Scalar (v) Scalar (vi) Scalar
Example 2 Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors:
(i) 10 kg (ii) −5◦ C (iii) 50◦
(iv) 7 metres (v) 20 m/s (vi) 25 km/h due South
Solution: (i) Mass – Scalar (ii) Temperature – Scalar (iii) Angle – Scalar
(iv) Distance – Scalar (v) Speed – Scalar (vi) Velocity – Vector
Example 3 (NCERT) In the adjoining figure, which of the vectors are:

(i) collinear, ⃗c
(ii) equal, or
(iii) coinitial? d⃗
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⃗a ⃗b
(Scale : 0.4 cm = 1 unit)
Solution: (i) ⃗a, ⃗c, d⃗ (ii) ⃗a, ⃗c (iii) ⃗b, ⃗c, d⃗
e.
1
Example 4 In the given figure, AB = BC = EF = DE = BD, then find:
2
(i)Equal vectors. A B C
(ii)Collinear/Parallel vectors.
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(iii)Coinitial vectors.
F
(iv) Like vectors.
(v) Unlike Vectors.
−−→
(vi) Negative vector of BA.
E D
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−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
Solution: (i) ED, BC (ii) BA, BC, ED; F E, DB
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
(iii) BA, BC (iv) BC, ED
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
(v) BA, BC; BA, ED; F E, DB (vi) BC, ED
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Example 5 Represent the following displacements graphically:

(i) 20 km, 35◦ North of East (ii) 15 km, 40◦ West of North
C
Solution: (i) North (ii) North
A A 40◦
35◦
West East West East
O O
South South
(Scale : 1 cm = 10 km) (Scale : 1 cm = 10 km)
−→ −→
Here, OA = 20 km, 35◦ North of East. Here, OA = 15 km, 40◦ West of North.
Exercise 18.1
1. State True or False for each of the following statements:
(i) The magnitude of a unit vector is 1.
(ii) Two vectors are said to be like vectors if their magnitudes are same.
(iii) A vector can be represented by a directed line segment.
2. Fill in the blanks in each of the following:
(i) Two vectors are said to be equal if they have and .
(ii) Zero vector has magnitude .
(iii) The vectors having same initial point are called .
3. Classify the following measures as scalars and vectors:
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(i) 10 cm3 (ii) 20 Newton (iii) 15 Joule
(iv) 12.5 g/cm3 (v) 50 km along West (vi) 100 m/s
4. Classify the following as scalar and vector quantities:
e.
(i) Mass (ii) Distance (iii) Displacement
(iv) Velocity (v) Speed (vi) Temperature
5. In the given figure, find
(i) Equal vectors B A
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(ii) Collinear vectors / Parallel vectors E
(iii) Coinitial vectors F G
(iv) Like vectors C D
(v) Unlike vectors
−−→
(vi) Negative vector of EF
⃗a
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6. In the given figure, find
(i) Equal vectors
d⃗ ⃗b
(ii) Collinear but unequal vectors
(iii) Co-initial vectors [NCERT] ⃗c
7. Represent the following displacements graphically:
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(i) 15 km, 40◦ East of North (ii) 25 km, 30◦ North of West
(iii) 20 km, 60◦ West of South (iv) 20 km, 35◦ South of East
(v) 25 km, 30◦ South of West (vi) 20 km, 60◦ East of South
C
Multiple Choice Questions (Select one correct choice)

8. The measure 12 cm2 represents
(a) area (b) volume (c) force (d) speed
9. The measure 12 m/s along North represents
(a) distance (b) displacement (c) speed (d) velocity
Answers 18.1
1. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True
2. (i) same magnitude, same direction (ii) 0
(iii) coinitial vectors
3. (i) Volume – Scalar (ii) Force – Vector (iii) Work – Scalar
(iv) Density – Scalar (v) Displacement – Vector (vi) Speed – Scalar
4. (i) Scalar (ii) Scalar (iii) Vector
(iv) Vector (v) Scalar (vi) Scalar
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
5. (i) None (ii) AB, CD, EF , EG; BC, DE
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
(iii) EF , EG (iv) CD, EG; AB, EF
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
(v) AB, EG; AB, CD, EF , EG; BC, DE; CD, EF (vi) EG
6. (i) ⃗b, d⃗ (ii) ⃗a, ⃗c (iii) ⃗a, d⃗
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7.
North North
A
40◦ A
e.
30◦
(i) West O
East (ii) West O
East
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South South
North North
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(iii) West O
East (iv) West O 35◦
East
60◦
A
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South South
C
North North
(v) West 30◦ O

East (vi) West O
East
60◦
A
A
South South
8. (a) 9. (d)
18.2 Operations on Vectors

We are familiar with the concept of addition, difference, multiplication and division of scalars. Now, we
shall discuss the following mathematical operations on vectors:
(i) Addition of vectors (ii) Difference of vectors
(iii) Scalar multiplication of vectors (iv) Scalar product of two vectors
(v) Vector product of two vectors (vi) Scalar triple product of three vectors
In this section, we shall discuss addition of vectors, difference of vectors and multiplication of a vector
by a scalar. We shall discuss the remaining three operations in the later sections.
18.2.1 Addition of Vectors
In this subsection, we shall understand the addition operation on vectors.
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Addition of Like Vectors: Let ⃗a and ⃗b be two like vectors (i.e., they have the same direction), then
the magnitude of ⃗a + ⃗b is equal to sum of magnitudes of two vectors, i.e., |⃗a + ⃗b| = |⃗a| + |⃗b| and the
direction of ⃗a + ⃗b is same as that of the two given vectors.
e.
⃗a ⃗a ⃗b ⃗a + ⃗b
⃗b
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Addition of Unlike Vectors: Let ⃗a and ⃗b be two unlike vectors (i.e., they have the opposite
directions) such that |⃗a| ≥ |⃗b|, then the magnitude of ⃗a + ⃗b is equal to the difference of magnitudes
of the two vectors, i.e., |⃗a + ⃗b| = |⃗a| − |⃗b| and the direction of ⃗a + ⃗b is same as that of the vector with
larger magnitude, i.e., ⃗a.
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⃗a ⃗a ⃗a + ⃗b
⃗b
⃗b
In case, the two vectors are neither like nor unlike, then the addition of two vectors can be done using
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triangle law of vectors and parallelogram law of vectors.
⃗b
⃗a
C
Triangle Law of Vectors: If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides
of a triangle taken in order, then their sum (or resultant) is represented in magnitude and direction by
the third side of the triangle, taken in opposite order.
In this method, we coincide the head of ⃗a on the tail of ⃗b and represent them as two sides of a triangle,
then ⃗a + ⃗b is the third side of the triangle in opposite order.
C
⃗ −−→ −−→ −→
⃗a + b ⃗b i.e., AB + BC = AC
A ⃗a B
Parallelogram Law of Vectors: If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the
two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then their sum (or resultant) is represented
in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram, drawn from the same point.
In this method, we coincide the tail of ⃗a on the tail of ⃗b and represent them as two adjacent sides of a
paralleogram, then ⃗a + ⃗b is the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the same point.
B C
⃗b ⃗a + ⃗b −→ −−→ −−→
i.e., OA + OB = OC
O ⃗a A
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Let us now discuss some important properties of vector addition.
Theorem 18.1 (Properties of vector addition) We have the following:
(i) Vector addition is commutative: For any two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, we have ⃗a + ⃗b = ⃗b + ⃗a .
(ii) Vector addition is associative: For any three vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c, we have
e.
(⃗a + ⃗b) + ⃗c = ⃗a + (⃗b + ⃗c).
Thus, we can write the vector sum on either side as ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c.
(iii) Existence of additive identity: For any vector ⃗a, we have ⃗a + ⃗0 = ⃗0 + ⃗a = ⃗a.
The zero vector ⃗0 is called the additive identity for the vector addition.
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(iv) Existence of additive inverse: For any vector ⃗a, we have ⃗a + (−⃗a) = (−⃗a) + ⃗a = ⃗0.
The vector (−⃗a) is called the additive inverse (or negative) of the vector ⃗a.
18.2.2 Difference of Vectors

In this subsection, we shall discuss the subtraction opertaion on vectors. The laws of vector addition
(i.e., triangle law of vectors and parallelogram law of vectors) are equally applicable to the process of
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subtraction of vectors.
Difference of Vectors: Subtraction of a vector ⃗b from a vector ⃗a is defined as the addition of vector
(−⃗b) to vector ⃗a, i.e., ⃗a − ⃗b = ⃗a + (−⃗b).
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For any two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, we now understand the application of triangle law and parallelogram law to
compute ⃗a − ⃗b as the sum of ⃗a and −⃗b.
D D
⃗b ⃗b
C
⃗a ⃗a
A B O A
−⃗b
⃗a + (−⃗b) −⃗b ⃗a + (−⃗b)
B
C C
(i) From Figure 18.11, on applying triangle law of vectors to ∆ABC, we have
−−→ −−→ −→
⃗a − ⃗b = ⃗a + (−⃗b) = AB + BC = AC.
(ii) From Figure 18.12, on applying parallelogram law of vectors to parallelogram OACB, we have
−→ −−→ −−→
⃗a − ⃗b = ⃗a + (−⃗b) = OA + OB = OC.
18.2.3 Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

Let us now understand the operation of scalar multiplication of vectors.
Scalar Multiplication of Vectors: Let ⃗a be a given vector and k be a scalar. Then, the multiplication
of the vector ⃗a by the scalar k is defined as a vector (denoted by k⃗a) such that
(i) magnitude of k⃗a is |k| times the magnitude of ⃗a, i.e., |k⃗a| = |k| |⃗a|.
(ii) If k is positive, then direction of k⃗a is same as that of ⃗a and if k is negative, then direction of
k⃗a is opposite to that of ⃗a, .
Remark 18.3 (i) If k = 0, then k⃗a = 0⃗a = ⃗0.

(ii) If ⃗a = ⃗0, then k⃗a = k⃗0 = ⃗0.
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(iii) Two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are parallel (or collinear), if there exists a non-zero scalar k such that ⃗a = k⃗b.
If k > 0, then ⃗a and ⃗b are like vectors and if k < 0, then ⃗a and ⃗b are unlike vectors.
We have the properties of scalar multiplication stated as a theorem.
Theorem 18.2 (Properties of Scalar Multiplication) Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors and let k, m
e.
be any scalars. Then,
(i) (k + m)⃗a = k⃗a + m⃗a. (ii) (km)⃗a = k(m⃗a). (iii) k(⃗a + ⃗b) = k⃗a + k⃗b.
18.2.4 Unit Vector of a Given Vector

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In this subsection, we shall define the unit vector of a given vector.
Unit Vector of a Given Vector: Let ⃗a be a non-zero vector. Then, the unit vector of ⃗a is a vector
having magnitude unity and direction same as that of ⃗a. It is denoted by â (read as ‘a cap’).
We now compute an expression for unit vector.
1
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Let ⃗a be a non-zero vector and let k = > 0. Z
|⃗a|
1
Then, |k⃗a| = |k| |⃗a| = |⃗a| = 1. C(0, 0, 1)
|⃗a|
⃗a k̂
Thus, k⃗a is a unit vector in the direction of ⃗a and â = k⃗a = .
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|⃗a| ĵ Y
O
Hence, we conclude that î B(0, 1, 0)
⃗a Vector A(1, 0, 0)
â = = X
|⃗a| Modulus of vector
C
Remark 18.4 We have the following standard notations:

−→
(i) Unit vector along positive direction of x-axis = OA and is denoted by î.
−−→
(ii) Unit vector along positive direction of y-axis = OB and is denoted by ĵ.
−−→
(iii) Unit vector along positive direction of z-axis = OC and is denoted by k̂.
18.2.5 Position Vector of a Point in Component Form

Consider a system of coordinate axes OXY Z with origin at O(0, 0, 0). Let P (x, y, z) be any point.
−−→
Then, the vector OP is called the position vector of the point P with respect to O.
−−→ −→ −→
We can write, OP = OT + T P [Applying triangle law of vectors to ∆OT P ]
−−→ −→ −→
= (OQ + QT ) + T P [Applying triangle law of vectors to ∆OQT ]
−−→ −−→ −→ −→ −−→ −→ −→
= OQ + OR + OS [∵ QT = OR and T P = OS]
= xî + y ĵ + z k̂.
Hence, position vector of point P with respect to O is given by Z
−−→
OP = xî + y ĵ + z k̂.
This form of vector is called component form. S
−−→ z k̂
Also, the modulus of the position vector OP can be written as
−−→ p P y ĵ
|OP | = OP = (OT )2 + (T P )2 O Y
xî R
Q
p
= [(OQ)2 + (QT )2 ] + (T P )2
p X T
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= x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
We conclude the following:
Position Vector of a Point: The position vector of a point P (x, y, z) with respect to the origin
−−→ −−→ p
O(0, 0, 0) is given by OP = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ and its modulus is given by |OP | = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
e.
Remark 18.5 (i) x, y and z are called scalar components or rectangular components of the position
−−→
vector OP .
−−→
(ii) xî, y ĵ and z k̂ are called vector components of the position vector OP along x, y and z-axis
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respectively.
18.2.6 Vector Joining Two Points

Consider a system of coordinate axes OXY Z with origin at O(0, 0, 0).
Let A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) be any two points. Z
−→
Then, position vector of A = OA = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂ A
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−−→
and position vector of B = OB = x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂.
B
Now, on applying triangle law of vectors to ∆OAB, we get
−−→ −−→ −→ O Y
AB = OB − OA
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−−→ X
Hence, vector joining points A and B = AB
−−→ −→
= OB − OA
= (x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂) − (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂)
C
= (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂.
Summary of Important Results: If ⃗a and ⃗b are any two vectors given in the component form as
⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ and ⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂. Then,
p
(i) Modulus of ⃗a is given by |⃗a| = a21 + a22 + a23 .
⃗a a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂
(ii) Unit vector of ⃗a is given by â = = p 2 .
|⃗a| a1 + a22 + a23
(iii) The sum (or resultant) of the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by
⃗a + ⃗b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) + (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂) = (a1 + b1 )î + (a2 + b2 )ĵ + (a3 + b3 )k̂.
(iv) The difference of the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by

⃗a − ⃗b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) − (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂) = (a1 − b1 )î + (a2 − b2 )ĵ + (a3 − b3 )k̂.
(v) The multiplication of the vector ⃗a by scalar k is given by
k ⃗a = k (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) = (ka1 )î + (ka2 )ĵ + (ka3 )k̂.
(vi) The vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are equal (i.e., ⃗a = ⃗b), if a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 and a3 = b3 .

Example 1 Find the position vector of the point (−2, 6, 3) and also write its magnitude, scalar (or
rectangular) components and vector components.
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Solution: Given point is A(−2, 6, 3).
−→
Then, position vector of A = OA = −2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂.
−→ −→ p
Hence, magnitude of OA = |OA| = (−2)2 + (6)2 + (3)2 = 7,
−→ −→
scalar components of OA are −2, 6, 3 and vector components of OA are −2î, 6ĵ, 3k̂.
e.
−−→
Example 2 Let O be the origin and P (1, 2, 0) be a point in the xy-plane. Express OP in terms of
−−→
vectors î, ĵ and k̂. Also, find |OP |.
Solution: Given point is P (1, 2, 0) and let O be the origin.
−−→
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Then, position vector of P = OP = î + 2ĵ + 0k̂.
−−→ p √
Also, |OP | = (1)2 + (2)2 + (0)2 = 5.
Example 3 If the position vector of a point (5, 0, n) is of magnitude 13, then find the value(s) of n.
Solution: Given point is A(5, 0, n) and let O be the origin.
−→
Then, position vector of A = OA = 5î + 0ĵ + nk̂.
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−→ p
Given that |OA| = 13 ⇒ (5)2 + (0)2 + (n)2 = 13 ⇒ 25 + n2 = 169
⇒ n2 = 144
⇒ n = ± 12.
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Example 4 (Exemplar) Find the vector with initial point P (2, −3, 5) and terminal point Q(3, −4, 7).
Solution: Given initial point is P (2, −3, 5) and terminal point is Q(3, −4, 7).
−−→
Hence, required vector = P Q = Position vector of Q − Position vector of P
C
= (3î − 4ĵ + 7k̂) − (2î − 3ĵ + 5k̂) = î − ĵ + 2k̂.

−−→
Example 5 Find the coordinates of the point whose position vector is equal to AB, where the
coordinates of A and B are (5, 1, 0) and (−1, 2, 1) respectively.
Solution: Given points are A(5, 1, 0) and B(−1, 2, 1).
−−→
Then, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A
= (−î + 2ĵ + k̂) − (5î + ĵ + 0k̂) = −6î + ĵ + k̂.
−−→
Hence, the coordinates of the point whose position vector is equal to AB are (−6, 1, 1).
Example 6 (NCERT) Find the scalar components and vector components of the vector joining the
points P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ).
Solution: Given points are P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ).
−−→
Then, vector joining P to Q = P Q = Position vector of Q − Position vector of P
= (x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂) − (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂)
= (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂.
−−→
Hence, scalar components of P Q are x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1
−−→
and vector components of P Q are (x2 − x1 )î, (y2 − y1 )ĵ, (z2 − z1 )k̂.
−−→
Example 7 If position vectors of points A and B are ⃗a + 2⃗b and 2⃗a − 3⃗b respectively, then find AB.
Solution: Given that the position vectors of A and B are ⃗a + 2⃗b and 2⃗a − 3⃗b respectively.
in
−−→
Then, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = (2⃗a − 3⃗b) − (⃗a + 2⃗b) = ⃗a − 5⃗b.
Example 8 If the position vectors of the points A(3, 2, 0), B(−5, 6, 1) and C(0, 2, −4) are ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c
respectively, then compute
e.
(i) 2⃗a − ⃗b + 3⃗c. (ii) |2⃗a − ⃗b + 3⃗c|.
Solution: Given ⃗a = Position vector of A(3, 2, 0) = 3î + 2ĵ + 0k̂,

⃗b = Position vector of B(−5, 6, 1) = −5î + 6ĵ + k̂,
yd
⃗c = Position vector of C(0, 2, −4) = 0î + 2ĵ − 4k̂.
(i) 2⃗a − ⃗b + 3⃗c = 2(3î + 2ĵ + 0k̂) − (−5î + 6ĵ + k̂) + 3(0î + 2ĵ − 4k̂)
= (6î + 4ĵ + 0k̂) + (5î − 6ĵ − k̂) + (0î + 6ĵ − 12k̂) = 11î + 4ĵ − 13k̂.
√
(ii) |2⃗a − ⃗b + 3⃗c| = (11)2 + (4)2 + (−13)2 = 306.
p
rif
−−→
Example 9 If AB = 3î + 2ĵ − k̂ and the coordinates of A are (4, 1, 1), then find the coordinates of B.
−−→
Solution: Given AB = 3î + 2ĵ − k̂ and point A(4, 1, 1).
−−→
la
⇒ 3î + 2ĵ − k̂ = Position vector of B − (4î + ĵ + k̂)

⇒ Position vector of B = (3î + 2ĵ − k̂) + (4î + ĵ + k̂) = 7î + 3ĵ + 0k̂.
Hence, the required coordinates of B are (7, 3, 0).
C
Example 10 Find the sum of the vectors ⃗a = î − 3k̂, ⃗b = 2ĵ − k̂, ⃗c = 2î − 3ĵ + 2k̂.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î − 3k̂, ⃗b = 2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗c = 2î − 3ĵ + 2k̂.
Hence, ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = (î − 3k̂) + (2ĵ − k̂) + (2î − 3ĵ + 2k̂) = 3î − ĵ − 2k̂.
Example 11 If |⃗a| = 3, then
(i) describe 2⃗a and find |2⃗a|. (ii) describe −5⃗a and find | − 5⃗a|.
Solution: Given |⃗a| = 3.
(i) Magnitude of 2⃗a is 2 times the magnitude of ⃗a and direction of 2⃗a is same as that of ⃗a.
Also, |2⃗a| = 2 |⃗a| = 6.
(ii) Magnitude of −5⃗a is 5 times the magnitude of ⃗a and direction of −5⃗a is opposite to that of ⃗a.
Also, | − 5⃗a| = 5 |⃗a| = 15.
Example 12 (Exemplar) If |⃗a| = 4 and −3 ≤ λ ≤ 2, then find the range of |λ⃗a|.

Solution: Given |⃗a| = 4.
Also, given that −3 ≤ λ ≤ 2 ⇒ 0 ≤ |λ| ≤ 3 ⇒ 0 ≤ |λ| |⃗a| ≤ 3 |⃗a| [∵ |⃗a| ≥ 0]
⇒ 0 ≤ |λ⃗a| ≤ 12.
Hence, the required range is [0, 12].
Example 13 If ⃗a = xî + 2ĵ − z k̂ and ⃗b = 3î − y ĵ + k̂ are two equal vectors, then write the value of
x + y + z.
Solution: Given ⃗a = xî + 2ĵ − z k̂ and ⃗b = 3î − y ĵ + k̂.
Given that ⃗a = ⃗b ⇒ xî + 2ĵ − z k̂ = 3î − y ĵ + k̂
in
On comparing coefficients of î, ĵ and k̂, we get x = 3, y = −2 and z = −1.
Hence, x + y + z = 3 − 2 − 1 = 0.
Example 14 Let ⃗a = −2î + ĵ, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ and ⃗c = 4î + 3ĵ. Find the values of x and y such that
e.
⃗c = x⃗a + y⃗b.
Solution: Given ⃗a = −2î + ĵ, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ and ⃗c = 4î + 3ĵ.
Given that ⃗c = x⃗a + y⃗b ⇒ 4î + 3ĵ = x(−2î + ĵ) + y(î + 2ĵ)
yd
⇒ 4î + 3ĵ = (−2x + y)î + (x + 2y)ĵ
On comparing coefficients of î and ĵ, we get −2x + y = 4 and x + 2y = 3.
On solving these equations, we get x = −1, y = 2.
Example 15 (NCERT) Let ⃗a = î + 2ĵ and ⃗b = 2î + ĵ. Is |⃗a| = |⃗b|? Are the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b equal?
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + 2ĵ and ⃗b = 2î + ĵ.
rif
√ √
Then, |⃗a| = (1)2 + (2)2 = 5 and |⃗b| = (2)2 + (1)2 = 5 which implies |⃗a| = |⃗b|.
p p
The corresponding components of ⃗a and ⃗b are not equal, hence ⃗a and ⃗b are not equal.
Example 16 (NCERT) If ⃗a = ⃗b + ⃗c, then is it true that |⃗a| = |⃗b| + |⃗c|? Justify your answer.
la
Solution: No. For example, let ⃗a = î + ĵ, ⃗b = î and ⃗c = ĵ, then ⃗a = ⃗b + ⃗c.
√
Also, |⃗a| = (1)2 + (1)2 = 2, |⃗b| = 1 and |⃗c| = 1 which implies |⃗a| = ̸ |⃗b| + |⃗c|.
p
Example 17 If the position vectors of the vertices of a triangle are î + 2ĵ + 3k̂, 2î + 3ĵ + k̂ and
3î + ĵ + 2k̂, show that triangle is equilateral.
C
Solution: Let the position vectors of the vertices A, B and C of a ∆ABC be î + 2ĵ + 3k̂, 2î + 3ĵ + k̂
and 3î + ĵ + 2k̂ respectively. Then,
−−→
AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = (2î + 3ĵ + k̂) − (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = î + ĵ − 2k̂,
−−→
BC = Position vector of C − Position vector of B = (3î + ĵ + 2k̂) − (2î + 3ĵ + k̂) = î − 2ĵ + k̂,
−→
CA = Position vector of A − Position vector of C = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) − (3î + ĵ + 2k̂) = −2î + ĵ + k̂.
−−→ p √ −−→ p √
Also, |AB| = (1)2 + (1)2 + (−2)2 = 6, |BC| = (1)2 + (−2)2 + (1)2 = 6,
−→ p √
|CA| = (−2)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 = 6.
−−→ −−→ −→
Thus, |AB| = |BC| = |CA| and hence ∆ABC is an equilateral triangle.
Example 18 If A, B and C have position vectors 2î, ĵ and 2k̂ respectively, show that ∆ABC is an
isosceles triangle.
Solution: Given that position vectors of the vertices A, B and C of a ∆ABC are 2î, ĵ and 2k̂
respectively. Then,
−−→
AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = (0î + ĵ + 0k̂) − (2î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) = −2î + ĵ + 0k̂,
−−→
BC = Position vector of C − Position vector of B = (0î + 0ĵ + 2k̂) − (0î + ĵ + 0k̂) = 0î − ĵ + 2k̂.
−−→ p √ −−→ p √
Also, |AB| = (−2)2 + (1)2 + (0)2 = 5, |BC| = (0)2 + (−1)2 + (2)2 = 5.
−−→ −−→
Thus, |AB| = |BC| and hence ∆ABC is an isosceles triangle.
in
Example 19 (NCERT) Show that the points, whose position vectors are 2î − ĵ + k̂, î − 3ĵ − 5k̂ and
3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂, form the vertices of a right angled triangle.
Solution: Let position vectors of the vertices A, B and C of a ∆ABC are 2î − ĵ + k̂, î − 3ĵ − 5k̂ and
e.
3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂ respectively. Then,
−−→
AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = (î − 3ĵ − 5k̂) − (2î − ĵ + k̂) = −î − 2ĵ − 6k̂,
−−→
BC = Position vector of C − Position vector of B = (3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂) − (î − 3ĵ − 5k̂) = 2î − ĵ + k̂,
−→
yd
CA = Position vector of A − Position vector of C = (2î − ĵ + k̂) − (3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂) = −î + 3ĵ + 5k̂.
−−→ p √
Also, |AB| = (−1)2 + (−2)2 + (−6)2 = 41, B
−−→ p √
|BC| = (2)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2 = 6,
−→ p √ C A
|CA| = (−1)2 + (3)2 + (5)2 = 35.
rif
−−→ −−→ −→
Thus, |AB|2 = |BC|2 + |CA|2 and hence ∆ABC is a right triangle, right-angled at C.
Example 20 ABCD is a parallelogram. If the coordinates of A, B and C are (2, 3), (1, 4) and (2, −3)
respectively, then find the coordinates of D.
la
Solution: Given that ABCD is a parallelogram, where coordinates of A, B and C are (2, 3), (1, 4) and
(2, −3) respectively. Let the coordinates of D be (x, y). Then,
−−→
AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = (î + 4ĵ) − (2î + 3ĵ) = −î + ĵ,
−−→
DC = Position vector of C − Position vector of D = (2î − 3ĵ) − (xî + y ĵ) = (2 − x)î + (−3 − y)ĵ.
C
−−→ −−→
Now, AB = DC D C
⇒ −î + ĵ = (2 − x)î + (−3 − y)ĵ
On comparing coefficients of î and ĵ, we get
A B
2 − x = −1

⇒ x = 3, y = −4
−3 − y = 1
Hence, coordinates of D are (3, −4).
−−→
Example 21 (Exemplar) The two vectors ĵ + k̂ and 3î − ĵ + 4k̂ represent the two side vectors AB
−→
and AC respectively of the triangle ABC. Find the length of the median through A.
−−→ −→
Solution: Given a triangle ABC whose sides AB and AC are AB = ĵ + k̂ and AC = 3î − ĵ + 4k̂
respectively. Draw lines through B and C, parallel to AC and AB, respectively, to meet in a point D.
Then, ABDC is a parallelogram. C D
By parallelogram law of vectors, we have
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −→ E
AD = AB + BD = AB + AC
= (ĵ + k̂) + (3î − ĵ + 4k̂)
= 3î + 0ĵ + 5k̂. A B
Let the diagonals AD and BC meet in E.
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other, so AE is a median of ∆ABC.
√
1 −−→ 1p 2 34
in
Hence, length of median through A = AE = |AD| = 2
(3) + (0) + (5) = 2 units.
2 2 2
Example 22 (NCERT) A girl walks 4 km towards west, then she walks 3 km in a direction 30◦ east
of north and stops. Determine the girl’s displacement from her initial point of departure.
e.
Solution: Suppose that the girl starts from point O. North
She walks 4 km towards west to reach point A. B
Then, she walks 3 km in a direction 30◦ east of north
to reach point B and stops. 30◦
km
Consider the system of coordinate axes with origin
3
West East
yd
at O as shown in figure. A C O
Draw BC ⊥ OA. 4 km
In ∆ACB, we have
South
AC ◦ ◦ 1 3
= cos 60 ⇒ AC = AB cos 60 = (3) =
AB 2 2
√ ! √
BC 3 3 3
rif
◦ ◦
and = sin 60 ⇒ BC = AB sin 60 = (3) =
AB 2 2
√ !
3 5 5 3 3
Also, OC = OA − AC = 4 − = , so the coordinates of point B are − , .
2 2 2 2
√
la
−−→ 5 3 3
Hence, the required displacement = OB = Position vector of B = − î + ĵ.
2 2
Example 23 Find a unit vector parallel to the vector 2î − 3ĵ + k̂.
Solution: Let the given vector be ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ + k̂.
C
Then, unit vector parallel to ⃗a is given by

⃗a 2î − 3ĵ + k̂ 1
â = =p = √ (2î − 3ĵ + k̂).
|⃗a| 2 2
(2) + (−3) + (1) 2 14
Example 24 (NCERT) Find a vector in the direction of vector 5î − ĵ + 2k̂ that has magnitude 8 units.
Solution: Let ⃗a = 5î − ĵ + 2k̂.
Then, unit vector in the direction of ⃗a is given by
⃗a 5î − ĵ + 2k̂ 1
â = =p = √ (5î − ĵ + 2k̂).
|⃗a| 2 2
(5) + (−1) + (2) 2 30
8
Hence, vector in the direction of ⃗a and having magnitude 8 units = 8â = √ (5î − ĵ + 2k̂).
30
Example 25 Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the given two vectors 2î + 3ĵ − k̂ and
4î − 3ĵ + 2k̂.
Solution: Let ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = 4î − 3ĵ + 2k̂.
Then, sum of ⃗a and ⃗b is ⃗c = ⃗a + ⃗b = (2î + 3ĵ − k̂) + (4î − 3ĵ + 2k̂) = 6î + 0ĵ + k̂.
Hence, unit vector in the direction of ⃗c is given by
⃗c 6î + 0ĵ + k̂ 1
ĉ = =p = √ (6î + 0ĵ + k̂).
|⃗c| (6)2 + (0)2 + (1)2 37
Example 26 (NCERT) Find a vector of magnitude 5 units and parallel to the resultant of the vectors
⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = î − 2ĵ + k̂.
in
Solution: Given vectors are ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = î − 2ĵ + k̂.
Then, resultant of vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is ⃗r = ⃗a + ⃗b = (2î + 3ĵ − k̂) + (î − 2ĵ + k̂) = 3î + ĵ + 0k̂.
Hence unit vector in the direction of ⃗r is given by
e.
⃗r 3î + ĵ + 0k̂ 1
r̂ = =p = √ (3î + ĵ).
|⃗r| 2 2
(3) + (1) + (0) 2 10
5
Hence, vector parallel to ⃗r and having magnitude 5 units = 5r̂ = √ (3î + ĵ).
10
yd
Example 27 If ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + ĵ − 5k̂, find a unit vector in the direction of 2⃗a − ⃗b.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + ĵ − 5k̂.
Then, 2⃗a − ⃗b = 2(î + 2ĵ − k̂) − (3î + ĵ − 5k̂) = (2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂) − (3î + ĵ − 5k̂) = −î + 3ĵ + 3k̂.
Hence, unit vector in the direction of ⃗r = 2⃗a − ⃗b is given by
rif
⃗r −î + 3ĵ + 3k̂ 1
r̂ = =p = √ (−î + 3ĵ + 3k̂).
|⃗r| 2 2
(−1) + (3) + (3) 2 19
−−→
Example 28 Write a unit vector in the direction of vector P Q, where P and Q are the points (1, 3, 0)
and (4, 5, 6) respectively.
la
Solution: Given points are P (1, 3, 0) and Q(4, 5, 6).

−−→
Then, P Q = Position vector of Q − Position vector of P
= (4î + 5ĵ + 6k̂) − (î + 3ĵ + 0k̂) = 3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂.
C
−−→
Hence, unit vector in the direction of ⃗r = P Q is given by
⃗r 3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂ 1
r̂ = =p = (3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂).
|⃗r| 2 2
(3) + (2) + (6) 2 7
−−→
Example 29 (Exemplar) Find a vector of magnitude 11 in the direction opposite to that of P Q, where
P and Q are the points (1, 3, 2) and (−1, 0, 8) respectively.
Solution: Given points are P (1, 3, 2) and Q(−1, 0, 8).
−−→
Then, the vector in the direction opposite to that of P Q is given by
−−→
QP = Position vector of P − Position vector of Q
= (1î + 3ĵ + 2k̂) − (−î + 0ĵ + 8k̂) = 2î + 3ĵ − 6k̂.
−−→
Thus, unit vector in the direction of ⃗r = QP is given by
⃗r 2î + 3ĵ − 6k̂ 1
r̂ = =p = (2î + 3ĵ − 6k̂).
|⃗r| 2 2
(2) + (3) + (−6) 2 7
11
Hence, vector parallel to ⃗r and having magnitude 11 units = 11r̂ = (2î + 3ĵ − 6k̂).
7
Example 30 (NCERT) Find the value of x for which x(î + ĵ + k̂) is a unit vector.
Solution: Given that x(î + ĵ + k̂) is a unit vector.
p
Then, |x(î + ĵ + k̂)| = 1 ⇒ |x| |î + ĵ + k̂| = 1 ⇒ |x| (1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 = 1
1
in
⇒ |x| = √
3
1
⇒ x=± √ .
3
Example 31 If ⃗a = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂ represent two adjacent sides of a parallelogram,
e.
find unit vectors parallel to the diagonals of the parallelogram.
−−→ −−→
Solution: Let ABCD be a parallelogram such that AB = DC = ⃗a = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂
−−→ −−→
and BC = AD = ⃗b = 2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂.
On applying triangle law of vectors to ∆ABD, we get
yd
−−→ −−→ −−→ ⃗a
BD = BA + AD D C
−−→ −−→
= −AB + AD ⃗b ⃗b
= −(î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + (2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) = î + 2ĵ − 8k̂.
−−→ A B
Thus, unit vector in the direction of ⃗c = BD is given by ⃗a
rif
⃗c î + 2ĵ − 8k̂ 1
ĉ = =p = √ (î + 2ĵ − 8k̂).
|⃗c| (1)2 + (2)2 + (−8)2 69
On applying triangle law of vectors to ∆ABC, we get
−→ −−→ −−→
la
AC = AB + BC = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + (2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) = 3î + 6ĵ − 2k̂.

−→
Hence, unit vector in the direction of d⃗ = AC is given by
d⃗ 3î + 6ĵ − 2k̂ 1
dˆ = =p = (3î + 6ĵ − 2k̂).
⃗
|d| 2 2
(3) + (6) + (−2) 2 7
C
Example 32 (NCERT) Find a unit vector in xy-plane making an angle of 30◦ in anticlockwise
direction, with the positive direction of x-axis.
Solution: Let ⃗r = xî + y ĵ be the required unit vector as shown in figure.
Let A be the point with position vector ⃗r.
Y
Then, OA = |⃗r| = 1. A(x, y)
√ ⃗r
3
In ∆ABO, we have x = OB = OA cos 30◦ =
2 30◦
1 X
and y = AB = OA sin 30◦ = . O B
√ 2
3 1
Hence, ⃗r = î + ĵ, which is the required unit vector.
2 2
Example 33 (NCERT) Write all the unit vectors in xy-plane. Y
Solution: Let ⃗r = xî + y ĵ be a unit vector as shown in figure A(x, y)
Let A be the point with position vector ⃗r. ⃗r
Then, OA = |⃗r| = 1.
In ∆ABO, we have x = OB = OA cos θ θ
X
and y = AB = OA sin θ. O B
Thus, ⃗r = cos θ î + sin θ ĵ.
As θ varies from 0 to 2π, point A traces the circle
and all the possible directions of ⃗r are covered.
Hence, ⃗r = cos θ î + sin θ ĵ (0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π), gives all the unit vectors in xy-plane.
in
18.2.7 Direction Cosines and Ratios of a Vector
Consider a system of coordinate axes OXY Z with origin at O(0, 0, 0). Let ⃗r be the position vector of
−−→
the point P (x, y, z) with respect to O. Then, ⃗r = OP = xî + y ĵ + z k̂.
e.
Direction Angles: The angles α, β, γ made by the vector ⃗r with the positive directions of x, y and
z-axis respectively, are called the direction angles of ⃗r.
Direction Cosines: The cosines of the direction angles (i.e., cos α, cos β, cos γ) are called the
direction cosines of ⃗r and are usually denoted by l, m, n respectively.
Clearly, we observe from the figure that
yd
∠P OX = α, ∠P OY = β and ∠P OZ = γ.
∠P SO = 90◦ = ∠P RO = ∠P QO. Z
We can write S
x y z z
cos α = , cos β = , cos γ =
r r r ⃗r P
x y z y
rif
i.e., l= , m= , n= O Y
r r r x R
Q
i.e., x = lr, y = mr, z = nr T
X
The coordinates of the point P are (lr, mr, nr).
The numbers lr, mr and nr are proportional to the direction cosines.
la
Direction Ratios: The numbers lr, mr and nr are called direction ratios of ⃗r and are usually denoted
by a, b and c respectively.
Clearly, lr = x, mr = y and nr = z, hence x, y and z are the direction ratios of ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂.
C
Remark 18.6 If l, m, n are direction cosines of a vector ⃗r, then

(i) l2 + m2 + n2 = 1, and
(ii) a = lr, b = mr, c = nr are the direction ratios of ⃗r, where r = |⃗r|.
Let us now consider the following examples.
Example 34 If a vector has direction angles 90◦ , 60◦ and 30◦ , then find its direction cosines.
◦ ◦ ◦
√90 , 60 , 30 are
Solution: The direction cosines of a vector having direction angles
1 3
l = cos 90◦ = 0, m = cos 60◦ = , n = cos 30◦ = .
2 2
Example 35 Can a vector have direction angles 45◦ , 60◦ and 120◦ ?
Solution: Suppose that 45◦ , 60◦ and 120◦ are the direction angles of a vector ⃗a.
Then, the direction cosines of ⃗a are

1 1 1
l = cos 45◦ = √ , m = cos 60◦ = , n = cos 120◦ = − .
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = √ + + − = + + = 1.
2 2 2 2 4 4
Hence, a vector can have direction angles 45◦ , 60◦ and 120◦ .
Example 36 (NCERT) Write the direction ratios of the vector ⃗a = î + ĵ − 2k̂ and hence calculate its
direction cosines.
Solution: Given vector is ⃗a = î + ĵ − 2k̂.
Then, the direction ratios of ⃗a are a1 = 1, a2 = 1, a3 = −2.
in
p √
Also, |⃗a| = (1)2 + (1)2 + (−2)2 = 6.
a1 1 a2 1 a3 2
Hence, the direction cosines of ⃗a are l = = √ ,m = = √ ,n = = −√ .
|⃗a| 6 |⃗
a | 6 |⃗
a | 6
Example 37 Find the direction ratios and direction cosines of the position vector of the point
e.
A(1, 1, 2).
Solution: Given point is A(1, 1, 2). The position vector of A is ⃗a = î + ĵ + 2k̂.
Then, the direction
p ratios of ⃗a are a1 √
= 1, a2 = 1, a3 = 2.
Also, |⃗a| = (1)2 + (1)2 + (2)2 = 6.
yd
a1 1 a2 1 a3 2
Hence, the direction cosines of ⃗a are l = = √ ,m = = √ ,n = =√ .
|⃗a| 6 |⃗a| 6 |⃗a| 6
Example 38 (NCERT) Find the direction cosines of the vector joining the points A(1, 2, −3) and
B(−1, −2, 1), directed from A to B.
Solution: Given points are A(1, 2, −3) and B(−1, −2, 1).
rif
−−→
Then, ⃗a = AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A
= (−î − 2ĵ + k̂) − (î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = −2î − 4ĵ + 4k̂.
The direction ratios of ⃗a are a1 = −2, a2 = −4, a3 = 4.
√
la
p
Also, |⃗a| = (−2)2 + (−4)2 + (4)2 = 36 = 6.
−−→
Hence, the direction cosines of AB are
a1 2 1 a2 4 2 a3 4 2
l= =− =− , m= =− =− , n= = = .
|⃗a| 6 3 |⃗a| 6 3 |⃗a| 6 3
C
Example 39 (NCERT) Show that the direction cosines of a vector equally inclined to the axes OX,
1 1 1
OY and OZ are √ , √ , √ .
3 3 3
Solution: Let vector ⃗a be inclined to each of the axes OX, OY and OZ at an angle α.
Then, the direction cosines of ⃗a are l = cos α, m = cos α, n = cos α.
1
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ cos2 α + cos2 α + cos2 α = 1 ⇒ 3 cos2 α = 1 ⇒ cos α = √ .
3
1 1 1
Hence, the direction cosines of ⃗a are √ , √ , √ .
3 3 3
Example 40 (Exemplar) A vector ⃗r is inclined at equal angles to the three axes. If the magnitude of
√
⃗r is 2 3 units, find ⃗r.
√
Solution: Let vector ⃗r with |⃗r| = 2 3 units be inclined to each of the axes OX, OY and OZ at an
angle α. Then, the direction cosines of ⃗r are l = cos α, m = cos α, n = cos α.
1
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ cos2 α + cos2 α + cos2 α = 1 ⇒ cos2 α =
3
1
⇒ cos α = ± √
3
1 1 1
Thus, l = ± √ , m = ± √ and n = ± √ .
3 3 3
√

1 1 1
Hence, ⃗r = |⃗r| (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = 2 3 ± √ î ± √ ĵ ± √ k̂ = ±2î ± 2ĵ ± 2k̂.
3 3 3
π π
in
Example 41 (NCERT) If a unit vector ⃗a makes angles with î, with ĵ and an acute angle θ with
3 4
k̂, then find θ and hence find the components of ⃗a.
π π
Solution: Given that unit vector ⃗a makes angles , and an acute angle θ with x, y and z-axis
3 4
e.
respectively. Then, the direction cosines of ⃗a are
π 1 π 1
l = cos = , m = cos = √ , n = cos θ.
3 2 4 2
1 1
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ + + cos2 θ = 1
yd
4 2
1
⇒ cos2 θ =
4
1
⇒ cos θ = [∵ cos θ > 0, as θ is acute]
2
π 1
Then, θ = and n = .
3 2
rif
1 1 1
Thus, ⃗a = |⃗a| (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = lî + mĵ + nk̂ = î + √ ĵ + k̂.
2 2 2
1 1 1
Hence, components of ⃗a are î, √ ĵ, k̂.
2 2 2
la
√ π π
Example 42 (Exemplar) Find a vector ⃗r of magnitude 3 2 units which makes an angle of and
4 2
with y and z-axes, respectively.
√ π π
Solution: Given a vector ⃗r with |⃗r| = 3 2 units makes angles and with y and z-axes respectively.
4 2
C
Let ⃗r make an angle θ with x-axis. Then, the direction cosines of ⃗a are
π 1 π
l = cos θ, m = cos = √ , n = cos = 0.
4 2 2
1 1
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ cos2 θ + + 0 = 1 ⇒ cos2 θ =
2 2
1
⇒ cos θ = ± √
2
π 3π 1
Then, θ = , and l = ± √ .
4 4 2
√

1 1
Hence, ⃗r = |⃗r| (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = 3 2 ± √ î + √ ĵ + 0k̂ = ±3î + 3ĵ.
2 2
Example 43 (Exemplar) A vector ⃗r has magnitude 14 and direction ratios 2, 3, −6. Find the direction
cosines and components of ⃗r, given that ⃗r makes an acute angle with x-axis.
Solution: Given a vector ⃗r with |⃗r| = 14 and having direction ratios r1 = 2k, r2 = 3k, r3 = −6k,
where k is an arbitrary constant.
r1 k r2 3k r3 3k
Then, the direction cosines of ⃗r are l = = ,m= = ,n= =− .
|⃗r| 7 |⃗r| 14 |⃗r| 7
2 2 2
k 9k 9k
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ + + =1 ⇒ k2 = 4 ⇒ k = ±2.
49 196 49
Given that ⃗r makes an acute angle with x-axis, i.e., l > 0 and k > 0 which implies k = 2.

2 3 6 2 3 6
Thus, l = , m = , n = − and ⃗r = |⃗r| (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = 14 î + ĵ − k̂ = 4î + 6ĵ − 12k̂.
in
7 7 7 7 7 7
Hence, components of ⃗r are 4î, 6ĵ, −12k̂.
18.2.8 Section Formula
In this subsection, we shall first derive the Section Formula for vectors and then discuss some problems
e.
based on it. Consider a system of coordinate axes OXY Z with origin at O. Let P and Q be two points
having position vectors ⃗a and ⃗b respectively, w.r.t. O. Choose a point R such that By triangle law of
Case I: Point R divides the line joining P and Q internally in Z
the ratio m : n (see Figure 18.13). P
PR m
yd
i.e., = R
RQ n ⃗a
⇒ (n)(P R) = (m)(RQ) ⃗r
Q
−→ −−→
Also, direction of P R and RQ is same. ⃗b
O Y
−→ −−→
Thus, n P R = m RQ. ...(1)
X
rif
Let ⃗r be the position vector of R with respect to O. Figure 18.13
vectors for ∆OP R, we get

−−→ −→ −−→ −→ −−→ −−→ −→
OP + P R = OR ⇒ P R = OR − OP ⇒ P R = ⃗r − ⃗a.
la
By triangle law of vectors for ∆ORQ, we get

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ ⃗
OR + RQ = OQ ⇒ RQ = OQ − OR ⇒ RQ = b − ⃗r.
−→ −−→
Substituting values of P R and RQ in (1), we get
m⃗b + n⃗a
C
n(⃗r − ⃗a) = m(⃗b − ⃗r) ⇒ ⃗r = .

m+n
Case II: Point R divides the line joining P and Q externally in
the ratio m : n (see Figure 18.14). Z P
PR m
i.e., = Q
QR n ⃗a
⇒ (n)(P R) = (m)(QR) ⃗b
−→ −−→ R
Also, direction of P R and QR is same. ⃗r
−→ −−→ O Y
Thus, n P R = m QR. ...(2)
Let ⃗r be the position vector of R with respect to O. X
Figure 18.14
By triangle law of vectors for ∆OP R, we get
−−→ −→ −−→ −→ −−→ −−→ −→
OP + P R = OR ⇒ P R = OR − OP ⇒ P R = ⃗r − ⃗a.
By triangle law of vectors for ∆OQR, we get
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
OQ + QR = OR ⇒ QR = OR − OQ ⇒ QR = ⃗r − ⃗b.
−→ −−→
Substituting values of P R and QR in (2), we get
m⃗b − n⃗a
n(⃗r − ⃗a) = m(⃗r − ⃗b) ⇒ ⃗r = .
m−n
Section Formula:
(i) Position vector of the point R(⃗r), which divides line joining P (⃗a) and Q(⃗b) internally in the
in
m⃗b + n⃗a
ratio m : n, is given by ⃗r = .
m+n
(ii) Position vector of the point R(⃗r), which divides line joining P (⃗a) and Q(⃗b) externally in the
m⃗b − n⃗a
e.
m−n
⃗a + ⃗b
(iii) If R is the mid-point of P Q, then position vector of R is given by ⃗r = . It can be
2
obtained by taking m = n in Case I.
yd
Example 44 Find the position vector of the mid-point of P Q, where P and Q have position vectors
2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ and 5î − 3ĵ + k̂ respectively.
Solution: Given that P and Q have position vectors 2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ and 5î − 3ĵ + k̂ respectively.
⃗a + ⃗b
rif
(2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) + (5î − 3ĵ + k̂)
Hence, position vector of mid-point of P Q = =
2 2
7 5
= î + 0ĵ + k̂.
2 2
Example 45 (NCERT) Find the position vector of the mid-point of P Q, where the coordinates of
la
points P and Q are (2, 3, 4) and (4, 1, −2) respectively.

Solution: Given that the coordinates of points P and Q are (2, 3, 4) and (4, 1, −2) respectively.
Then, position vector of P , ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ and position vector of Q, ⃗b = 4î + ĵ − 2k̂.
⃗a + ⃗b (2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) + (4î + ĵ − 2k̂)
C
Hence, position vector of mid-point of P Q = =

2 2
= 3î + 2ĵ + k̂.
−→ −−→
Example 46 In a triangle OAC, if B is the mid-point of side AC and OA = ⃗a, OB = ⃗b, then what is
−−→
OC?
Z A
Solution: Given a triangle OAC such that B is the mid-point
−→ −−→ ⃗
of side AC and OA = ⃗a, OB = b. B
−→ −−→ ⃗a
−−→ OA + OC ⃗b
∴ OB = C
2
−−→ −−→ −→
⇒ OC = 2 OB − OA = 2⃗b − ⃗a. O Y
X
Example 47 (NCERT) Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points
P and Q, whose position vectors are î + 2ĵ − k̂ and −î + ĵ + k̂ respectively, in the ratio 2 : 1
(i) internally. (ii) externally.
Solution: Let P and Q be the points with position vectors ⃗a = î+2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = −î+ ĵ + k̂ respectively.
(i) Point R divides the line joining P and Q internally in the ratio m : n = 2 : 1. Then,
m⃗b + n⃗a 2(−î + ĵ + k̂) + 1(î + 2ĵ − k̂) −î + 4ĵ + k̂
position vector of R, ⃗r = = = .
m+n 2+1 3
(ii) Point R divides the line joining P and Q externally in the ratio m : n = 2 : 1. Then,
m⃗b − n⃗a 2(−î + ĵ + k̂) − 1(î + 2ĵ − k̂)
position vector of R, ⃗r = = = −3î + 0ĵ + 3k̂.
in
m−n 2−1
Example 48 Find the position vector of the point which divides the join of points with position vectors
⃗a + 3⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b internally in the ratio 1 : 3.
Solution: Let P and Q be the points with position vectors p⃗ = ⃗a + 3⃗b and ⃗q = ⃗a − ⃗b respectively.
e.
Let point R divide the line joining P and Q internally in the ratio m : n = 1 : 3.
m⃗q + n⃗
p 1(⃗a − ⃗b) + 3(⃗a + 3⃗b)
Hence, position vector of R, ⃗r = = = ⃗a + 2⃗b.
m+n 1+3
yd
Example 49 Find the position vector of a point which divides the join of points with the position
vectors ⃗a − 2⃗b and 2⃗a + ⃗b externally in the ratio 2 : 1.
Solution: Let P and Q be the points with position vectors p⃗ = ⃗a − 2⃗b and ⃗q = 2⃗a + ⃗b respectively.
Let point R divide the line joining P and Q externally in the ratio m : n = 2 : 1.
m⃗q − n⃗
p 2(2⃗a + ⃗b) − 1(⃗a − 2⃗b)
Hence, position vector of R, ⃗r = = = 3⃗a + 4⃗b.
rif
m−n 2−1
Example 50 (NCERT) Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining two points
P and Q, whose position vectors are 2⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − 3⃗b respectively, externally in the ratio 1 : 2. Also,
show that P is the mid-point of the line segment RQ.
la
Solution: Let A⃗ = 2⃗a + ⃗b and B⃗ = ⃗a − 3⃗b are position vectors of points P and Q respectively.
Also, point R divides the line joining P and Q externally in the ratio m : n = 1 : 2.
mB ⃗ − nA⃗ 1(⃗a − 3⃗b) − 2(2⃗a + ⃗b)
Now, position vector of R, ⃗r = = = 3⃗a + 5⃗b.
m−n 1−2
C
⃗
⃗r + B (3⃗a + 5⃗b) + (⃗a − 3⃗b)
Then, position vector of mid-point of line segment RQ = =
2 2
⃗
= 2⃗a + b = Position vector P .
Hence, P is the mid-point of the line segment RQ.
Example 51 (NCERT) Given that the points A(1, −2, −8), B(5, 0, −2) and C(11, 3, 7) are collinear.
Find the ratio in which B divides AC.
Solution: Given that the points A(1, −2, −8), B(5, 0, −2) and C(11, 3, 7) are collinear.
Then, position vector of A, ⃗a = î − 2ĵ − 8k̂, position vector of B, ⃗b = 5î + 0ĵ − 2k̂,
position vector of C, ⃗c = 11î + 3ĵ + 7k̂.
Let B divide AC in the ratio m : n = k : 1.
Then, ⃗b = m⃗c + n⃗a

m+n
k(11î + 3ĵ + 7k̂) + 1(î − 2ĵ − 8k̂)
⇒ 5î + 0ĵ − 2k̂ =
k+1
⇒ (5k + 5)î + 0ĵ + (−2k − 2)k̂ = (11k + 1)î + (3k − 2)ĵ + (7k − 8)k̂
On comparing both sides, we get
2
5k + 5 = 11k + 1 ⇒ k=
3
2
0 = 3k − 2 ⇒ k=
3
2
in
−2k − 2 = 7k − 8 ⇒ k=
3
2 2
Thus, k = and hence B divides AC in the ratio : 1, i.e., 2 : 3.
3 3
⃗
Example 52 (Exemplar) If ⃗a and b are the position vectors of A and B respectively, find the position
e.
vector of a point C in BA produced such that BC = 1.5 BA. Z B
⃗
Solution: Given that ⃗a and b are the position vectors of A and B respectively.
Also, given a point C in BA produced such that BC = 1.5 BA. ⃗b A
BC BC 1.5 BA 1.5 3 ⃗a
yd
Then, = = = = , C
AC BC − BA 1.5 BA − BA 0.5 1
i.e., BC : AC = 3 : 1. O Y
Thus, the point C divides the line joining B and A externally X
in the ratio m : n = 3 : 1.
−→ −−→
mOA − nOB 3(⃗a) − 1(⃗b) 3⃗a − ⃗b
Hence, position vector of C, ⃗r = = = .
rif
m−n 3−1 2
Second Method:
Given that ⃗a and ⃗b are the position vectors of A and B respectively.
Also, given a point C in BA produced such that BC = 1.5 BA.
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −→ −−→
Then, BC = 1.5 BA ⇒ OC − OB = 1.5(OA − OB)
la
−−→ ⃗
⇒ OC − b = 1.5(⃗a − ⃗b)
−−→ 3⃗a − ⃗b
⇒ OC = 1.5⃗a − 0.5⃗b = .
2
C
Example 53 If ⃗a and ⃗b are position vectors of the points A and B respectively, then find the position
−−→
vector of the points of trisection of AB.
Solution: Given that ⃗a and ⃗b are position vectors of the points A and B respectively.
−−→
Let R1 and R2 be the points of trisection of AB, as shown in the figure. Z A
Then, R1 divides the line joining A and B internally
R1
in the ratio m : n = 1 : 2.
⃗a ⃗r1 R2
m⃗b + n⃗a ⃗r2
Then, position vector of R1 , ⃗r1 =
m+n B
1(⃗b) + 2(⃗a) ⃗b + 2⃗a O
⃗b
= = . Y
1+2 3
X
Also, R2 divides the line joining A and B internally in the ratio m : n = 2 : 1.

m⃗b + n⃗a 2(⃗b) + 1(⃗a) 2⃗b + ⃗a
Hence, position vector of R2 , ⃗r2 = = = .
m+n 2+1 3
Exercise 18.2
(i) The magnitude of the vector 6î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ is 11.
(ii) If l, m and n are the direction cosines of a vector, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
(i) If ⃗a and ⃗b represent the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the vectors representing
in
its diagonals are and .
(ii) The scalar components of 2î − ĵ + k̂ are .
* 3. Find the magnitude and rectangular (or scalar) components of the position vector of the point
(3, −1, 2).
e.
4. Compute the magnitude of the following vectors:
(i) 2î − 7ĵ − 3k̂
1 1 1
(ii) √ î + √ ĵ − √ k̂
3 3 3
yd
* 5. Find the vector joining the points A(2, −1, 5) and B(0, 4, 3) directed from A to B.
−−→
* 6. Find the scalar components of the vector AB with initial point A(2, 1) and the terminal point
B(−5, 7).
7. Find the vector having initial and terminal points as (2, 5, 0) and (−3, 7, 4), respectively.
8. Find the vector joining points P (2, 3, 0) and Q(−1, −2, −4), directed from P to Q.
rif
* 9. Find the sum of the vectors ⃗a = î − 2ĵ, ⃗b = 2î − 3ĵ and ⃗c = 2î + 3k̂.
* 10. Find the sum of vectors ⃗a = î − 2ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = −2î + 4ĵ + 5k̂ and ⃗c = î − 6ĵ − 7k̂.
* 11. If |⃗a| = 3 and −1 ≤ k ≤ 2, then find the interval in which |k⃗a| occurs. [Exemplar]
la
12. Find the values of x and y so that the vectors xî + y ĵ and 2î + 3ĵ are equal.
13. Find the values of x, y and z so that the vectors ⃗a = xî + 2ĵ + z k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + y ĵ + k̂ are equal.
* 14. Find unit vector in the direction of the vector ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ + k̂. [NCERT]
15. Find the unit vector in the direction of the vector ⃗a = 2î + ĵ + 2k̂.
C
* 16. Find a vector in the direction of the vector î − 2ĵ + 2k̂ that has magnitude 9 units. [Exemplar]
* 17. Find a vector in the direction of vector 2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂ which has magnitude 21 units.
18. Find a vector in the direction of vector ⃗a = î − 2ĵ that has magnitude 7 units.
* 19. Write the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors ⃗a = 2î+2ĵ −5k̂ and ⃗b = 2î+ ĵ −7k̂.
* 20. Write a unit vector in the direction of the sum of vectors ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = −î + ĵ + 3k̂.
21. Find the unit vector in the direction of the sum of the vectors 2î − ĵ + k̂ and 2ĵ + k̂. [Exemplar]
* 22. If ⃗a = 4î − ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = 2î − 2ĵ + k̂, then find a unit vector parallel to the vector ⃗a + ⃗b.
* 23. If ⃗a = î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + ĵ − 2k̂, find a unit vector in the direction of [Exemplar]
(i) 6⃗b (ii) 2⃗a − ⃗b
24. If ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = 2î − ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗c = î − 2ĵ + k̂, find a unit vector parallel to the vector
2⃗a − ⃗b + 3⃗c.
−−→
* 25. Find the unit vector in the direction of vector P Q, where P and Q are the points (1, 2, 3) and
(4, 5, 6) respectively. [NCERT]
−−→
* 26. Find a unit vector in the direction of P Q, where P and Q have coordinates (5, 0, 8) and (3, 3, 2),
respectively. [Exemplar]
−→
27. Find the position vector of a point A in space such that OA is inclined at 60◦ to OX and at 45◦ to
−→
OY and |OA| = 10 units. [Exemplar]
* 28. What are the direction ratios of the vector −ĵ? Also, find its direction cosines.
in
29. Find the direction cosines of the vector ⃗a = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂.
√ π π
* 30. Find a vector ⃗a of magnitude 5 2, making an angle of with x-axis, with y-axis and an acute
4 2
angle θ with z-axis.
* 31. Write the position vector of the point which divides the join of points with position vectors 3⃗a − 2⃗b
e.
and 2⃗a + 3⃗b in the ratio 2 : 1.
* 32. A and B are two points with position vectors 2⃗a − 3⃗b and 6⃗b − ⃗a respectively. Write the position
vector of a point P which divides the line segment AB internally in the ratio 1 : 2.
* 33. X and Y are two points with position vectors 3⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − 3⃗b respectively. Write the position
yd
vector of a point Z which divides the line segment XY in the ratio 2 : 1 externally.
* 34. L and M are two points with position vectors 2⃗a − ⃗b and ⃗a + 2⃗b respectively. Write the position
vector of a point N which divides the line segment LM in the ratio 2 : 1 externally.
* 35. Find the position vector of a point R which divides the line joining the two points P and Q with
−−→ −−→
position vectors OP = 2⃗a + ⃗b and OQ = ⃗a − 2⃗b respectively, in the ratio 1 : 2 [Exemplar]
rif
(i) internally. (ii) externally.

36. Find the position vector of the point which divides the join of the points 2⃗a − 3⃗b and ⃗a + ⃗b in the
ratio 3 : 1. [Exemplar]
37. Find the position vector of the point which divides the join of the points with position vectors ⃗a +⃗b
la
and 2⃗a − ⃗b in the ratio 1 : 2. [Exemplar]

−−→ −−→
* 38. Consider two points P and Q with position vectors OP = 3⃗a − 2⃗b and OQ = ⃗a + ⃗b. Find the
position vector of a point R which divides the line joining P and Q in the ratio 2 : 1, (i) internally,
C
and (ii) externally. [NCERT]

39. If ⃗a is a non-zero vector of magnitude a and λ is a non-zero scalar, then λ⃗a is a unit vector if
1
(a) λ = 1 (b) λ = −1 (c) a = |λ| (d) a =
|λ|
40. Consider the two vectors ⃗a = 3î + 2ĵ + 4k̂ and ⃗b = î − 3ĵ + k̂. The value of |2⃗a + ⃗b| will be
[ISC 2022]
√ √ √ √
(a) 130 (b) 131 (c) 141 (d) 140
41. Unit vector along the vector î + ĵ + k̂ is
1 1 1 1
(a) √ (î + ĵ + k̂) (b) (î + ĵ + k̂) (c) (î + ĵ + k̂) (d) √ (î + ĵ + k̂)
3 3 2 2
Answers 18.2
1. (i) False (ii) True
2. (i) ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗b − ⃗a (ii) 2, −1, 1
√ √
3. Magnitude = 14, components are 3, −1, 2. 4. (i) 62 (ii) 1 5. −2î + 5ĵ − 2k̂
−−→
6. −7, 6 7. −5î + 2ĵ + 4k̂ 8. P Q = −3î − 5ĵ − 4k̂
9. 5î − 5ĵ + 3k̂ 10. −4ĵ − k̂ 11. [0, 6] 12. x = 2, y = 3
1 1
13. x = 2,y = 2,z = 1 14. √ (2î + 3ĵ + k̂) 15. (2î + ĵ + 2k̂) 16. 3(î − 2ĵ + 2k̂)
14 3
in
7 1 1
17. 3(2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂) 18. √ (î − 2ĵ) 19. (4î + 3ĵ − 12k̂) 20. √ (î + 0ĵ + 5k̂)
5 13 26
1 1 1 1
21. (2î + ĵ + 2k̂) 22. (6î − 3ĵ + 2k̂) 23. (i) (2î + ĵ − 2k̂) (ii) √ (ĵ + 6k̂)
3 7 3 37
√
e.
1 1 1
24. √ (3î−3ĵ +2k̂) 25. √ (î + ĵ + k̂) 26. (−2î + 3ĵ − 6k̂) 27. 5î + 5 2 ĵ + 5k̂
22 3 7
1 2 3
28. Direction Ratios: 0, −1, 0 and Direction Cosines: 0, −1, 0 29. √ , √ , √
14 14 14
7⃗a + 4b⃗
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30. 5î + 5k̂ 31. 32. ⃗a 33. −⃗a − 7⃗b
3
5⃗a 5⃗a 4⃗a + ⃗b
34. 5⃗b 35. (i) (ii) 3⃗a + 4⃗b 36. 37.
3 4 3
5⃗a
38. (i) (ii) −⃗a + 4⃗b 39. (d) 40. (b) 41. (a)
3
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18.3 Scalar Product of Two Vectors
In this section, we shall define scalar product of two vectors and then discuss some of its important
properties.
Scalar product / Dot product of two vectors: The scalar product of two non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b
la
is denoted by ⃗a · ⃗b (read as ⃗a dot ⃗b) and is defined as

⃗b
⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ
where θ is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. θ
If either ⃗a = ⃗0 or ⃗b = ⃗0, then the angle θ between
C
⃗a
⃗a and ⃗b is not defined and in this case, we define ⃗a · ⃗b = 0.
18.3.1 Some Important Properties and Observations

Let us now discuss some important properties and observations.
1. ⃗a · ⃗b is always a scalar. That is why, dot product is called scalar product.

2. ⃗a · ⃗b can be positive, negative or zero, according as cos θ is positive, negative or zero.
3. If ⃗a and ⃗b are like vectors (i.e., θ = 0), then ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos 0 = |⃗a| |⃗b|.
4. If ⃗a and ⃗b are unlike vectors (i.e., θ = π), then ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos π = −|⃗a| |⃗b|.
5. Square of vector ⃗a is given by ⃗a 2 = ⃗a · ⃗a = |⃗a| |⃗a| cos 0 = |⃗a|2 .
6. Scalar product is commutative, i.e., ⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗b · ⃗a.
7. Distributivity of scalar product over addition: Let ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c be any three vectors, then
⃗a · (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗c.
8. Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors and let λ be any scalar, then λ(⃗a · ⃗b) = (λ⃗a) · ⃗b = ⃗a · (λ⃗b).
9. Let ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ and ⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂, then
⃗a · ⃗b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) · (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂) = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .
10. For unit vectors î, ĵ, k̂, we have
î · î = 1 ĵ · ĵ = 1 k̂ · k̂ = 1
î · ĵ = 0 ĵ · k̂ = 0 k̂ · î = 0
in
ĵ · î = 0 k̂ · ĵ = 0 î · k̂ = 0

√
Example 1 If |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 2 and angle between ⃗a and ⃗b is 60◦ , then find ⃗a · ⃗b.
e.
√
Solution: Given |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 2 and θ = 60◦ .
√ √
Hence, ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 3 (2) cos 60◦ = 3.
Example 2 Find ⃗a · ⃗b, when

yd
(i) ⃗a = î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + 2ĵ − k̂
(ii) ⃗a = Position vector of (2, 2, 1) and ⃗b = Position vector of (6, −3, 2)
Solution: (i) Given ⃗a = î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + 2ĵ − k̂.
Hence, ⃗a · ⃗b = (î + ĵ + 2k̂) · (3î + 2ĵ − k̂) = (1)(3) + (1)(2) + (2)(−1) = 3.
(ii) Given ⃗a = Position vector of (2, 2, 1) = 2î + 2ĵ + k̂
rif
and ⃗b = Position vector of (6, −3, 2) = 6î − 3ĵ + 2k̂.

Hence, ⃗a · ⃗b = (2î + 2ĵ + k̂) · (6î − 3ĵ + 2k̂) = (2)(6) + (2)(−3) + (1)(2) = 8.
Example 3 Given three vectors ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − k̂, ⃗b = 2î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗c = 5î − 4ĵ + 3k̂, then find the
la
value of (⃗a + ⃗b) · ⃗c.

Solution: Given ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − k̂, ⃗b = 2î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗c = 5î − 4ĵ + 3k̂.
Then, ⃗a + ⃗b = (î + 2ĵ − k̂) + (2î + ĵ + k̂) = 3î + 3ĵ + 0k̂.
Hence, (⃗a + ⃗b) · ⃗c = (3î + 3ĵ + 0k̂) · (5î − 4ĵ + 3k̂) = (3)(5) + (3)(−4) + (0)(3) = 3.
C
Example 4 Find (⃗a + 3⃗b) · (2⃗a − ⃗b), if ⃗a = î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + 2ĵ − k̂.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + 2ĵ − k̂.
h i h i
Hence, (⃗a + 3⃗b) · (2⃗a − ⃗b) = (î + ĵ + 2k̂) + 3(3î + 2ĵ − k̂) · 2(î + ĵ + 2k̂) − (3î + 2ĵ − k̂)
= (10î + 7ĵ − k̂) · (−î + 0ĵ + 5k̂)

= (10)(−1) + (7)(0) + (−1)(5)
= −15.
Example 5 (NCERT) If two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are such that |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 1 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 1, then find
(3⃗a − 5⃗b) · (2⃗a + 7⃗b).
Solution: Given two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b such that |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 1 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 1.
Hence, (3⃗a − 5⃗b) · (2⃗a + 7⃗b) = (3⃗a) · (2⃗a) + (3⃗a) · (7⃗b) − (5⃗b) · (2⃗a) − (5⃗b) · (7⃗b)
= 6(⃗a · ⃗a) + 21(⃗a · ⃗b) − 10(⃗b · ⃗a) − 35(⃗b · ⃗b)
= 6|⃗a|2 + 21(⃗a · ⃗b) − 10(⃗a · ⃗b) − 35|⃗b|2
= 6|⃗a|2 + 11(⃗a · ⃗b) − 35|⃗b|2 = 6(2)2 + 11(1) − 35(1)2 = 0.
Example 6 (NCERT) Find |⃗x|, if for a unit vector ⃗a, we have (⃗x − ⃗a) · (⃗x + ⃗a) = 12.
Solution: Given that ⃗a is a unit vector, i.e., |⃗a| = 1. ...(1)
Also, (⃗x − ⃗a) · (⃗x + ⃗a) = 12 ⇒ ⃗x · ⃗x + ⃗x · ⃗a − ⃗a · ⃗x − ⃗a · ⃗a = 12
in
⇒ |⃗x|2 − |⃗a|2 = 12
⇒ |⃗x|2 − (1)2 = 12 [Using (1)]
2
⇒ |⃗x| = 13
√
e.
⇒ |⃗x| = 13.
Example 7 If ⃗a is a unit vector and (2⃗x − 3⃗a) · (2⃗x + 3⃗a) = 91, then find |⃗x|.
Solution: Given that ⃗a is a unit vector, i.e., |⃗a| = 1. ...(1)
Also, (2⃗x − 3⃗a) · (2⃗x + 3⃗a) = 91 ⇒ 4⃗x · ⃗x + 6⃗x · ⃗a − 6⃗a · ⃗x − 9⃗a · ⃗a = 91
yd
⇒ 4|⃗x|2 − 9|⃗a|2 = 91
⇒ 4|⃗x|2 − 9(1)2 = 91 [Using (1)]
⇒ |⃗x|2 = 25
⇒ |⃗x| = 5.
rif
Example 8 (NCERT) Find |⃗a| and |⃗b|, if (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b) = 8 and |⃗a| = 8|⃗b|.
Solution: Given |⃗a| = 8|⃗b|. ...(1)
Also, (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b) = 8 ⇒ ⃗a · ⃗a − ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a − ⃗b · ⃗b = 8
la
⇒ |⃗a|2 − |⃗b|2 = 8
⇒ 64|⃗b|2 − |⃗b|2 = 8 [Using (1)]
8
⇒ |⃗b|2 =
C
63
r
⃗ 8
⇒ |b| =
63
r r
8 8
Hence, |⃗a| = 8 and |⃗b| = .
63 63
Example 9 If two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are such that |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 3 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 4, then find
(i) |⃗a + ⃗b|. (ii) |⃗a − ⃗b|. [NCERT]
Solution: Given |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 3 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 4.

(i) |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b)2 = (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b
= |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
= |⃗a|2 + 2 ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
= (2)2 + 2(4) + (3)2 = 21.
√
Hence, |⃗a + ⃗b| = 21.
(ii) |⃗a − ⃗b|2 = (⃗a − ⃗b)2 = (⃗a − ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a − ⃗a · ⃗b − ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b
= |⃗a|2 − ⃗a · ⃗b − ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
= |⃗a|2 − 2 ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2 = (2)2 − 2(4) + (3)2 = 5.
√
Hence, |⃗a − ⃗b| = 5.
Example 10 If |⃗a + ⃗b| = 60, |⃗a − ⃗b| = 40 and |⃗a| = 22, then find |⃗b|.
in
Solution: Given |⃗a + ⃗b| = 60, |⃗a − ⃗b| = 40 and |⃗a| = 22.
Then, |⃗a + ⃗b|2 + |⃗a − ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b)2 + (⃗a − ⃗b)2
= (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) + (⃗a − ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b)
e.
= ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗a − ⃗a · ⃗b − ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b
= 2|⃗a|2 + 2|⃗b|2
⇒ (60)2 + (40)2 = 2(22)2 + 2|⃗b|2
yd
⇒ |⃗b|2 = 2116
⇒ |⃗b| = 46.
Example 11 If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector, prove that the magnitude of their difference
√
is 3.
Solution: Let ⃗a and ⃗b be two vectors such that |⃗a| = 1, |⃗b| = 1 and |⃗a + ⃗b| = 1.
rif
Then, |⃗a + ⃗b|2 + |⃗a − ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b)2 + (⃗a − ⃗b)2

= (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) + (⃗a − ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b)
= ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗a − ⃗a · ⃗b − ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b
la
= 2|⃗a|2 + 2|⃗b|2
⇒ 1 + |⃗a − ⃗b|2 = 2 + 2
⇒ |⃗a − ⃗b|2 = 3
C
√
⇒ |⃗a − ⃗b| = 3.
√
Example 12 If ⃗a and ⃗b are two vectors such that |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 4 and |⃗a + ⃗b| = 5, then find ⃗a · ⃗b.
√
Solution: Given |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 4 and |⃗a + ⃗b| = 5.
Then, |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b)2 = (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b
= |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
= (3)2 + 2 ⃗a · ⃗b + (4)2
= 25 + 2 ⃗a · ⃗b.
√
Thus, 2 ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a + ⃗b|2 − 25 = ( 5)2 − 25 = −20 and hence ⃗a · ⃗b = −10.
Example 13 If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are three vectors such that ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0 and |⃗a| = 5, |⃗b| = 12, |⃗c| = 13,
then find ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗a.
Solution: Given ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0, |⃗a| = 5, |⃗b| = 12, |⃗c| = 13.
Now, ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0
⇒ (⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c)2 = (⃗0)2
⇒ (⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c) · (⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗0 · ⃗0
⇒ ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗c + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗a + ⃗c · ⃗b + ⃗c · ⃗c = 0
⇒ |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗c · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2 + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗c + |⃗c|2 = 0
in
⇒ |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2 + |⃗c|2 + 2(⃗a · ⃗b) + 2(⃗b · ⃗c) + 2(⃗c · ⃗a) = 0
⇒ (5)2 + (12)2 + (13)2 + 2(⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗a) = 0
⇒ ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗a = −169.
e.
Example 14 (NCERT) The scalar product of the vector ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂ with a unit vector along the
sum of vectors ⃗b = 2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂ and ⃗c = λî + 2ĵ + 3k̂ is equal to one. Find the value of λ and hence
find the unit vector along ⃗b + ⃗c.
yd
Solution: Let ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = 2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂ and ⃗c = λî + 2ĵ + 3k̂.
Then, ⃗b + ⃗c = (2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) + (λî + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = (2 + λ)î + 6ĵ − 2k̂.
Thus, unit vector along the sum of vectors ⃗b + ⃗c is given by
⃗b + ⃗c (2 + λ)î + 6ĵ − 2k̂ (2 + λ)î + 6ĵ − 2k̂
r̂ = =p = √ .
⃗
|b + ⃗c| 2 2
(2 + λ) + (6) + (−2) 2 λ2 + 4λ + 44
rif
Given that the scalar product of ⃗a with a unit vector along ⃗b + ⃗c is equal to one.
" #
(2 + λ)î + 6ĵ − 2k̂
Then, ⃗a · r̂ = 1 ⇒ (î + ĵ + k̂) · √ =1
λ2 + 4λ + 44
2+λ+6−2
la
⇒ √ =1
λ2 + 4λ + 44
p
⇒ λ + 6 = λ2 + 4λ + 44
⇒ λ2 + 36 + 12λ = λ2 + 4λ + 44
C
⇒ λ = 1.
3î + 6ĵ − 2k̂
Hence, unit vector along ⃗b + ⃗c is given by r̂ = .
7
Example 15 For any vector ⃗r, prove that ⃗r = (⃗r · î) î + (⃗r · ĵ) ĵ + (⃗r · k̂) k̂.
Solution: Let ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂.
Then, ⃗r · î = (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · î = x,
⃗r · ĵ = (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · ĵ = y,
⃗r · k̂ = (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · k̂ = z.
Hence, ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ = (⃗r · î) î + (⃗r · ĵ) ĵ + (⃗r · k̂) k̂.

Example 16 Find the magnitude of each of the two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, having the same magnitude such
9
that the angle between them is 60◦ and their scalar product is .
2
9
Solution: Given |⃗a| = |⃗b|, ⃗a · ⃗b = and θ = 60◦ .
2
Now, ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ
9
⇒ = |⃗a| |⃗a| cos 60◦
2
⇒ |⃗a|2 = 9
⇒ |⃗a| = 3
in
Hence, |⃗a| = |⃗b| = 3.
Example 17 If ⃗a · ⃗b = 0, then what can you say about ⃗a and ⃗b?
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
e.
Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 ⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 0 ⇒ |⃗a| = 0 or |⃗b| = 0 or cos θ = 0
⇒ ⃗a = 0 or ⃗b = 0 or θ = 90◦
⇒ ⃗a = 0 or ⃗b = 0 or ⃗a ⊥ ⃗b.
yd
Example 18 (NCERT) If either vector ⃗a = ⃗0 or vector ⃗b = ⃗0, then ⃗a · ⃗b = 0. But the converse need
not be true. Justify your answer with an example.
Solution: If ⃗a = ⃗0 or ⃗b = ⃗0, then ⃗a · ⃗b = 0. The converse need not be true.
For example, let ⃗a = î and ⃗b = ĵ, then ⃗a ̸= ⃗0 and ⃗b ̸= ⃗0 but ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos 90◦ = 0.
rif
Example 19 (NCERT) If ⃗a · ⃗a = 0 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 0, then what can be concluded about the vector ⃗b?
Solution: Given ⃗a · ⃗a = 0 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 0.
Now, ⃗a · ⃗a = 0 ⇒ |⃗a|2 = 0 ⇒ |⃗a| = 0.
Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
la
Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 ⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 0 ⇒ (0) |⃗b| cos θ = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0,

which is true for every value of |⃗b| and θ. Hence, ⃗b can be any vector.
Example 20 (NCERT) Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality: For any two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, we have
C
|⃗a · ⃗b| ≤ |⃗a| |⃗b|.

Solution: Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors such that θ is the angle between them.
Then, |⃗a · ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = |⃗a| |⃗b| | cos θ| ≤ |⃗a| |⃗b|. [∵ | cos θ| ≤ 1]
Example 21 (NCERT) Triangle Inequality: For any two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, we have |⃗a +⃗b| ≤ |⃗a| + |⃗b|.
Solution: Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors such that θ is the angle between them.
Then, |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b
= |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
= |⃗a|2 + 2(⃗a · ⃗b) + |⃗b|2
= |⃗a|2 + 2 |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ + |⃗b|2

≤ |⃗a|2 + 2 |⃗a| |⃗b| + |⃗b|2 [∵ cos θ ≤ 1]
2
= |⃗a| + |⃗b| .
Hence, |⃗a + ⃗b| ≤ |⃗a| + |⃗b|.

18.3.2 Condition of Perpendicularity
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition of perpendicularity of two non-zero vectors.
Suppose that ⃗a and ⃗b be two non-zero vectors and let θ be the angle between them. Then,
π
⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular vectors ⇔ θ= ⇔ cos θ = 0
2
in
⇔ |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 0
⇔ ⃗a · ⃗b = 0
e.
Conclusion: Two non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular if and only if ⃗a · ⃗b = 0.
Example 22 Show that the vectors ⃗a = 4î + ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = −2î + 3ĵ − 5k̂ are perpendicular to each
other.
yd
Solution: Given ⃗a = 4î + ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = −2î + 3ĵ − 5k̂.
Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = (4î + ĵ − k̂) · (−2î + 3ĵ − 5k̂) = −8 + 3 + 5 = 0.
Hence, ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular to each other.
1 1
Example 23 (NCERT) Show that the vectors ⃗a = (2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂), ⃗b = (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂) and
7 7
rif
1
⃗c = (6î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) are mutually perpendicular vectors.
7
1 1 1
Solution: Given ⃗a = (2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂), ⃗b = (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂) and ⃗c = (6î + 2ĵ − 3k̂).
7 7 7
1 1
la
Now, ⃗a · ⃗b = (2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂) · (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂)

7 7
1 h i 1
= (2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂) · (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂) = [6 − 18 + 12] = 0.
49 49
Thus, ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular to each other.
C

1 1
Now, ⃗b · ⃗c = (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂) · (6î + 2ĵ − 3k̂)
7 7
1 h i 1
= (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂) · (6î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = [18 − 12 − 6] = 0.
49 49
Thus, ⃗b and ⃗c are perpendicular to each other.

1 1
Now, ⃗a · ⃗c = (2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂) · (6î + 2ĵ − 3k̂)
7 7
1 h i 1
= (2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂) · (6î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = [12 + 6 − 18] = 0.
49 49
Thus, ⃗a and ⃗c are perpendicular to each other.
Hence, ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are mutually perpendicular vectors.
Example 24 If ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î − ĵ + 2k̂ be two vectors. Show that the vectors ⃗a + ⃗b and
⃗a − ⃗b are perpendicular to each other.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î − ĵ + 2k̂.
Then, ⃗a + ⃗b = (î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) + (3î − ĵ + 2k̂) = 4î + ĵ − k̂
and ⃗a − ⃗b = (î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) − (3î − ĵ + 2k̂) = −2î + 3ĵ − 5k̂.
Now, (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b) = (4î + ĵ − k̂) · (−2î + 3ĵ − 5k̂) = −8 + 3 + 5 = 0.
Hence, ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b are perpendicular to each other.
Example 25 (Exemplar) Find the value of λ such that the vectors ⃗a = 2î+λĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = î+2ĵ +3k̂
in
are orthogonal.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î + λĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ are orthogonal.
Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 ⇒ (2î + λĵ + k̂) · (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = 0
⇒ 2 + 2λ + 3 = 0
e.
5
⇒ λ=− .
2
Example 26 If ⃗a = î − ĵ + 7k̂ and ⃗b = 5î − ĵ + λk̂, then find the value of λ so that ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b
are perpendicular vectors.
yd
Solution: Given ⃗a = î − ĵ + 7k̂ and ⃗b = 5î − ĵ + λk̂.
Then, ⃗a + ⃗b = (î − ĵ + 7k̂) + (5î − ĵ + λk̂) = 6î − 2ĵ + (7 + λ)k̂
and ⃗a − ⃗b = (î − ĵ + 7k̂) − (5î − ĵ + λk̂) = −4î + 0ĵ + (7 − λ)k̂.
Given that ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b are perpendicular vectors.
rif
Then, (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b) = 0 ⇒ [6î − 2ĵ + (7 + λ)k̂] · [−4î + 0ĵ + (7 − λ)k̂] = 0
⇒ −24 + 0 + (49 − λ2 ) = 0
⇒ 25 − λ2 = 0
la
⇒ λ = ± 5.
Example 27 If ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î + ĵ − 2k̂ and ⃗c = î + 3ĵ − k̂, find λ such that ⃗a is perpendicular
to λ⃗b + ⃗c.
C
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î + ĵ − 2k̂ and ⃗c = î + 3ĵ − k̂ such that ⃗a is perpendicular to
λ⃗b + ⃗c.
Then, ⃗a · (λ⃗b + ⃗c) = 0 ⇒ (2î − ĵ + k̂) · [λ(î + ĵ − 2k̂) + (î + 3ĵ − k̂)] = 0
⇒ (2î − ĵ + k̂) · [(λ + 1)î + (λ + 3)ĵ + (−2λ − 1)k̂] = 0
⇒ 2(λ + 1) − (λ + 3) + (−2λ − 1) = 0
⇒ −λ − 2 = 0
⇒ λ = −2.
Example 28 The vectors ⃗a = 3î + xĵ and ⃗b = 2î + ĵ + y k̂ are mutually perpendicular. If |⃗a| = |⃗b|,
then find the value of y.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 3î + xĵ and ⃗b = 2î + ĵ + y k̂ are mutually perpendicular..

Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 ⇒ (3î + xĵ + 0k̂) · (2î + ĵ + y k̂) = 0
⇒ 6+x+0=0
⇒ x = −6.
|⃗a| = |⃗b|
p p
Also, given that ⇒ (3)2 + (x)2 + (0)2 = (2)2 + (1)2 + (y)2
⇒ 9 + x2 = 5 + y 2
⇒ 9 + 36 = 5 + y 2
⇒ y 2 = 40.
√
in
⇒ y = ± 40.
Example 29 (ISC 2019) If ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular vectors, |⃗a + ⃗b| = 13 and |⃗a| = 5, find the value
of |⃗b|.
e.
Solution: Given that ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular vectors such that |⃗a + ⃗b| = 13 and |⃗a| = 5.
Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = 0.
Now, |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b
= |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
yd
= (5)2 + |⃗b|2 .
Thus, |⃗b|2 = |⃗a + ⃗b|2 − 25 = (13)2 − 25 = 144, i.e., |⃗b| = 12.
Example 30 (NCERT) Let ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c be three vectors such that |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 4, |⃗c| = 5 and each one
of them being perpendicular to the sum of the other two, find |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|.
rif
Solution: Given that ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are three vectors such that |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 4, |⃗c| = 5 and each one of them
being perpendicular to the sum of the other two.
Then, ⃗a · (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗b · (⃗a + ⃗c) = ⃗c · (⃗a + ⃗b) = 0.
Now, |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c) · (⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c)
la
= ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · (⃗b + ⃗c) + ⃗b · ⃗b + ⃗b · (⃗a + ⃗c) + ⃗c · (⃗a + ⃗b) + ⃗c · ⃗c

= |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · (⃗b + ⃗c) + |⃗b|2 + ⃗b · (⃗a + ⃗c) + ⃗c · (⃗a + ⃗b) + |⃗c|2
= 9 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 0 + 25 = 50.
C
√
Hence, |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c| = 50.
Example 31 If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are mutually perpendicular unit vectors, then find the value of |2⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|.
Solution: Given that ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are three mutually perpendicular unit vectors.
Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗b · ⃗c = ⃗c · ⃗a = 0 and |⃗a| = |⃗b| = |⃗c| = 1.
Now, |2⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|2 = (2⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c) · (2⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c)
= 4⃗a · ⃗a + 2⃗a · ⃗b + 2⃗a · ⃗c + 2⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + 2⃗c · ⃗a + ⃗c · ⃗b + ⃗c · ⃗c
= 4|⃗a|2 + 2⃗a · ⃗b + 2⃗c · ⃗a + 2⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2 + ⃗b · ⃗c + 2⃗c · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗c + |⃗c|2
= 4 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 = 6.
√
Hence, |2⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c| = 6.
Example 32 If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are three vectors such that ⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗a · ⃗c, ⃗a ̸= ⃗0 and ⃗b ̸= ⃗c, then show that ⃗a
and ⃗b − ⃗c are orthogonal.
Solution: Given vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c such that ⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗a · ⃗c, ⃗a ̸= ⃗0 and ⃗b ̸= ⃗c.
Then, ⃗a · (⃗b − ⃗c) = ⃗a · ⃗b − ⃗a · ⃗c = 0.
Hence, ⃗a and ⃗b − ⃗c are orthogonal.
Example 33 If ⃗c is perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b, then prove that it is also perpendicular to both ⃗a + ⃗b
and ⃗a − ⃗b.
Solution: Given that ⃗c is perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b, i.e., ⃗c · ⃗a = 0 and ⃗c · ⃗b = 0.
in
Then, ⃗c · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗c · ⃗a + ⃗c · ⃗b = 0 + 0 = 0 and ⃗c · (⃗a − ⃗b) = ⃗c · ⃗a − ⃗c · ⃗b = 0 − 0 = 0.
Hence, ⃗c is perpendicular to both ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b.
Example 34 (NCERT) Show that |⃗a| ⃗b + |⃗b| ⃗a is perpendicular to |⃗a| ⃗b − |⃗b| ⃗a, for any two non-zero
e.
vectors ⃗a and ⃗b.
⃗ two non-zero vectors.
Let ⃗a andb be
Solution:
Then, |⃗a| ⃗b + |⃗b| ⃗a · |⃗a| ⃗b − |⃗b| ⃗a = |⃗a|2 (⃗b · ⃗b) − |⃗a| |⃗b| (⃗b · ⃗a) + |⃗b| |⃗a| (⃗a · ⃗b) − |⃗b|2 (⃗a · ⃗a)
= |⃗a|2 |⃗b|2 − |⃗a| |⃗b| (⃗a · ⃗b) + |⃗b| |⃗a| (⃗a · ⃗b) − |⃗b|2 |⃗a|2
yd
= 0.
Hence, |⃗a| ⃗b + |⃗b| ⃗a is perpendicular to |⃗a| ⃗b − |⃗b| ⃗a.
Example 35 (NCERT) Let ⃗a and ⃗b be two non-zero vectors. Prove that (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2
if and only if ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular to each other.
rif
Solution: Given ⃗a and ⃗b be two non-zero vectors.
Suppose that (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2 ⇒ ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b = |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2
⇒ |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2 = |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2
la
⇒ 2(⃗a · ⃗b) = 0
⇒ ⃗a · ⃗b = 0
Hence, ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular to each other.
Conversely, suppose that ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular to each other, i.e., ⃗a · ⃗b = 0.
C
Hence, (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b = |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2

= |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2 .
Example 36 If ⃗a and ⃗b are along adjacent sides of a rectangle, then prove that |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2 .
Solution: Given that ⃗a and ⃗b are along adjacent sides of a rectangle.
Then, ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular to each other, i.e., ⃗a · ⃗b = 0.
Hence, |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b
= |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
= |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2 .
Example 37 If ⃗a and ⃗b are two vectors such that |⃗a + ⃗b| = |⃗a|, then prove that vector 2⃗a + ⃗b is
perpendicular to vector ⃗b.
Solution: Given |⃗a + ⃗b| = |⃗a| ⇒ |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = |⃗a|2

⇒ (⃗a + ⃗b)2 = (⃗a)2
⇒ (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a
⇒ ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b = ⃗a · ⃗a
⇒ ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2 = 0
2(⃗a · ⃗b) + |⃗b|2 = 0.
in
⇒
Now, (2⃗a + ⃗b) · ⃗b = (2⃗a) · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗b = 2(⃗a · ⃗b) + |⃗b|2 = 0.

Hence, 2⃗a + ⃗b is perpendicular to ⃗b.
Example 38 (NCERT) If with reference to the right-handed system of mutually perpendicular unit
e.
⃗ = 2î + ĵ − 3k̂, then express β⃗ in the form β⃗ = β
⃗ = 3î − ĵ, β
vectors î, ĵ and k̂, we have, α ⃗1 + β⃗2 ,
where β⃗1 is parallel to α⃗ and β⃗2 is perpendicular to α
⃗.
Solution: Given that α ⃗ = 3î − ĵ and β⃗ = 2î + ĵ − 3k̂.
yd
⃗ = β⃗1 + β⃗2 , where β⃗1 is parallel to α
Let β ⃗ and β⃗2 is perpendicular to α
⃗.
Now, β⃗1 is parallel to α
⃗ which means β⃗1 = λ α ⃗ = λ(3î − ĵ), for some non-zero scalar λ.
Then, β⃗2 = β⃗ − β⃗1 = (2î + ĵ − 3k̂) − λ(3î − ĵ) = (2 − 3λ)î + (1 + λ)ĵ − 3k̂.
Also, β⃗2 is perpendicular to α

⃗.
h i
Then, ⃗2 · α
β ⃗ =0 ⇒ (2 − 3λ)î + (1 + λ)ĵ − 3k̂ · (3î − ĵ + 0k̂) = 0
rif
⇒ 3(2 − 3λ) − (1 + λ) + 0 = 0
⇒ 5 − 10λ = 0
1
⇒ λ= .
la
2
⃗1 = 3 î − 1 ĵ and β⃗2 = 1 î + 3 ĵ − 3k̂.
Hence, β
2 2 2 2
Example 39 Let li , mi , ni ; i = 1, 2, 3 be the direction cosines of three mutually perpendicular vectors
C
 
l1 m1 n1
in space. Show that AAT = I3 , where A = l2 m2 n2 .
l3 m3 n3
Solution: Given l1 , m1 , n1 ; l2 , m2 , n2 and l3 , m3 , n3 be the direction cosines of three mutually
perpendicular vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c in space respectively.
Then, â = l1 î + m1 ĵ + n1 k̂, b̂ = l2 î + m2 ĵ + n2 k̂ and ĉ = l3 î + m3 ĵ + n3 k̂.
Now, |â| = 1, b̂ = 1, ĉ = 1
⇒ l12 + m21 + n21 = 1, l22 + m22 + n22 = 1, l32 + m23 + n23 = 1.
Also, â · b̂ = 0, b̂ · ĉ = 0, â · ĉ = 0
⇒ l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0, l2 l3 + m2 m3 + n2 n3 = 0, l1 l3 + m1 m3 + n1 n3 = 0.
   
l1 m1 n1 l1 l2 l3
Given A = l2 m2 n2 . Then, AT = m1 m2 m3 .
l3 m3 n3 n1 n2 n3
  
l1 m1 n1 l1 l2 l3
Hence, AAT = l2 m2 n2  m1 m2 m3 
l3 m3 n3 n1 n2 n3
2 2 2
 
l1 + m1 + n1 l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 l1 l3 + m1 m3 + n1 n3
= l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 l22 + m22 + n22 l2 l3 + m2 m3 + n2 n3 
l1 l3 + m1 m3 + n1 n3 l2 l3 + m2 m3 + n2 n3 l32 + m23 + n23
 
1 0 0
= 0 1 0 = I3 .
in
0 0 1
18.3.3 Problems based on Angle Between Two Non-Zero Vectors
⃗a · ⃗b
The angle between non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by cos θ =
e.
.
|⃗a| |⃗b|
Observation: Consider a vector ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ which makes angles α, β, γ with x, y, z-axis

respectively. Then, we have
yd
⃗a · î (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) · (î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) a1
cos α = = = ⇒ a1 = |⃗a| cos α
|⃗a| |î| |⃗
a | |⃗
a|
⃗a · ĵ (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) · (0î + ĵ + 0k̂) a2
cos β = = = ⇒ a2 = |⃗a| cos β
|⃗a| |ĵ| |⃗a| |⃗a|
⃗a · k̂ (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) · (0î + 0ĵ + k̂) a3
cos γ = = = ⇒ a3 = |⃗a| cos γ
rif
|⃗a| |k̂| |⃗a| |⃗a|
Thus, ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂
= |⃗a| cos α î + |⃗a| cos β ĵ + |⃗a| cos γ k̂ = |⃗a| (cos α î + cos β ĵ + cos γ k̂).
In particular, if ⃗a is a unit vector, then |⃗a| = 1 and we can write ⃗a = cos α î + cos β ĵ + cos γ k̂.
la

√
Example 40 (NCERT) Find the angle between vectors ⃗a and ⃗b with magnitudes 3 and 2 respectively
√
having ⃗a · ⃗b = 6.
√ √
C
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 2 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 6.
√
⃗a · ⃗b 6 1
Then, cos θ = = √ = √ = cos 45◦ .
|⃗a| |⃗b| ( 3)(2) 2
◦
Hence, θ = 45 , which is the required angle.
Example 41 (NCERT) Find the angle between two vectors ⃗a = î + ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = î − ĵ + k̂.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where ⃗a = î + ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = î − ĵ + k̂.
⃗a · ⃗b (î + ĵ − k̂) · (î − ĵ + k̂) 1−1−1 1
Then, cos θ = =p = √ √ =− .
⃗
p
|⃗a| |b| (1)2 + (1) 2 + (−1) 2 (1) 2 + (−1) 2 + (1) 2 3 3 3

1
Hence, θ = cos−1 − , which is the required angle.
3
Example 42 If ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + ĵ − 2k̂, then find the angle between ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + ĵ − 2k̂.
Then, ⃗a + ⃗b = (2î − ĵ + 3k̂) + (3î + ĵ − 2k̂) = 5î + 0ĵ + k̂
and ⃗a − ⃗b = (2î − ĵ + 3k̂) − (3î + ĵ − 2k̂) = −î − 2ĵ + 5k̂.
Let θ be the angle between ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b.
(⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b) (5î + 0ĵ + k̂) · (−î − 2ĵ + 5k̂)
Then, cos θ = =p
|⃗a + ⃗b| |⃗a − ⃗b|
p
(5)2 + (0)2 + (1)2 (−1)2 + (−2)2 + (5)2
−5 + 0 + 5
= √ √ = 0 = cos 90◦ .
in
26 30
Hence, θ = 90◦ , which is the required angle.
Example 43 (NCERT) If the vertices A, B and C of a ∆ABC are (1, 2, 3), (−1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 2)
respectively, then find ∠ABC.
e.
Solution: Given ∆ABC with vertices A(1, 2, 3), B(−1, 0, 0) and C(0, 1, 2).
−−→ A
Then, BA = Position vector of A − Position vector of B
= (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) − (−î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) = 2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂
−−→
BC = Position vector of C − Position vector of B θ
yd
and
B C
= (0î + ĵ + 2k̂) − (−î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) = î + ĵ + 2k̂.
−−→ −−→
∠ABC is the angle between BA and BC.
−−→ −−→
BA · BC (2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) · (î + ĵ + 2k̂)
Then, cos (∠ABC) = −−→ −−→ = p p
|BA| |BC| (2) + (2)2 + (3)2 (1)2 + (1)2 + (2)2
2
rif
2+2+6
= √ √
17 6
10
=√ .
102
la

10
Hence, ∠ABC = cos−1 √ .
102
Example 44 Find the angles at which the vector î + 2ĵ − 2k̂ is inclined to each of the coordinate axes.
C
Solution: Let ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂ make angles α, β and γ with x, y and z-axis respectively.
Then, ⃗a makes angles α, β and γ with î, ĵ and k̂ respectively.
⃗a · î (î + 2ĵ − 2k̂) · (î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) 1
Then, cos α = =p p =
|⃗a| |î| (1)2 + (2)2 + (−2)2 (1)2 + (0)2 + (0)2 3
⃗a · ĵ (î + 2ĵ − 2k̂) · (0î + ĵ + 0k̂) 2

cos β = =p p =
|⃗a| |ĵ| 2 2 2 2
(1) + (2) + (−2) (0) + (1) + (0) 2 2 3
⃗a · k̂ (î + 2ĵ − 2k̂) · (0î + 0ĵ + k̂) 2

cos γ = =p p =−
|⃗a| |k̂| 2 2 2 2
(1) + (2) + (−2) (0) + (0) + (1) 2 2 3

1 2 2
Hence, α = cos−1 , β = cos−1 and γ = cos−1 − , which are the required angles.
3 3 3
Example 45 (ISC 2005) If ⃗a and ⃗b are unit vectors such that 2⃗a − 4⃗b and 10⃗a + 8⃗b are perpendicuar
to each other. Find the angle between the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where 2⃗a − 4⃗b and 10⃗a + 8⃗b are perpendicular to each
other and |⃗a| = |⃗b| = 1.
Then, (2⃗a − 4⃗b) · (10⃗a + 8⃗b) = 0 ⇒ 20(⃗a · ⃗a) − 40(⃗b · ⃗a) + 16(⃗a · ⃗b) − 32(⃗b · ⃗b) = 0
⇒ 20|⃗a|2 − 40(⃗a · ⃗b) + 16(⃗a · ⃗b) − 32|⃗b|2 = 0
⇒ 20(1)2 − 24(⃗a · ⃗b) − 32(1)2 = 0
⇒ −24(⃗a · ⃗b) = 12
in
1
⇒ ⃗a · ⃗b = −
2
⃗ 1
⇒ |⃗a| |b| cos θ = −
2
1
e.
⇒ cos θ = −
2
⇒ θ = 120◦ ,
which is the required angle.
Example 46 If ⃗a and ⃗b are two unit vectors such that ⃗a + ⃗b is also a unit vector, then find the angle
yd
between ⃗a and ⃗b.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = |⃗b| = |⃗a + ⃗b| = 1.
Now, |⃗a + ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b = |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
= 1 + 2(⃗a · ⃗b) + 1
rif
= 2 + 2|⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 2 + 2 cos θ.

1
Then, 2 + 2 cos θ = 1, i.e., cos θ = − = cos 120◦ .
2
la
√
Example 47 If ⃗a and ⃗b are unit vectors, then what is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b for ⃗a − 2 ⃗b to be a
unit vector?
√
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = |⃗b| = |⃗a − 2 ⃗b| = 1.
√ √ √ √
C
Now, |⃗a − 2 ⃗b|2 = (⃗a − 2 ⃗b)2 = (⃗a − 2 ⃗b) · (⃗a − 2 ⃗b)

√ √
= ⃗a · ⃗a − 2 ⃗a · ⃗b − 2 ⃗b · ⃗a + 2 ⃗b · ⃗b
√ √
= |⃗a|2 − 2 ⃗a · ⃗b − 2 ⃗a · ⃗b + 2|⃗b|2
√ √ √
= 1 − 2 2 ⃗a · ⃗b + 2 = 3 − 2 2 |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 3 − 2 2 cos θ.
√ 1
Then, 3 − 2 2 cos θ = 1, i.e., cos θ = √ = cos 45◦ .
2
Example 48 If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are three vectors such that ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0 and |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 5 and |⃗c| = 7,
find the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0, |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 5, |⃗c| = 7.
Now, ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0 ⇒ ⃗a + ⃗b = −⃗c ⇒ (⃗a + ⃗b)2 = ⃗c 2
⇒ (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗c · ⃗c
⇒ ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b = ⃗c · ⃗c
⇒ |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2 = |⃗c|2
⇒ 9 + 2(⃗a · ⃗b) + 25 = 49
15
⇒ ⃗a · ⃗b =
2
15
in
⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ =
2
15
⇒ (3)(5) cos θ =
2
1
⇒ cos θ =
e.
2
⇒ θ = 60◦ ,
|⃗a − ⃗b| θ
Example 49 If ⃗a and ⃗b are unit vectors inclined at an angle θ, then prove that = tan .
yd
⃗
|⃗a + b| 2
Solution: Given that θ is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = |⃗b| = 1.
|⃗a − ⃗b|2 (⃗a − ⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b) ⃗a · ⃗a − ⃗a · ⃗b − ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b |⃗a|2 − ⃗a · ⃗b − ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
Then, = = =
|⃗a + ⃗b|2 (⃗a + ⃗b) · (⃗a + ⃗b) ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗b |⃗a|2 + ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗a · ⃗b + |⃗b|2
1 − 2(⃗a · ⃗b) + 1
rif
=
1 + 2(⃗a · ⃗b) + 1
2 − 2 |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ
=
2 + 2 |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ
la
1 − cos θ
=
1 + cos θ
θ
2 sin2 θ
= 2 = tan2 .
θ 2
C
2 cos2
2
|⃗a − ⃗b| θ
Hence, = tan .
|⃗a + ⃗b| 2
Example 50 If ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0, then show that the angle θ between ⃗b and ⃗c is given by
|⃗a|2 − |⃗b|2 − |⃗c|2
cos θ = .
2|⃗b| |⃗c|
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗b and ⃗c where ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0.
Now, ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0 ⇒ ⃗b + ⃗c = −⃗a
⇒ (⃗b + ⃗c)2 = ⃗a 2
⇒ (⃗b + ⃗c) · (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a · ⃗a
⇒ ⃗b · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗b + ⃗c · ⃗c = ⃗a · ⃗a
⇒ |⃗b|2 + 2(⃗b · ⃗c) + |⃗c|2 = |⃗a|2

2 ⃗2 2
⇒ ⃗b · ⃗c = |⃗a| − |b| − |⃗c|
2
|⃗a|2
− | ⃗b|2 − |⃗c|2
⇒ |⃗b| |⃗c| cos θ =
2
⃗
|⃗a| − |b|2 − |⃗c|2
2
⇒ cos θ = .
2 |⃗b| |⃗c|
in
Example 51 (NCERT, ISC 2017) If ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are mutually perpendicular vectors of equal magnitudes,
show that the vector ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c is equally inclined to ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c. Also, find the angle which ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c
makes with ⃗a, ⃗b or ⃗c.
e.
Solution: Given ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are three mutually perpendicular vectors of equal magnitude.
Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗b · ⃗c = ⃗c · ⃗a = 0 and |⃗a| = |⃗b| = |⃗c|.
Let α be the angle between ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c and ⃗a.
(⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c) · ⃗a ⃗a · ⃗a + ⃗b · ⃗a + ⃗c · ⃗a |⃗a|2 + 0 + 0 |⃗a|
Then, cos α = = = = .
yd
|⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c| |⃗a| |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c| |⃗a| |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c| |⃗a| |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|
Let β be the angle between ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c and ⃗b.
(⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c) · ⃗b ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗b + ⃗c · ⃗b 0 + |⃗b|2 + 0 |⃗b|
Then, cos β = = = = .
⃗ ⃗
|⃗a + b + ⃗c| |b| ⃗
|⃗a + b + ⃗c| |b|⃗ ⃗ ⃗
|⃗a + b + ⃗c| |b| |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|
Let γ be the angle between ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c and ⃗c.
rif
(⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c) · ⃗c ⃗a · ⃗c + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗c 0 + 0 + |⃗c|2 |⃗c|

Then, cos γ = = = = .
⃗
|⃗a + b + ⃗c| |⃗c| ⃗
|⃗a + b + ⃗c| |⃗c| ⃗
|⃗a + b + ⃗c| |⃗c| |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|
Thus, cos α = cos β = cos γ, i.e., α = β = γ.
Hence, ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c is equally inclined to ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c and the required angle is
la
!
−1 |⃗a|
α = cos ...(6)
|⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|
Now, |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c|2 = |⃗a|2 + |⃗b|2 + |⃗c|2 + 2(⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗a)
C
= 3|⃗a|2 [Using (1) and (2)]

√
⇒ |⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c| = 3 |⃗a| ...(7)

1
From (6) and (7), we get the required angle as α = cos−1 √ .
3
18.3.4 Projection of a Vector on another Vector

In this subsection, we shall discuss the concept of projection of a vector on another vector. Before
proceeding further, let us first understand the physical meaning of projection.
The projection of any object on a surface can be obtained by focussing a source of light on the object
and obtaining its shadow on a surface. In Figure 18.15, light is focussed on a vector to obtain its shadow
on a plane. The shadow so formed on the surface is the projection of vector on the plane.
We have the following definition.
Projection of a Vector on another Vector: Given two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, the perpendiculars can be
drawn from the initial and terminal points of ⃗a on the line through ⃗b to obtain a line segment. The
length of such line segment is called the projection of ⃗a on ⃗b.
We shall now compute the mathematical expression of projection of a vector on another vector.
Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors with ⃗b ̸= ⃗0.
−−→
Let ⃗a = AB and θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
Draw BC ⊥ ⃗b, as shown in Figure 18.16.
in
⃗a B
e.
θ
A p⃗ C ⃗b
yd
Then, projection of ⃗a on ⃗b (also known as scalar projection of ⃗a on ⃗b) is given by

!
⃗a · ⃗b ⃗a · ⃗b
|⃗
p| = AC = AB cos θ = |⃗a| = .
|⃗a| |⃗b| |⃗b|
Also, projection vector of ⃗a on ⃗b (also known as vector projection of ⃗a on ⃗b) is given by
rif
! !
⃗a · ⃗b ⃗b ⃗a · ⃗b ⃗
p⃗ = |⃗
p| b̂ = = b.
|⃗b| |⃗b| |⃗b|2
Projection / Scalar Projection: Projection of ⃗a on ⃗b is given by

la
⃗a · ⃗b
|⃗
p| = .
|⃗b|
Projection Vector / Vector Projection: Projection vector of ⃗a on ⃗b is given by
C
!
⃗a · ⃗b ⃗
p⃗ = b.
|⃗b|2
Remarks: 1. If n̂ is the unit vector along the directed line l, then the projection of vector ⃗a on the
line l is p⃗ = ⃗a · n̂.
2. Consider a vector ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ . Then,
projection of ⃗a on x-axis = ⃗a · î = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) · (î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) = a1 ,
projection of ⃗a on y-axis = ⃗a · ĵ = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) · (0î + ĵ + 0k̂) = a2 and
projection of ⃗a on z-axis = ⃗a · k̂ = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) · (0î + 0ĵ + k̂) = a3 .
Example 52 If ⃗a = 7î + ĵ − 4k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂, find the projection of ⃗a on ⃗b.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 7î + ĵ − 4k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂.
⃗a · ⃗b (7î + ĵ − 4k̂) · (2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂) 14 + 6 − 12 8
Then, projection of ⃗a on ⃗b = = =p = .
⃗
|b| |2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂| 2 2
(2) + (6) + (3) 2 7
Example 53 Find the scalar projection of the vector î + 3ĵ + 7k̂ on the vector 7î − ĵ + 8k̂.
Solution: Let ⃗a = î + 3ĵ + 7k̂ and ⃗b = 7î − ĵ + 8k̂.
⃗a · ⃗b (î + 3ĵ + 7k̂) · (7î − ĵ + 8k̂)
Then, scalar projection of ⃗a on ⃗b = =
|⃗b| |7î − ĵ + 8k̂|
in
7 − 3 + 56 60
=p =√ .
2 2
(7) + (−1) + (8) 2 114
Example 54 (Exemplar) Write the projection of vector ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂ along ⃗b = î + 2ĵ + 2k̂.
Solution: Let ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = î + 2ĵ + 2k̂.
e.
⃗a · ⃗b (2î − ĵ + k̂) · (î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) 2−2+2 2
Then, projection of ⃗a along ⃗b = = =p = .
⃗
|b| |î + 2ĵ + 2k̂| 2 2
(1) + (2) + (2) 2 3
Example 55 (Exemplar) If ⃗a = 2î − 2ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗c = 2î − ĵ + 4k̂, then find the
yd
projection of ⃗b + ⃗c along ⃗a.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î − 2ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗c = 2î − ĵ + 4k̂.
Then, ⃗b + ⃗c = (î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) + (2î − ĵ + 4k̂) = 3î + ĵ + k̂.
(⃗b + ⃗c) · ⃗a (3î + ĵ + k̂) · (2î − 2ĵ + k̂)
Now, projection of ⃗b + ⃗c on ⃗a = =
|⃗a| |2î − 2ĵ + k̂|
rif
6−2+1 5
=p = .
2
(2) + (−2) + (1)2 2 3
Example 56 (Exemplar) If A, B, C, D are the points with position vectors î + ĵ − k̂, 2î − ĵ + 3k̂,
−−→ −−→
2î − 3k̂, 3î − 2ĵ + k̂, respectively, find the projection of AB along CD.
la
Solution: Given A, B, C, D are the points with position vectors î + ĵ − k̂, 2î − ĵ + 3k̂, 2î − 3k̂,
3î − 2ĵ + k̂, respectively.
−−→
C
= (2î − ĵ + 3k̂) − (î + ĵ − k̂) = î − 2ĵ + 4k̂.

−−→
Also, CD = Position vector of D − Position vector of C
= (3î − 2ĵ + k̂) − (2î − 3k̂) = î − 2ĵ + 4k̂.
−−→ −−→
−−→ −−→ AB · CD (î − 2ĵ + 4k̂) · (î − 2ĵ + 4k̂)
Now, projection of AB along CD = −−→ =
|CD| |î − 2ĵ + 4k̂|
1 + 4 + 16 21 √
=p = √ = 21.
2 2
(1) + (−2) + (4) 2 21
Example 57 Find the vector projection of 2î − ĵ + k̂ on î − 2ĵ + k̂.

Solution: Let ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = î − 2ĵ + k̂.

! " #
⃗ ⃗a · ⃗b ⃗ (2î − ĵ + k̂) · (î − 2ĵ + k̂)
Then, vector projection of ⃗a on b = b= (î − 2ĵ + k̂)
|⃗b|2 |î − 2ĵ + k̂|2

2+2+1
= (î − 2ĵ + k̂)
(1)2 + (−2)2 + (1)2
5
= (î − 2ĵ + k̂).
6
Example 58 The projections of a vector on the coordinate axes are 2, 3 and −6. Find the direction
cosines of the vector.
Solution: Let ⃗a = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ be the vector whose projections on the coordinate axes are 2, 3 and −6.
in
Then, projection of ⃗a on x-axis = ⃗a · î = (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · (î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) = x,
Projection of ⃗a on y-axis = ⃗a · ĵ = (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · (0î + ĵ + 0k̂) = y,
Projection of ⃗a on z-axis = ⃗a · k̂ = (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · (0î + 0ĵ + k̂) = z.
e.
Thus, x = 2, y = 3, z = −6 and ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ − 6k̂.
p
The direction ratios of ⃗a are a1 = 2, a2 = 3, a3 = −6 and |⃗a| = (2)2 + (3)2 + (−6)2 = 7.
a1 2 a2 3 a3 6
Hence, the direction cosines of ⃗a are l = = ,m = = ,n = =− .
|⃗a| 7 |⃗a| 7 |⃗a| 7
yd
Example 59 Let ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c be three vectors such that |⃗a| = 1, |⃗b| = 2, |⃗c| = 3. If the projection of
⃗b along ⃗a is equal to the projection of ⃗c along ⃗a; and ⃗b, ⃗c are perpendicular to each other, then find
|3⃗a − 2⃗b + 2⃗c|.
Solution: Given that ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are three vectors such that |⃗a| = 1, |⃗b| = 2, |⃗c| = 3 and the projection of
rif
⃗b along ⃗a is equal to the projection of ⃗c along ⃗a.
⃗b · ⃗a ⃗c · ⃗a
Then, = , i.e., ⃗b · ⃗a = ⃗c · ⃗a.
|⃗a| |⃗a|
Also given that ⃗b and ⃗c are perpendicular to each other, i.e., ⃗b · ⃗c = 0.
Thus, |3⃗a − 2⃗b + 2⃗c|2 = (3⃗a − 2⃗b + 2⃗c) · (3⃗a − 2⃗b + 2⃗c)
la
= 9⃗a · ⃗a − 6⃗a · ⃗b + 6⃗a · ⃗c − 6⃗b · ⃗a + 4⃗b · ⃗b − 4⃗b · ⃗c + 6⃗c · ⃗a − 4⃗c · ⃗b + 4⃗c · ⃗c

= 9|⃗a|2 − 6⃗b · ⃗a + 6⃗c · ⃗a − 6⃗b · ⃗a + 4|⃗b|2 − 4⃗b · ⃗c + 6⃗c · ⃗a − 4⃗b · ⃗c + 4|⃗c|2
= 9|⃗a|2 + 4|⃗b|2 + 4|⃗c|2 = 9(1)2 + 4(2)2 + 4(3)2 = 61.
C
√
Hence, |3⃗a − 2⃗b + 2⃗c| = 61.
Example 60 (ISC 2018) Find the value of λ when the projection of vector ⃗a = λî + ĵ + 4k̂ on vector
⃗b = 2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂ is 4 units.
Solution: Given that the projection of ⃗a = λî + ĵ + 4k̂ on ⃗b = 2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂ is 4 units.
⃗a · ⃗b (λî + ĵ + 4k̂) · (2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂) 2λ + 6 + 12
Then, =4 ⇒ =4 ⇒ =4
⃗
p
|b| |2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂| (2)2 + (6)2 + (3)2
2λ + 18
⇒ =4
7
⇒ λ = 5.
Exercise 18.3
(i) Scalar product is not commutative.
(ii) For any vector ⃗a, we have ⃗a 2 = |⃗a|2 .
(i) The value of |î − ĵ|2 is . [Exemplar]
(ii) The projection of the vector î − ĵ on the vector î + ĵ is .
3. If ⃗a = 5î − 2ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = −î + k̂, then find ⃗a · ⃗b.
4. If ⃗a = −î + 2k̂ and ⃗b = î + ĵ, then find (3⃗a + 2⃗b) · (⃗a − ⃗b).
in
* 5. If ⃗a = 5î− ĵ −3k̂ and ⃗b = î+3ĵ −5k̂, then show that the vectors ⃗a +⃗b and ⃗a −⃗b are perpendicular.
[NCERT]
⃗
* 6. For what value of λ are the vectors ⃗a = 2î + λĵ + k̂ and b = î − 2ĵ + 3k̂ perpendicular to each
other?
e.
7. Find λ so that 2î + 3ĵ − k̂ and 4î + 6ĵ + λk̂ are perpendicular to each other.
8. Find the value of λ for which the two vectors 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ and 3î + λĵ + k̂ are perpendicular to
each other. [Exemplar]
⃗
9. If ⃗a = 2î + 4ĵ − k̂ and b = 3î − 2ĵ + λk̂ are perpendicular to each other, then find the value of λ.
yd
* 10. If p⃗ = 5î + λĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗q = î + 3ĵ − 5k̂, then find the value of λ so that p⃗ + ⃗q and p⃗ − ⃗q are
perpendicular vectors.
* 11. If ⃗a = 2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂, ⃗b = −î + 2ĵ + k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + ĵ are such that ⃗a + λ⃗b is perpendicular to ⃗c,
then find the value of λ. [NCERT]
* 12. Find |⃗x|, if for a unit vector ⃗a, we have (⃗x − ⃗a) · (⃗x + ⃗a) = 99. [Exemplar]
rif
* 13. If ⃗a is a unit vector and (⃗x − ⃗a) · (⃗x + ⃗a) = 24, then write the value of |⃗x|.
* 14. If p⃗ is a unit vector and (⃗x − p⃗) · (⃗x + p⃗) = 48, then write the value of |⃗x|.
15. If ⃗a is a unit vector and (⃗x − ⃗a) · (⃗x + ⃗a) = 8, then find |⃗x|.
* 16. Find |⃗x|, if for a unit vector ⃗a, (⃗x − ⃗a) · (⃗x + ⃗a) = 15.
17. If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are three vectors such that ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0 and |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 3, |⃗c| = 5, then find the
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value of ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗a. [Exemplar]

* 18. If ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are unit vectors such that ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0, then write the value of ⃗a · ⃗b + ⃗b · ⃗c + ⃗c · ⃗a.
[NCERT]
⃗ = 3î + 4ĵ + 5k̂ and β = 2î + ĵ − 4k̂, then express β in the form β = β1 + β2 , where β⃗1 is
⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
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* 19. If α
parallel to α ⃗ and β⃗2 is perpendicular to α ⃗.
* 20. If ⃗a = 2î − ĵ − 2k̂ and ⃗b = 7î + 2ĵ − 3k̂, then express ⃗b in the form ⃗b = b⃗1 + b⃗2 , where b⃗1 is
parallel to ⃗a and b⃗2 is perpendicular to ⃗a.
√
* 21. Find the angle between two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b having same length 5 and their scalar product is −5.
* 22. Find the angle between the vectors î − ĵ and ĵ − k̂. [Exemplar]
23. Find the angle between the vectors î − 2ĵ + 3k̂ and 3î − 2ĵ + k̂.
1
24. If ⃗a and ⃗b are two vectors of the same magnitude inclined at an angle of 60◦ such that ⃗a · ⃗b = ,
2
then find |⃗a| and |⃗b|.
√
25. If ⃗a and ⃗b are unit vectors, then what is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b for 3 ⃗a − ⃗b to be a unit vector?
26. Find the angle between vectors ⃗a and ⃗b with magnitudes 1 and 2 respectively and when ⃗a · ⃗b = 1.
√ √
27. Find the angle between vectors ⃗a and ⃗b with magnitudes 3 and 4, respectively, and ⃗a · ⃗b = 2 3.
θ
* 28. If ⃗a and ⃗b are unit vectors inclined at an angle θ, then prove that |⃗a − ⃗b| = 2 sin . [ISC 2013]
2
⃗ ⃗ θ
* 29. If ⃗a and b are unit vectors inclined at an angle θ, then prove that |⃗a + b| = 2 cos .
2
* 30. Find the projection of the vector î + 3ĵ + 7k̂ on the vector 2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂.
* 31. Write the projection of vector 2î + 3ĵ − k̂ along the vector î + ĵ.
* 32. Write the projection of vector î + ĵ + k̂ along the vector ĵ.
* 33. Find the projection of ⃗b + ⃗c on ⃗a, where ⃗a = 2î − 2ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂ and ⃗c = 2î − ĵ + 4k̂.
in
34. Find the projection of ⃗a on ⃗b if ⃗a · ⃗b = 8 and ⃗b = 2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂.
35. Find the projection of the vector 2î + 3ĵ + 2k̂ on the vector î + 2ĵ + k̂.
36. Find the projection of ⃗a = î + 3ĵ + k̂ along ⃗b = 2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂.
37. If ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = î − 2ĵ + k̂, find the projection of ⃗b on ⃗a.
e.
38. If θ is the angle between two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, then ⃗a · ⃗b ≥ 0 only when [NCERT]
π π
(a) 0 < θ < (b) 0 ≤ θ ≤ (c) 0 < θ < π (d) 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
yd
2 2
39. If ⃗a = 2î + 4ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = 3î − 2ĵ − λk̂ such that they are perpendicular to each other, then the
value of λ will be [ISC 2022]
(a) 2 (b) −2 (c) 3 (d) −3
Answers 18.3
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2. (i) 2 (ii) 0
5
3. −2 4. 12 6. 7. 26
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2
8. 8 9. −2 10. ±1 11. 8
12. 10 13. 5 14. 7 15. 3
3
16. 4 17. −19 18. −
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2
3 4 13 9
19. β⃗1 = − î − ĵ − k̂, β⃗2 = î + ĵ − 3k̂ 20. ⃗b1 = 4î − 2ĵ − 4k̂, ⃗b2 = 3î + 4ĵ + k̂
5 5 5 5
5
21. 180◦ 22. 120◦ 23. cos−1 24. 1
7
π π
25. 30◦ 26. 27. 30. 5
3 3
5 8
31. √ 32. 1 33. 2 34.
2 7
√
5 6 1 5
35. 36. − 37. √ 38. (b)
3 7 6
39. (a)
18.4 Vector Product (or Cross Product) of Two Vectors
In this section, we shall define vector product of two vectors and discuss some of its important
properties.
Let ⃗a and ⃗b be two non-zero vectors. Then, vector product (or cross product) of ⃗a and ⃗b is denoted
by ⃗a × ⃗b (read as ‘⃗a cross ⃗b’) and is defined as
⃗b
⃗a × ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ n̂
where θ is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π and θ
n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing ⃗a
the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, which is given by ‘Right-hand Thumb Rule’.
in
Right-hand Thumb Rule: According to this rule, if we bend the fingers of the right hand in such a
way that they point in the direction of rotation from ⃗a to ⃗b through the smaller angle between them,
then the thumb points in the direction of vector ⃗a × ⃗b.
If either ⃗a = ⃗0 or ⃗b = ⃗0, then the angle θ between ⃗a and ⃗b is not defined and in this case, we define
u e.
⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0.
Remark 18.7 The direction of ⃗a × ⃗b is same as that of n̂.

⃗a × ⃗b
yd
⃗a
θ
⃗b ⃗a
d θ
⃗b
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⃗b × ⃗a
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18.4.1 Some Important Properties and Observations

Let us now discuss some important properties and observations.
1. ⃗a × ⃗b is always a vector. That is why, cross product is called vector product.

C
2. If ⃗a and ⃗b are like vectors (i.e., θ = 0), then |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin 0 = 0 and ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0.
3. If ⃗a and ⃗b are unlike vectors (i.e., θ = π), then |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin π = 0 and ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0.
4. Vector product is not commutative, i.e., ⃗a × ⃗b ̸= ⃗b × ⃗a.
|⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = |⃗b × ⃗a| and direction of ⃗a × ⃗b is opposite to that of ⃗b × ⃗a.
Thus, ⃗a × ⃗b = −⃗b × ⃗a.
5. Distributivity of Vector Product over Addition: Let ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c be any three vectors, then
⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c.
6. Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors and let λ be any scalar, then
λ(⃗a × ⃗b) = (λ⃗a) × ⃗b = ⃗a × (λ⃗b).
7. For unit vectors î, ĵ, k̂, we have

î
î × î = ⃗0, ĵ × ĵ = ⃗0, k̂ × k̂ = ⃗0,
î × ĵ = k̂, ĵ × k̂ = î, k̂ × î = ĵ,
ĵ k̂
ĵ × î = −k̂, k̂ × ĵ = −î, î × k̂ = −ĵ.
⃗a × ⃗b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) × (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂)
= a1 î × (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂) + a2 ĵ × (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂) + a3 k̂ × (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂)
in
= 0 + a1 b2 k̂ − a1 b3 ĵ − a2 b1 k̂ + 0 + a2 b3 î + a3 b1 ĵ − a3 b2 î + 0
= î(a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) − ĵ(a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) + k̂(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )
î ĵ k̂
= a1 a2 a3 .
e.
b1 b2 b3
Example 1 If ⃗a = 2î + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 4î + ĵ + k̂, then find ⃗a × ⃗b.
yd
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 4î + ĵ + k̂.
î ĵ k̂
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = 2 0 3 = î(0 − 3) − ĵ(2 − 12) + k̂(2 − 0) = −3î + 10ĵ + 2k̂.
4 1 1
Example 2 (ISC 2008) Given â = î − 2ĵ + k̂, b̂ = 2î + ĵ + k̂, ĉ = î + 2ĵ − k̂. Find ⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c).
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Solution: Given â = î − 2ĵ + k̂, b̂ = 2î + ĵ + k̂ and ĉ = î + 2ĵ − k̂.
î ĵ k̂
Then, ⃗b × ⃗c = 2 1 1 = î(−1 − 2) − ĵ(−2 − 1) + k̂(4 − 1) = −3î + 3ĵ + 3k̂.
1 2 −1
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î ĵ k̂
Hence, ⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c) = 1 −2 1 = î(−6 − 3) − ĵ(3 + 3) + k̂(3 − 6) = −9î − 6ĵ − 3k̂.
−3 3 3
Example 3 (ISC 2009) If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c represent the position vectors of the points with coordinates
C
(2, −10, 2), (3, 1, 2) and (2, 1, 3) respectively, find the value of ⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c).
Solution: Given ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c represent the position vectors of the points with coordinates (2, −10, 2),
(3, 1, 2) and (2, 1, 3) respectively.
Then, ⃗a = 2î − 10ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗b = 3î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗c = 2î + ĵ + 3k̂.
î ĵ k̂
Then, ⃗b × ⃗c = 3 1 2 = î(3 − 2) − ĵ(9 − 4) + k̂(3 − 2) = î − 5ĵ + k̂.
2 1 3
î ĵ k̂
Hence, ⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c) = 2 −10 2 = î(−10 + 10) − ĵ(2 − 2) + k̂(−10 + 10) = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂.
1 −5 1
Example 4 If ⃗a = 2î + ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + 5ĵ − 2k̂, then find |⃗a × ⃗b|.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î + ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + 5ĵ − 2k̂.
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = (2î + ĵ + 3k̂) × (3î + 5ĵ − 2k̂)
î ĵ k̂
= 2 1 3 = î(−2 − 15) − ĵ(−4 − 9) + k̂(10 − 3) = −17î + 13ĵ + 7k̂.
3 5 −2
√
Hence, |⃗a × ⃗b| = (−17)2 + (13)2 + (7)2 = 507.
p
Example 5 If ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = −î + ĵ, then find |3⃗b × 2⃗a|.
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Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = −î + ĵ.
Then, 3⃗b × 2⃗a = 3(−î + ĵ + 0k̂) × 2(2î − ĵ + k̂)
= (−3î + 3ĵ + 0k̂) × (4î − 2ĵ + 2k̂)
e.
î ĵ k̂
= −3 3 0 = î(6 − 0) − ĵ(−6 − 0) + k̂(6 − 12) = 6î + 6ĵ − 6k̂
4 −2 2
√
Hence, |3⃗b × 2⃗a| = (6)2 + (6)2 + (−6)2 = 6 3.
p
yd
Example 6 (NCERT) Find the value of î · (ĵ × k̂) + ĵ · (î × k̂) + k̂ · (î × ĵ).
Solution: We have, î · (ĵ × k̂) + ĵ · (î × k̂) + k̂ · (î × ĵ)

î
= î · î + ĵ · (−ĵ) + k̂ · k̂
= î · î − ĵ · ĵ + k̂ · k̂
ĵ k̂
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= 1 − 1 + 1 = 1.
Example 7 Write the value of the following:

î × (ĵ + k̂) + ĵ × (k̂ + î) + k̂ × (î + ĵ).
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Solution: We have, î × (ĵ + k̂) + ĵ × (k̂ + î) + k̂ × (î + ĵ)

= î × ĵ + î × k̂ + ĵ × k̂ + ĵ × î + k̂ × î + k̂ × ĵ
= k̂ − ĵ + î − k̂ + ĵ − î
= ⃗0.
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Example 8 If ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, find (⃗r × î) · (⃗r × ĵ) + xy.

Solution: Given ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂. Then,
(⃗r × î) · (⃗r × ĵ) + xy = [(xî + y ĵ + z k̂) × î] · [(xî + y ĵ + z k̂) × ĵ] + xy
= [x(î × î) + y(ĵ × î) + z(k̂ × î)] · [x(î × ĵ) + y(ĵ × ĵ) + z(k̂ × ĵ)] + xy
= [⃗0 − y k̂ + z ĵ] · [xk̂ + ⃗0 − z î] + xy
= [0î + z ĵ − y k̂] · [−z î + 0ĵ + xk̂] + xy
= (0 + 0 − xy) + xy
= 0.
Example 9 (Exemplar) For any vector ⃗a, find the value of (⃗a × î)2 + (⃗a × ĵ)2 + (⃗a × k̂)2 .
Solution: Let ⃗a makes angles α, β and γ with x, y and z-axes respectively.
Then, (⃗a × î)2 = |⃗a × î|2 = (|⃗a| |î| sin α)2 = |⃗a|2 sin2 α,
(⃗a × ĵ)2 = |⃗a × ĵ|2 = (|⃗a| |ĵ| sin β)2 = |⃗a|2 sin2 β,
(⃗a × k̂)2 = |⃗a × k̂|2 = (|⃗a| |k̂| sin γ)2 = |⃗a|2 sin2 γ.
Hence, (⃗a × î)2 + (⃗a × ĵ)2 + (⃗a × k̂)2

= |⃗a|2 sin2 α + |⃗a|2 sin2 β + |⃗a|2 sin2 γ
= |⃗a|2 (1 − cos2 α) + |⃗a|2 (1 − cos2 β) + |⃗a|2 (1 − cos2 γ)
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= |⃗a|2 (3 − cos2 α − cos2 β − cos2 γ)
= |⃗a|2 [3 − (cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ)]
∵ cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1,
 
e.
= 2|⃗a|2 .  as cos α, cos β, cos γ are 
direction cosines of ⃗a
Example 10 If |⃗a| = a, then find the value of the following:
|⃗a × î|2 + |⃗a × ĵ|2 + |⃗a × k̂|2 .
yd
Solution: Let ⃗a make angles α, β and γ with x, y and z-axes respectively.
Then, |⃗a × î| = |⃗a| |î| sin α = a sin α,
|⃗a × ĵ| = |⃗a| |ĵ| sin β = a sin β,
|⃗a × k̂| = |⃗a| |k̂| sin γ = a sin γ.
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Hence, |⃗a × î|2 + |⃗a × ĵ|2 + |⃗a × k̂|2 = a2 sin2 α + a2 sin2 β + a2 sin2 γ
= a2 (1 − cos2 α) + a2 (1 − cos2 β) + a2 (1 − cos2 γ)
= a2 [3 − (cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ)]
la
∵ cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1,

 
= 2a2 .  as cos α, cos β, cos γ are 

direction cosines of ⃗a
Example 11 For any two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, prove that (⃗a × ⃗b)2 = ⃗a 2 ⃗b 2 − (⃗a · ⃗b)2 .
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Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.

2
We have, (⃗a × ⃗b)2 = |⃗a × ⃗b|2 = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = |⃗a|2 |⃗b|2 sin2 θ
= |⃗a|2 |⃗b|2 (1 − cos2 θ)
= |⃗a|2 |⃗b|2 − |⃗a|2 |⃗b|2 cos2 θ
2
= |⃗a|2 |⃗b|2 − |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ
= ⃗a 2 ⃗b 2 − (⃗a · ⃗b)2 .
Example 12 (NCERT) Show that (⃗a − ⃗b) × (⃗a + ⃗b) = 2(⃗a × ⃗b).
Solution: (⃗a − ⃗b) × (⃗a + ⃗b) = ⃗a × (⃗a + ⃗b) − ⃗b × (⃗a + ⃗b)
= ⃗a × ⃗a + ⃗a × ⃗b − ⃗b × ⃗a − ⃗b × ⃗b
= ⃗0 + ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗b − ⃗0
= 2(⃗a × ⃗b).
Example 13 For any three vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c, write the value of the following:
⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) + ⃗b × (⃗c + ⃗a) + ⃗c × (⃗a + ⃗b).
Solution: ⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) + ⃗b × (⃗c + ⃗a) + ⃗c × (⃗a + ⃗b)
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= ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗b × ⃗a + ⃗c × ⃗a + ⃗c × ⃗b
= ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c + ⃗b × ⃗c − ⃗a × ⃗b − ⃗a × ⃗c − ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗0.
Example 14 (NCERT) The vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are given as a1 î+a2 ĵ +a3 k̂, b1 î+b2 ĵ +b3 k̂, c1 î+c2 ĵ +c3 k̂
e.
respectively. Show that ⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c.
Solution: Given ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂, ⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ and ⃗c = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂.
Then, ⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) × [(b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂) + (c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂)]
= (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) × [(b1 + c1 )î + (b2 + c2 )ĵ + (b3 + c3 )k̂]
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î ĵ k̂
= a1 a2 a3
b1 + c1 b2 + c2 b3 + c3
= î[a2 (b3 + c3 ) − a3 (b2 + c2 )] − ĵ[a1 (b3 + c3 ) − a3 (b1 + c1 )]
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+ k̂[a1 (b2 + c2 ) − a2 (b1 + c1 )]
= (a2 b3 + a2 c3 − a3 b2 − a3 c2 )î − (a1 b3 + a1 c3 − a3 b1 − a3 c1 )ĵ
+ (a1 b2 + a1 c2 − a2 b1 − a2 c1 )k̂ ...(1)
Now, ⃗a × ⃗b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) × (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂)

la
î ĵ k̂
= a1 a2 a3 = î(a2 b3 − a3 b2 ) − ĵ(a1 b3 − a3 b1 ) + k̂(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )
b1 b2 b3
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and ⃗a × ⃗c = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) × (c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂)

î ĵ k̂
= a1 a2 a3 = î(a2 c3 − a3 c2 ) − ĵ(a1 c3 − a3 c1 ) + k̂(a1 c2 − a2 c1 )
c1 c2 c3
So, ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c = (a2 b3 + a2 c3 − a3 b2 − a3 c2 )î − (a1 b3 + a1 c3 − a3 b1 − a3 c1 )ĵ
+ (a1 b2 + a1 c2 − a2 b1 − a2 c1 )k̂ ...(2)
From (1) and (2), we get ⃗a × (⃗b + ⃗c) = ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c.
Example 15 (ISC 2019) If ⃗a = î − 2ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + 3ĵ − 5k̂, then find ⃗a × ⃗b. Verify that ⃗a and
⃗a × ⃗b are perpendicular to each other.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î − 2ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + 3ĵ − 5k̂.

î ĵ k̂
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = 1 −2 3 = î(10 − 9) − ĵ(−5 − 6) + k̂(3 + 4) = î + 11ĵ + 7k̂.
2 3 −5
Now, ⃗a · (⃗a × ⃗b) = (î − 2ĵ + 3k̂) · (î + 11ĵ + 7k̂) = 1 − 22 + 21 = 0.
Hence, ⃗a and ⃗a × ⃗b are perpendicular to each other.
Example 16 If ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are three vectors such that ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗c, ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗a, prove that ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are mutually
perpendicular to each other with |⃗b| = 1 and |⃗a| = |⃗c|.
Solution: Given ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗c, i.e., ⃗c is perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b.
in
Also, given that ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗a, i.e., ⃗a is perpendicular to both ⃗b and ⃗c.
Thus, ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are mutually perpendicular to each other.
Now, ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗c ⇒ |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗c|
e.
⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| sin 90◦ = |⃗c| [∵ ⃗a ⊥ ⃗b ]
⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| = |⃗c| ...(3)
Also, ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗a ⇒ |⃗b × ⃗c| = |⃗a|

⇒ |⃗b| |⃗c| sin 90◦ = |⃗a| [∵ ⃗b ⊥ ⃗c ]
yd
⇒ |⃗b| |⃗c| = |⃗a| ...(4)
Putting value of |⃗a| from (4) in (3), we get
|⃗b| |⃗c| |⃗b| = |⃗c|
⇒ |⃗b|2 = 1 [∵ ⃗c ̸= ⃗0 ⇒ |⃗c| =
̸ 0]
rif
⇒ |⃗b| = 1
Putting value of |⃗b| in (3), we get |⃗a| = |⃗c|.
Example 17 Find λ and µ if (î + 3ĵ + 9k̂) × (3î − λĵ + µk̂) = ⃗0.
la
Solution: Given that

(î + 3ĵ + 9k̂) × (3î − λĵ + µk̂) = ⃗0
î ĵ k̂
⇒ 1 3 9 = ⃗0
C
3 −λ µ
⇒ î(3µ + 9λ) − ĵ(µ − 27) + k̂(−λ − 9) = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂
3µ + 9λ = 0 ...(1)
−µ + 27 = 0 ⇒ µ = 27
−λ − 9 = 0 ⇒ λ = −9
Also, λ = −9 and µ = 27 satisfy (1). Hence, λ = −9 and µ = 27.
Example 18 (Exemplar) If ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = ĵ − k̂, find a vector ⃗c such that ⃗a × ⃗c = ⃗b and
⃗a · ⃗c = 3.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = ĵ − k̂.
Let ⃗c = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ such that ⃗a × ⃗c = ⃗b and ⃗a · ⃗c = 3.
î ĵ k̂
Now, ⃗a × ⃗c = ⃗b ⇒ 1 1 1 = 0î + ĵ − k̂
x y z
⇒ î(z − y) − ĵ(z − x) + k̂(y − x) = 0î + ĵ − k̂
z−y =0 ⇒ y=z ...(1)
−z + x = 1 ⇒ x=1+z ...(2)
in
y − x = −1 ...(3)
Also, ⃗a · ⃗c = 3 ⇒ (î + ĵ + k̂) · (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) = 3

⇒ x+y+z =3 ...(4)
e.
From (1), (2) and (4), we get
(1 + z) + z + z = 3 ⇒ 3z + 1 = 3
2
⇒ z=
3
5 2
yd
From (1) and (2), we get x = ,y= .
3 3
5 2 2 5
Also, x = and y = satisfy (3). ∵ y − x = − = −1
3 3 3 3
5 2 2
Hence, required vector is ⃗c = î + ĵ + k̂.
3 3 3
rif
Example 19 The magnitude of the vector product of the vector î + ĵ + k̂ with a unit vector along the
√
sum of vectors 2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂ and λî + 2ĵ + 3k̂ is equal to 2. Find value of λ.
Solution: Let ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = 2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂ and ⃗c = λî + 2ĵ + 3k̂.
Then, ⃗b + ⃗c = (2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) + (λî + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = (2 + λ)î + 6ĵ − 2k̂.
la
Thus, unit vector along the sum of vectors ⃗b + ⃗c is given by

⃗b + ⃗c (2 + λ)î + 6ĵ − 2k̂ (2 + λ)î + 6ĵ − 2k̂
r̂ = =p = √ .
|⃗b + ⃗c| (2 + λ)2 + (6)2 + (−2)2 λ2 + 4λ + 44
C
î ĵ k̂
1 1 1
Now, ⃗a × r̂ =
2+λ 6 −2
√ √ √
λ2 + 4λ + 44 λ2 + 4λ + 44 λ2 + 4λ + 44
1 î ĵ k̂
=√ 1 1 1
λ2 + 4λ + 44 2 + λ 6 −2
1 h i
=√ î(−2 − 6) − ĵ{−2 − (2 + λ)} + k̂{6 − (2 + λ)}
λ2 + 4λ + 44
−8î + (4 + λ)ĵ + (4 − λ)k̂
= √ .
λ2 + 4λ + 44
√ −8î + (4 + λ)ĵ + (4 − λ)k̂ √

Also, given that |⃗a × r̂| = 2 ⇒ √ = 2
2
λ + 4λ + 44
−8î + (4 + λ)ĵ + (4 − λ)k̂ √

⇒ √ = 2
2
λ + 4λ + 44
p √ p
⇒ (−8)2 + (4 + λ)2 + (4 − λ)2 = 2 λ2 + 4λ + 44
⇒ 64 + (16 + λ2 + 8λ) + (16 + λ2 − 8λ) = 2(λ2 + 4λ + 44)

⇒ 2λ2 + 96 = 2λ2 + 8λ + 88
⇒ 8 = 8λ
in
⇒ λ = 1.
18.4.2 Condition of Collinearity of Vectors
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition of collinearity of two non-zero vectors.
Suppose that ⃗a and ⃗b be two non-zero vectors and let θ be the angle between them. Then,
e.
⃗a and ⃗b are collinear (i.e., parallel) vectors ⇔ θ = 0, π ⇔ sin θ = 0
⇔ |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = 0
⇔ ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0
yd
Conclusion: Two non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are collinear (i.e., parallel) if and only if ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0.
Example 20 (NCERT) Show that the vectors 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂ and −4î + 6ĵ − 8k̂ are collinear.
rif
Solution: Let ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂ and ⃗b = −4î + 6ĵ − 8k̂.
î ĵ k̂
Now, ⃗a × ⃗b = 2 −3 4 = î(24 − 24) − ĵ(−16 + 16) + k̂(12 − 12) = ⃗0.
−4 6 −8
la
Hence, vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are collinear.

Example 21 Find the value of p for which the vectors 3î + 2ĵ + 9k̂ and î − 2pĵ + 3k̂ are parallel.
Solution: Given that the vectors ⃗a = 3î + 2ĵ + 9k̂ and ⃗b = î − 2pĵ + 3k̂ are parallel.
C
î ĵ k̂
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0 ⇒ 3 2 9 = ⃗0
1 −2p 3
⇒ î(6 + 18p) − ĵ(9 − 9) + k̂(−6p − 2) = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂
⇒ (6 + 18p)î + 0ĵ + (−6p − 2)k̂ = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂
1
6 + 18p = 0 ⇒ p=−
3
1
−6p − 2 = 0 ⇒ p=−
3
1
Hence, p = − .
3
−−→ −−→
Example 22 If AB = 2î + ĵ − 2k̂ and BC = 6î + 3ĵ − 6k̂, can we say that the points A, B and C
are collinear?
−−→ −−→
Solution: Given AB = 2î + ĵ − 2k̂ and BC = 6î + 3ĵ − 6k̂.
−−→ −−→ î ĵ k̂
Now, AB × BC = 2 1 −2 = î(−6 + 6) − ĵ(−12 + 12) + k̂(6 − 6) = ⃗0.
6 3 −6
−−→ −−→
Thus, AB and BC are parallel.
Also, these vectors have a common point B, hence the points A, B and C are collinear.
Example 23 Show that the points with position vectors 2î + ĵ − k̂, 3î − 2ĵ + k̂ and î + 4ĵ − 3k̂ are
in
collinear.
Solution: Let A, B, C be the points with position vectors 2î + ĵ − k̂, 3î − 2ĵ + k̂ and î + 4ĵ − 3k̂
respectively.
−−→
e.
= (3î − 2ĵ + k̂) − (2î + ĵ − k̂) = î − 3ĵ + 2k̂
−−→
and BC = Position vector of C − Position vector of B
= (î + 4ĵ − 3k̂) − (3î − 2ĵ + k̂) = −2î + 6ĵ − 4k̂
yd
−−→ −−→ î ĵ k̂
Now, AB × BC = 1 −3 2 = î(12 − 12) − ĵ(−4 + 4) + k̂(6 − 6) = ⃗0.
−2 6 −4
−−→ −−→
rif
Example 24 (Exemplar) Show that the points (1, 2, 3), (−2, 3, 4) and (7, 0, 1) are collinear.
Solution: Let the given points be A(1, 2, 3), B(−2, 3, 4) and C(7, 0, 1).
−−→
= (−2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) − (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = −3î + ĵ + k̂
la
−−→
= (7î + 0ĵ + k̂) − (−2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) = 9î − 3ĵ − 3k̂
î ĵ k̂
C
−−→ −−→
Now, AB × BC = −3 1 1 = î(−3 + 3) − ĵ(9 − 9) + k̂(9 − 9) = ⃗0.
9 −3 −3
−−→ −−→
Example 25 Show that the points with position vectors ⃗a − 2⃗b + 3⃗c, 4⃗a − 7⃗b + 7⃗c and −2⃗a + 3⃗b − ⃗c
are collinear.
Solution: Let A, B and C be the points with position vectors ⃗a − 2⃗b + 3⃗c, 4⃗a − 7⃗b + 7⃗c and −2⃗a + 3⃗b −⃗c
respectively.
−−→
= (4⃗a − 7⃗b + 7⃗c) − (⃗a − 2⃗b + 3⃗c) = 3⃗a − 5⃗b + 4⃗c
−−→
= (−2⃗a + 3⃗b − ⃗c) − (4⃗a − 7⃗b + 7⃗c) = −6⃗a + 10⃗b − 8⃗c.
−−→ −−→
Now, AB × BC
= (3⃗a − 5⃗b + 4⃗c) × (−6⃗a + 10⃗b − 8⃗c)
= 3⃗a × (−6⃗a + 10⃗b − 8⃗c) − 5⃗b × (−6⃗a + 10⃗b − 8⃗c) + 4⃗c × (−6⃗a + 10⃗b − 8⃗c)
= −18(⃗a × ⃗a) + 30(⃗a × ⃗b) − 24(⃗a × ⃗c) + 30(⃗b × ⃗a) − 50(⃗b × ⃗b) + 40(⃗b × ⃗c)
− 24(⃗c × ⃗a) + 40(⃗c × ⃗b) − 32(⃗c × ⃗c)
in
= ⃗0 + 30(⃗a × ⃗b) − 24(⃗a × ⃗c) − 30(⃗a × ⃗b) − ⃗0 + 40(⃗b × ⃗c) + 24(⃗a × ⃗c) − 40(⃗b × ⃗c) − ⃗0
= ⃗0
−−→ −−→
e.
Example 26 (Exemplar) Using vectors, find the value of k such that (k, −10, 3), (1, −1, 3) and
(3, 5, 3) are collinear.
Solution: Let the given points be A(k, −10, 3), B(1, −1, 3) and C(3, 5, 3).
−−→
yd
= (î − ĵ + 3k̂) − (k î − 10ĵ + 3k̂) = (1 − k)î + 9ĵ + 0k̂
−−→
= (3î + 5ĵ + 3k̂) − (î − ĵ + 3k̂) = 2î + 6ĵ + 0k̂.
−−→ −−→
rif
Given that the points A, B and C are collinear, i.e., AB and BC are parallel.
−−→ −−→ ⃗
Then, AB × BC = 0
î ĵ k̂
⇒ 1−k 9 0 = ⃗0
la
2 6 0
⇒ î(0 − 0) − ĵ(0 − 0) + k̂(6 − 6k − 18) = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂
⇒ 0î − 0ĵ + (−6k − 12)k̂ = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂
C
On comparing both sides, we get −6k − 12 = 0, i.e., k = −2.

Example 27 Find the value of a + b, if the given three points (2, a, 3), (3, −5, b) and (−1, 11, 9) are
collinear.
Solution: Let the given points be A(2, a, 3), B(3, −5, b) and C(−1, 11, 9).
−−→
= (3î − 5ĵ + bk̂) − (2î + aĵ + 3k̂) = î + (−5 − a)ĵ + (b − 3)k̂
−−→
= (−î + 11ĵ + 9k̂) − (3î − 5ĵ + bk̂) = −4î + 16ĵ + (9 − b)k̂.
−−→ −−→
Given that the points A, B and C are collinear, i.e., AB and BC are parallel.
−−→ −−→ ⃗
Then, AB × BC = 0
î ĵ k̂
⇒ 1 −5 − a b − 3 = ⃗0
−4 16 9−b
⇒ î(−45 − 9a + 5b + ab − 16b + 48) − ĵ(9 − b + 4b − 12) + k̂(16 − 20 − 4a) = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂
⇒ (−9a − 11b + ab + 3)î + (−3b + 3)ĵ + (−4a − 4)k̂ = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂
−9a − 11b + ab + 3 = 0 ...(1)
−3b + 3 = 0 ⇒ b=1
in
−4a − 4 = 0 ⇒ a = −1
Also, a = −1 and b = 1 satisfy (1). [∵ −9a − 11b + ab + 3 = 9 − 11 − 1 + 3 = 0]
Hence, a + b = −1 + 1 = 0.
Example 28 (ISC 2019) If ⃗a and ⃗b are non-collinear vectors, find the value of x such that the vectors
e.
⃗ = (x − 2)⃗a + ⃗b and β⃗ = (3 + 2x)⃗a − 2⃗b are collinear.
α
Solution: Given that ⃗a and ⃗b are non-collinear vectors, i.e., ⃗a × ⃗b ̸= ⃗0.
⃗ = (x − 2)⃗a + ⃗b and β⃗ = (3 + 2x)⃗a − 2⃗b are collinear.
Also, given that α
yd
Then, α ⃗ = ⃗0
⃗ ×β
⇒ [(x − 2)⃗a + ⃗b] × [(3 + 2x)⃗a − 2⃗b] = ⃗0
⇒ (x − 2)(3 + 2x)(⃗a × ⃗a) − 2(x − 2)(⃗a × ⃗b) + (3 + 2x)(⃗b × ⃗a) − 2(⃗b × ⃗b) = ⃗0
⇒ ⃗0 − 2(x − 2)(⃗a × ⃗b) + (3 + 2x)(⃗b × ⃗a) − ⃗0 = ⃗0
⇒ −2(x − 2)(⃗a × ⃗b) − (3 + 2x)(⃗a × ⃗b) = ⃗0

rif
⇒ (−4x + 1)(⃗a × ⃗b) = ⃗0

⇒ −4x + 1 = 0 [∵ ⃗a × ⃗b ̸= ⃗0]
1
⇒ x= .
la
4
Example 29 If ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗b × ⃗c ̸= ⃗0, then show that ⃗a + ⃗c = λ⃗b, where λ is any scalar.
Solution: Given ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗b × ⃗c ̸= ⃗0.
C
Then, (⃗a + ⃗c) × ⃗b = ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗c × ⃗b = ⃗a × ⃗b − ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗b × ⃗c − ⃗b × ⃗c [∵ ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗b × ⃗c]

= ⃗0.
Thus, (⃗a + ⃗c) is parallel to ⃗b and hence ⃗a + ⃗c = λ⃗b, where λ is any scalar.
Example 30 (Exemplar) If ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗a × ⃗c, ⃗a ̸= 0 and ⃗b ̸= ⃗c, show that ⃗b = ⃗c + λ⃗a for some scalar λ.
Solution: Given ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗a × ⃗c, ⃗a ̸= 0 and ⃗b ̸= ⃗c.
Then, (⃗b − ⃗c) × ⃗a = ⃗b × ⃗a − ⃗c × ⃗a = −⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗a × ⃗c = −⃗a × ⃗c + ⃗a × ⃗c [∵ ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗a × ⃗c]
= ⃗0.
Thus, (⃗b − ⃗c) is parallel to ⃗a.
Hence, ⃗b − ⃗c = λ⃗a for some scalar λ, i.e., ⃗b = ⃗c + λ⃗a for some scalar λ.
Example 31 If ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗c × d⃗ and ⃗a × ⃗c = ⃗b × d,
⃗ prove that (⃗a − d)
⃗ is parallel to (⃗b − ⃗c), where ⃗a ̸= d⃗
and ⃗b ̸= ⃗c.
Solution: Given ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗c × d⃗ and ⃗a × ⃗c = ⃗b × d,⃗ where ⃗a ̸= d⃗ and ⃗b ̸= ⃗c.
⃗ × (⃗b − ⃗c) = ⃗a × ⃗b − ⃗a × ⃗c − d⃗ × ⃗b + d⃗ × ⃗c
Then, (⃗a − d)
= ⃗a × ⃗b − ⃗a × ⃗c + ⃗b × d⃗ − ⃗c × d⃗
= ⃗c × d⃗ − ⃗b × d⃗ + ⃗b × d⃗ − ⃗c × d⃗ [∵ ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗c × d,
⃗ ⃗a × ⃗c = ⃗b × d]
⃗
= ⃗0.
⃗ is parallel to (⃗b − ⃗c).
Hence, (⃗a − d)
in
18.4.3 Vector Perpendicular to Two Given Vectors
In this subsection, we shall discuss the technique of finding a vector perpendicular to two given vectors.
Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors. Then, we observe the following:
e.
(i) If ⃗a and ⃗b are parallel (i.e., ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0), then there are infinitely many vectors perpendicular to
both ⃗a and ⃗b.
(ii) If ⃗a and ⃗b are not parallel (i.e., ⃗a × ⃗b ̸= ⃗0), then ⃗a × ⃗b is perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b. So, any
vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b is of the form λ(⃗a × ⃗b), for some non-zero scalar λ.
yd
Example 32 Write the number of vectors of unit length perpendicular to both the vectors ⃗a = î+2ĵ− k̂
and ⃗b = 2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗b = 2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂.
î ĵ k̂
rif
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = 1 2 −1 = î(−4 + 4) − ĵ(−2 + 2) + k̂(4 − 4) = 0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂ = ⃗0.
2 4 −2
Thus, the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are parallel and hence there are infinitely many vectors of unit length
perpendicular to both the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b.
la
Example 33 Write the number of vectors of unit length that are perpendicular to both the vectors
⃗a = 2î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = ĵ + k̂.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = ĵ + k̂.
C
î ĵ k̂
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = 2 1 2 = î(1 − 2) − ĵ(2 − 0) + k̂(2 − 0) = −î − 2ĵ + 2k̂ ̸= ⃗0.
0 1 1
Thus, the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are not parallel and hence there are two vectors of unit length perpendicular to
both the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b.
Example 34 Write a unit vector which is perpendicular to both the vectors given by ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂ and
⃗b = î + ĵ.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = î + ĵ + 0k̂.

î ĵ k̂
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = 1 1 1 = î(0 − 1) − ĵ(0 − 1) + k̂(1 − 1) = −î + ĵ + 0k̂ ̸= ⃗0.
1 1 0
Thus, vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b is given by
⃗n = λ(⃗a × ⃗b), for some non-zero scalar λ
= λ(−î + ĵ + 0k̂)
and unit vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b is given by

⃗n λ(−î + ĵ + 0k̂) 1 λ
n̂ = = p = ± √ (−î + ĵ + 0k̂). ∵ = ±1
|⃗n| 2 2
|λ| (−1) + (1) + (0) 2 2 |λ|
Example 35 Find a vector of magnitude 6, which is perpendicular to both the vectors 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ and
4î − ĵ + 3k̂.
in
Solution: Let ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = 4î − ĵ + 3k̂.
î ĵk̂
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = 2 −1 2 = î(−3 + 2) − ĵ(6 − 8) + k̂(−2 + 4) = −î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ ̸= ⃗0.
4 −1 3
e.
Thus, vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b is given by
⃗n = λ(⃗a × ⃗b), for some non-zero scalar λ
= λ(−î + 2ĵ + 2k̂)
and unit vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b is given by
yd

⃗n λ(−î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) 1 λ
n̂ = = p = ± (−î + 2ĵ + 2k̂). ∵ = ±1
|⃗n| |λ| (−1)2 + (2)2 + (2)2 3 |λ|
Hence, required vector = 6 n̂ = ±2(−î + 2ĵ + 2k̂).
Example 36 (NCERT, ISC 2016) Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors (⃗a + ⃗b) and
rif
(⃗a − ⃗b), where ⃗a = 3î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 3î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂.
We have, ⃗a + ⃗b = (3î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) + (î + 2ĵ − 2k̂) = 4î + 4ĵ + 0k̂
and ⃗a − ⃗b = (3î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) − (î + 2ĵ − 2k̂) = 2î + 0ĵ + 4k̂.
la
î ĵ
k̂
Then, (⃗a + ⃗b) × (⃗a − ⃗b) = 4 0 = î(16 − 0) − ĵ(16 − 0) + k̂(0 − 8) = 16î − 16ĵ − 8k̂ ̸= ⃗0.
4
2 0
4
Thus, vector perpendicular to both (⃗a + ⃗b) and (⃗a − ⃗b) is given by
C
⃗n = λ[(⃗a + ⃗b) × (⃗a − ⃗b)], for some non-zero scalar λ

= λ(16î − 16ĵ − 8k̂).
and unit vector perpendicular to both (⃗a + ⃗b) and (⃗a − ⃗b) is given by

⃗n λ(16î − 16ĵ − 8k̂) 1 λ
n̂ = = p = ± (16î − 16ĵ − 8k̂) ∵ = ±1
|⃗n| |λ| (16)2 + (−16)2 + (−8)2 24 |λ|
1
= ± (2î − 2ĵ − k̂).
3
Example 37 Find a vector of magnitude 6, perpendicular to each of the vectors ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b, where
⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂.

We have, ⃗a + ⃗b = (î + ĵ + k̂) + (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = 2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂
and ⃗a − ⃗b = (î + ĵ + k̂) − (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = 0î − ĵ − 2k̂.
î ĵ k̂
Then, (⃗a + ⃗b) × (⃗a − ⃗b) = 2 3 4 = î(−6 + 4) − ĵ(−4 − 0) + k̂(−2 − 0) = −2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂ ̸= ⃗0.
0 −1 −2
Thus, vector perpendicular to both (⃗a + ⃗b) and (⃗a − ⃗b) is given by
⃗n = λ[(⃗a + ⃗b) × (⃗a − ⃗b)], for some non-zero scalar λ
= λ(−2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂)
in
and unit vector perpendicular to both (⃗a + ⃗b) and (⃗a − ⃗b) is given by

⃗n λ(−2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂) 1 λ
n̂ = = p = √ (−2î + 4ĵ − 2k̂) ∵ = ±1
|⃗n| |λ| (−2)2 + (4)2 + (−2)2 2 6 |λ|
e.
1
= √ (−î + 2ĵ − k̂).
6
√ √ √
Hence, required vector = 6n̂ = − 6 î + 2 6 ĵ − 6 k̂.
Example 38 If ⃗a = î + 2ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = 2î + ĵ and ⃗c = 3î − 4ĵ − 5k̂, then find a unit vector perpendicular
yd
to both the vectors (⃗a − ⃗b) and (⃗c − ⃗b).
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + 2ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = 2î + ĵ + 0k̂ and ⃗c = 3î − 4ĵ − 5k̂.
We have, ⃗a − ⃗b = (î + 2ĵ + k̂) − (2î + ĵ + 0k̂) = −î + ĵ + k̂
and ⃗c − ⃗b = (3î − 4ĵ − 5k̂) − (2î + ĵ + 0k̂) = î − 5ĵ − 5k̂.
î ĵ k̂
rif
Then, (⃗a − ⃗b) × (⃗c − ⃗b) = −1 1 1 = î(−5 + 5) − ĵ(5 − 1) + k̂(5 − 1) = 0î − 4ĵ + 4k̂ ̸= ⃗0.
1 −5−5
Thus, vector perpendicular to both (⃗a − ⃗b) and (⃗c − ⃗b) is given by
⃗n = λ[(⃗a − ⃗b) × (⃗c − ⃗b)], for some non-zero scalar λ
la
= λ(0î − 4ĵ + 4k̂).

and unit vector perpendicular to both (⃗a − ⃗b) and (⃗c − ⃗b) is given by

⃗n λ(0î − 4ĵ + 4k̂) 1 λ
C
n̂ = = p = ± √ (−ĵ + k̂). ∵ = ±1
|⃗n| 2 2
|λ| (0) + (−4) + (4) 2 2 |λ|
Example 39 Find a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of triangle ABC, where the coordinates of
its vertices are A(3, −1, 2), B(1, −1, −3) and C(4, −3, 1).
Solution: Given a triangle ABC with vertices A(3, −1, 2), B(1, −1, −3) and C(4, −3, 1).
−−→ −→
We know that vector perpendicular to the plane of ∆ABC is a vector perpendicular to both AB and AC.
−−→
We have, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A
= (î − ĵ − 3k̂) − (3î − ĵ + 2k̂) = −2î + 0ĵ − 5k̂
−→
and AC = Position vector of C − Position vector of A
= (4î − 3ĵ + k̂) − (3î − ĵ + 2k̂) = î − 2ĵ − k̂.
−−→ −→ î ĵ k̂
Then, AB × AC = −2 0 −5 = î(0 − 10) − ĵ(2 + 5) + k̂(4 − 0) = −10î − 7ĵ + 4k̂ ̸= ⃗0.
1 −2 −1
−−→ −→
Thus, vector perpendicular to both AB and AC is given by
−−→ −→
⃗n = λ[AB × AC], for some non-zero scalar λ
= λ(−10î − 7ĵ + 4k̂).
and unit vector perpendicular to the plane of triangle ABC is given by

⃗n λ(−10î − 7ĵ + 4k̂) 1 λ
n̂ = = p = ±√ (−10î − 7ĵ + 4k̂). ∵ = ±1
|⃗n| 2 2
|λ| (−10) + (−7) + (4) 2 165 |λ|
in
Example 40 Let ⃗a = 4î + 5ĵ − k̂, ⃗b = î − 4ĵ + 5k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + ĵ − k̂. Find a vector d⃗ which is
perpendicular to both ⃗c and ⃗b and d⃗ · ⃗a = 21.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 4î + 5ĵ − k̂, ⃗b = î − 4ĵ + 5k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + ĵ − k̂.
e.
Let d⃗ be a vector perpendicular to both ⃗c and ⃗b such that d⃗ · ⃗a = 21.
î ĵ k̂
Then, ⃗c × ⃗b = 3 1 −1 = î(5 − 4) − ĵ(15 + 1) + k̂(−12 − 1) = î − 16ĵ − 13k̂ ̸= ⃗0.
1 −4 5
yd
Thus, d⃗ = λ(⃗c × ⃗b) = λ(î − 16ĵ − 13k̂), for some non-zero scalar λ.
Also, d⃗ · ⃗a = 21 ⇒ λ(î − 16ĵ − 13k̂) · (4î + 5ĵ − k̂) = 21
⇒ λ(4 − 80 + 13) = 21
1
⇒ λ=− .
3
rif
1
Hence, the required vector is d⃗ = − (î − 16ĵ − 13k̂).
3
18.4.4 Problems based on Angle Between Two Non-Zero Vectors
la
The angle between non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by

|⃗a × ⃗b|
sin θ = .
|⃗a| |⃗b|
C

Example 41 Find the angle between vectors ⃗a and ⃗b with magnitudes 1 and 2 respectively and when
√
|⃗a × ⃗b| = 3.
√
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = 1, |⃗b| = 2 and |⃗a × ⃗b| = 3.
√ √
|⃗a × ⃗b| 3 3
Then, sin θ = = = = sin 60◦ .
|⃗a| |⃗b| (1)(2) 2
2
Example 42 If vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are such that |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = and ⃗a × ⃗b is a unit vector, then write the
3
angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
2
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = and |⃗a × ⃗b| = 1.
3
|⃗a × ⃗b| 1 1
Then, sin θ = = = = sin 30◦ .
|⃗a| |⃗b| (3)
2 2
3
Example 43 If |⃗a| = 7, |⃗b| = 2 and ⃗a × ⃗b = 2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂, then find the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = 7, |⃗b| = 2 and ⃗a × ⃗b = 2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂.
|⃗a × ⃗b|
p
(2)2 + (3)2 + (6)2 1
Then, sin θ = = = = sin 30◦ .
⃗
in
|⃗a| |b| (7)(2) 2
◦
Hence, θ = 30 , which is the required angle.
Example 44 (Exemplar) Find the angle between the vectors 2î − ĵ + k̂ and 3î + 4ĵ − k̂.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + 4ĵ − k̂.
e.
î ĵ k̂
We have, ⃗a × ⃗b = 2 −1 1 = î(1 − 4) − ĵ(−2 − 3) + k̂(8 + 3) = −3î + 5ĵ + 11k̂.
3 4 −1
√ √
|⃗a × ⃗b|
p
(−3)2 + (5)2 + (11)2 155 155
yd
Then, sin θ = =p =√ √ =√ .
|⃗a| |⃗b|
p
(2)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2 (3)2 + (4)2 + (−1)2 6 26 156
r
−1 155
Hence, θ = sin , which is the required angle.
156
Example 45 If θ is the angle between î − 2ĵ + 3k̂ and 3î − 2ĵ + k̂, find sin θ.
rif
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where ⃗a = î − 2ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î − 2ĵ + k̂.
î ĵ k̂
We have, ⃗a × ⃗b = 1 −2 3 = î(−2 + 6) − ĵ(1 − 9) + k̂(−2 + 6) = 4î + 8ĵ + 4k̂.
3 −2 1
√ √
⃗
p
la
|⃗a × b| (4)2 + (8)2 + (4)2 4 6 2 6

Hence, sin θ = =p = √ √ = .
|⃗a| |⃗b|
p
(1)2 + (−2)2 + (3)2 (3)2 + (−2)2 + (1)2 ( 14)( 14) 7
Example 46 If |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 4 and angle between ⃗a and ⃗b is 30◦ , then find |⃗a × ⃗b|.
Solution: Given |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = 4 and θ = 30◦ .
C
Hence, |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = (3)(4) sin 30◦ = 6.

√
Example 47 If |⃗a| = 4, |⃗b| = 3 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 6 3, then find the value of |⃗a × ⃗b|.
√
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = 4, |⃗b| = 3 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 6 3.
Now, ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ
√
⇒ 6 3 = (4)(3) cos θ
√
3
⇒ cos θ = .
2
√
r
3
Hence, |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = |⃗a| |⃗b| 1 − cos2 θ = (4)(3) 1 − = 6.
4
Example 48 (ISC 2008) Find ⃗a · ⃗b, if |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 5 and |⃗a × ⃗b| = 8.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 5 and |⃗a × ⃗b| = 8.
Now, |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ ⇒ 8 = (2)(5) sin θ
4
⇒ sin θ = .
r 5
p 16
Hence, ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = ±|⃗a| |⃗b| 2
1 − sin θ = ±(2)(5) 1 − = ±6.
25
1 4 1
Example 49 If the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are such that |⃗a| = , |⃗b| = √ and |⃗a × ⃗b| = √ , then find the
2 3 3
in
value of |⃗a · ⃗b|.
1 4 1
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a| = , |⃗b| = √ and |⃗a × ⃗b| = √ .
2 3 3

1 1 4
|⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ √ = √
e.
Now, ⇒ sin θ
3 2 3
1
⇒ sin θ = .
2
r
p 1 4 1
Thus, ⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = ±|⃗a| |⃗b| 1 − sin2 θ = ± √ 1 − = ±1.
yd
2 3 4
Hence, |⃗a · ⃗b| = 1.
Example 50 If |⃗a × ⃗b|2 + |⃗a · ⃗b|2 = 400 and |⃗a| = 5, then write the value of |⃗b|.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where |⃗a × ⃗b|2 + |⃗a · ⃗b|2 = 400 and |⃗a| = 5.
h i2 h i2
rif
Now, |⃗a × ⃗b|2 + |⃗a · ⃗b|2 = 400 ⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ + |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 400
⇒ |⃗a|2 |⃗b|2 [sin2 θ + cos2 θ] = 400
⇒ (5)2 |⃗b|2 = 400

la
⇒ |⃗b| = 4.
Example 51 If ⃗a and ⃗b are two vectors such that |⃗a × ⃗b| = ⃗a · ⃗b, then find the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b such that |⃗a × ⃗b| = ⃗a · ⃗b.
C
Now, |⃗a × ⃗b| = ⃗a · ⃗b ⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ

⇒ sin θ = cos θ ̸ 0, |⃗b| =
[∵ |⃗a| = ̸ 0]
⇒ tan θ = 1
⇒ θ = 45◦ ,
Example 52 Prove that |⃗a × ⃗b| = (⃗a · ⃗b) tan θ, where θ (̸= 90◦ ) is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
Solution: Given that θ is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b such that θ ̸= 90◦ , i.e., cos θ ̸= 0.
sin θ
Hence, |⃗a × ⃗b| = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = (⃗a · ⃗b) tan θ.
cos θ
Example 53 Find the angle between the vectors ⃗a +⃗b and ⃗a −⃗b if ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + ĵ − 2k̂,
and hence find a vector perpendicular to both ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + 3k̂ and ⃗b = 3î + ĵ − 2k̂.
Let ⃗c = ⃗a + ⃗b = (2î − ĵ + 3k̂) + (3î + ĵ − 2k̂) = 5î + 0ĵ + k̂
and d⃗ = ⃗a − ⃗b = (2î − ĵ + 3k̂) − (3î + ĵ − 2k̂) = −î − 2ĵ + 5k̂.
⃗
Let θ be the angle between ⃗c and d.
î ĵ k̂
We have, ⃗c × d⃗ = 5 0 1 = î(0 + 2) − ĵ(25 + 1) + k̂(−10 − 0) = 2î − 26ĵ − 10k̂.
−1 −2 5
in
√
⃗
p
|⃗c × d| (2)2 + (−26)2 + (−10)2 780
Then, sin θ = =p = √ √ = 1.
⃗
p
|⃗c| |d| 2 2
(5) + (0) + (1) 2 2
(−1) + (−2) + (5)2 2 ( 26)( 30)
π
Thus, θ = .
2
e.
Also, a vector perpendicular to both ⃗c = ⃗a + ⃗b and d⃗ = ⃗a − ⃗b is given by
⃗n = ⃗c × d⃗ = 2î − 26ĵ − 10k̂.
Example 54 (NCERT) If î + ĵ + k̂, 2î + 5ĵ, 3î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ and î − 6ĵ − k̂ respectively are the position
yd
vectors of the points A, B, C and D, then find the angle between the straight lines AB and CD. Find
−−→ −−→
whether AB and CD are collinear or not.
Solution: Given that the points A, B, C and D have position vectors î + ĵ + k̂, 2î + 5ĵ, 3î + 2ĵ − 3k̂
and î − 6ĵ − k̂ respectively.
−−→
rif
= (2î + 5ĵ + 0k̂) − (î + ĵ + k̂) = î + 4ĵ − k̂
−−→
and CD = Position vector of D − Position vector of C
= (î − 6ĵ − k̂) − (3î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = −2î − 8ĵ + 2k̂
−−→ −−→
la
Let θ be the angle between AB and CD.

−−→ −−→ î ĵ k̂
We have, AB × CD = 1 4 −1 = î(8 − 8) − ĵ(2 − 2) + k̂(−8 + 8) = ⃗0.
−2 −8 2
−−→ −−→
C
|AB × CD|
Then, sin θ = −−→ −−→ = 0.
|AB| |CD|
−−→
Thus, θ = 0 or π and hence the angle between the straight lines AB and CD is 0 and the vectors AB
−−→
and CD are collinear.
Example 55 (NCERT) If either ⃗a = ⃗0 or ⃗b = ⃗0, then ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0. Is the converse true? Justify your
answer with an example.
Solution: If either ⃗a = ⃗0 or ⃗b = ⃗0, then ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0. The converse need not be true.
For example, let ⃗a = î and ⃗b = î, then ⃗a ̸= ⃗0 and ⃗b ̸= ⃗0 but ⃗a × ⃗b = î × î = ⃗0.
Example 56 (NCERT) Given that ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 and ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0. What can you conclude about ⃗a and ⃗b?
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b where ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 and ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0.
Now, ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 ⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 0
⇒ |⃗a| = 0 or |⃗b| = 0 or cos θ = 0
⇒ |⃗a| = 0 or |⃗b| = 0 or θ = 90◦ ...(1)
Also, ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0 ⇒ |⃗a × ⃗b| = 0

⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = 0
⇒ |⃗a| = 0 or |⃗b| = 0 or sin θ = 0
⇒ |⃗a| = 0 or |⃗b| = 0 or θ = 0◦ ...(2)
in
From (1) and (2), we get |⃗a| = 0 or |⃗b| = 0.
Example 57 If ⃗a ̸= ⃗0, ⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗a · ⃗c and ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗a × ⃗c, then show that ⃗b = ⃗c.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between ⃗a and (⃗b − ⃗c) where ⃗a ̸= ⃗0, ⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗a · ⃗c and ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗a × ⃗c.
e.
Now, ⃗a · ⃗b = ⃗a · ⃗c ⇒ ⃗a · (⃗b − ⃗c) = 0
⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b − ⃗c| cos θ = 0
⇒ |⃗b − ⃗c| = 0 or cos θ = 0 [∵ |⃗a| =
̸ 0]
⇒ ⃗b − ⃗c = ⃗0 or θ = 90◦ ...(1)
yd
Also, ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗a × ⃗c ⇒ ⃗a × (⃗b − ⃗c) = 0
⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b − ⃗c| sin θ = 0
⇒ |⃗b − ⃗c| = 0 or sin θ = 0 [∵ |⃗a| =
̸ 0]
⇒ ⃗b − ⃗c = ⃗0 or θ = 0◦ ...(2)
rif
From (1) and (2), we get ⃗b − ⃗c = ⃗0, i.e., ⃗b = ⃗c.

18.4.5 Area of Triangle Using Cross Product
In this subsection, we shall use cross product to find the area of triangle.
Suppose that ⃗a and ⃗b be the adjacent sides of ∆ABC, as shown in figure. C
la
1 ⃗b
Then, area of ∆ABC = (AB)(CD)
2
1 1 θ
= |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ = |⃗a × ⃗b|. A B
2 2 D ⃗a
C

−−→ −→
Example 58 Find the area of triangle ABC, where AB = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ and AC = −3î − 2ĵ + k̂.
−−→ −→
Solution: Given AB = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ and AC = −3î − 2ĵ + k̂.
−−→ −→ î ĵ k̂
C
Now, AB × AC = 1 2 3 = î(2 + 6) − ĵ(1 + 9) + k̂(−2 + 6)
−3 −2 1
= 8î − 10ĵ + 4k̂
−−→ −→ p √ √ A B
and |AB × AC| = (8)2 + (−10)2 + (4)2 = 180 = 6 5.
1 −−→ −→ √
Hence, area of ∆ABC = |AB × AC| = 3 5 sq. units.
2
Example 59 (Exemplar) Using vectors, find the area of the triangle ABC with vertices A(1, 2, 3),
B(2, −1, 4) and C(4, 5, −1).
Solution: Given a ∆ABC with vertices A(1, 2, 3), B(2, −1, 4) and C(4, 5, −1).
−−→
Then, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A C
= (2î − ĵ + 4k̂) − (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = î − 3ĵ + k̂
−→
= (4î + 5ĵ − k̂) − (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = 3î + 3ĵ − 4k̂. A B
−−→ −→ î ĵ k̂
in
Now, AB × AC = 1 −3 1 = î(12 − 3) − ĵ(−4 − 3) + k̂(3 + 9) = 9î + 7ĵ + 12k̂
3 3 −4
−−→ −→ p √
and |AB × AC| = (9)2 + (7)2 + (12)2 = 274.
√
1 −−→ −→ 274
e.
Hence, area of ∆ABC = |AB × AC| = sq. units.
2 2
Example 60 (Exemplar) Find the area of the quadrilateral ABCD, where A(0, 4, 1), B(2, 3, −1),
C(4, 5, 0) and D(2, 6, 2).
Solution: Given a quadrilateral ABCD with A(0, 4, 1), B(2, 3, −1), C(4, 5, 0) and D(2, 6, 2).
yd
−−→ D
= (2î + 3ĵ − k̂) − (0î + 4ĵ + k̂) = 2î − ĵ − 2k̂ C
−→
= (4î + 5ĵ + 0k̂) − (0î + 4ĵ + k̂) = 4î + ĵ − k̂.
rif
A B
−−→ −→ î ĵ k̂
Now, AB × AC = 2 −1 −2 = î(1 + 2) − ĵ(−2 + 8) + k̂(2 + 4) = 3î − 6ĵ + 6k̂
4 1 −1
−−→ −→ p
and |AB × AC| = (3)2 + (−6)2 + (6)2 = 9.
la
1 −−→ −→ 9
Thus, area of ∆ABC = |AB × AC| = sq. units.
2 2
−−→
Also, DB = Position vector of B − Position vector of D
C
= (2î + 3ĵ − k̂) − (2î + 6ĵ + 2k̂) = 0î − 3ĵ − 3k̂

−−→
and DC = Position vector of C − Position vector of D
= (4î + 5ĵ + 0k̂) − (2î + 6ĵ + 2k̂) = 2î − ĵ − 2k̂.
−−→ −−→ î ĵ k̂
Now, DB × DC = 0 −3 −3 = î(6 − 3) − ĵ(0 + 6) + k̂(0 + 6) = 3î − 6ĵ + 6k̂
2 −1 −2
−−→ −−→ p
and |DB × DC| = (3)2 + (−6)2 + (6)2 = 9.
1 −−→ −−→ 9
Thus, area of ∆DBC = |DB × DC| = sq. units.
2 2
Hence, area of quadrilateral ABCD = area of ∆ABC+ area of ∆DBC = 9 sq. units.
Example 61 Show that the three points A, B, C having position vectors 2î − ĵ + k̂, î − 3ĵ − 5k̂
and 3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂ respectively, are the vertices of a right-angled triangle. Hence find the area of the
triangle.
Solution: Given that position vectors of the vertices A, B and C of a ∆ABC are 2î − ĵ + k̂, î − 3ĵ − 5k̂
and 3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂ respectively. B
−−→
= (î − 3ĵ − 5k̂) − (2î − ĵ + k̂) = −î − 2ĵ − 6k̂ C A
−−→ p √
and |AB| = (−1)2 + (−2)2 + (−6)2 = 41. ...(1)
−−→
in
Also, BC = Position vector of C − Position vector of B
= (3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂) − (î − 3ĵ − 5k̂) = 2î − ĵ + k̂
−−→ p √
and |BC| = (2)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2 = 6. ...(2)
−→
e.
Also, CA = Position vector of A − Position vector of C
= (2î − ĵ + k̂) − (3î − 4ĵ − 4k̂) = −î + 3ĵ + 5k̂
−→ p √
and |CA| = (−1)2 + (3)2 + (5)2 = 35. ...(3)
From (1), (2) and (3), we get
yd
−−→ −−→ −→
|AB|2 = |BC|2 + |CA|2 .
Hence, ∆ABC is a right triangle, right-angled at C and its area is given by
√
1 −→ −−→ 1 √ √ 210
area(∆ABC) = × |CA| × |BC| = ( 35)( 6) = sq. units.
2 2 2
Example 62 Given that the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c form a triangle such that ⃗a = ⃗b + ⃗c. Find p, q, r, s such that
rif
√
area of triangle is 5 6, where ⃗a = pî + q ĵ + rk̂, ⃗b = sî + 3ĵ + 4k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + ĵ − 2k̂.
Solution: Given that the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c form a triangle such that ⃗a = ⃗b + ⃗c.
Also, given that ⃗a = pî + q ĵ + rk̂, ⃗b = sî + 3ĵ + 4k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + ĵ − 2k̂.
la
Now, ⃗a = ⃗b + ⃗c ⃗a ⃗c
⇒ pî + q ĵ + rk̂ = (sî + 3ĵ + 4k̂) + (3î + ĵ − 2k̂)
⃗b
⇒ pî + q ĵ + rk̂ = (s + 3)î + 4ĵ + 2k̂.
C
On comparing coefficients of î, ĵ and k̂ on both sides, we get p = s + 3, q = 4, r = 2.

Thus, ⃗a = pî + q ĵ + rk̂ = (s + 3)î + 4ĵ + 2k̂.
î ĵ k̂
Now, ⃗a × ⃗b = s + 3 4 2 = î(16 − 6) − ĵ(4s + 12 − 2s) + k̂(3s + 9 − 4s)
s 3 4
= 10î + (−2s − 12)ĵ + (−s + 9)k̂
and |⃗a × ⃗b| = (10)2 + (−2s − 12)2 + (−s + 9)2

p
p
= 100 + 4s2 + 144 + 48s + s2 + 81 − 18s
p
= 5s2 + 30s + 325.
√ 1 √
Given that area of triangle = 5 6 ⇒ |⃗a × ⃗b| = 5 6
2
p √
⇒ 5s2 + 30s + 325 = 10 6
⇒ 5s2 + 30s + 325 = 600 [On squaring both sides]
2
⇒ s + 6s − 55 = 0
⇒ s = −11, 5
If s = −11, then p = −8 and if s = 5, then p = 8.
Hence, either p = −8, q = 4, r = 2, s = −11 or p = 8, q = 4, r = 2, s = 5.
Example 63 (Exemplar) If vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c determine the three vertices of a triangle, then show that
in
1⃗
|b × ⃗c + ⃗c ×⃗a +⃗a × ⃗b| gives the vector area of the triangle. Hence deduce the condition that the three
2
points ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are collinear. Also, find the unit vector normal to the plane of the triangle.
Solution: Given that ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are position vectors of vertices A, B and C respectively of a ∆ABC.
−−→
e.
Then, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = ⃗b − ⃗a
−→
and AC = Position vector of C − Position vector of A = ⃗c − ⃗a
1 −−→ −→ C
Thus, area of ∆ABC = |AB × AC|
2
yd
1
= |(⃗b − ⃗a) × (⃗c − ⃗a)|
2
1 ⃗ A B
= |b × ⃗c − ⃗b × ⃗a − ⃗a × ⃗c + ⃗a × ⃗a|
2
1
= |⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗c × ⃗a + ⃗0|
2
rif
1 ⃗
= |b × ⃗c + ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗c × ⃗a|
2
1
= |⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a| sq. units.
2
Now, the three points ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are collinear if the area ∆ABC = 0.
la
1
⇒ |⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a| = 0 ⇒ |⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a| = 0
2
⇒ ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a = 0
Also, vector normal to the plane of the triangle is the vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b given by
C
⃗n = λ(⃗a × ⃗b), for some non-zero scalar λ.

Hence, unit vector normal to the plane of the triangle is given by
λ(⃗a × ⃗b) ⃗a × ⃗b

⃗n λ
n̂ = = =± . ∵ = ±1
|⃗n| |λ| |⃗a × ⃗b| |⃗a × ⃗b| |λ|
Example 64 (ISC 2018) If A, B, C are three non-collinear points with position vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c,
respectively, then show that the length of the perpendicular from C on AB is
|(⃗a × ⃗b) + (⃗b × ⃗c) + (⃗c × ⃗a)|
.
|⃗b − ⃗a|
Solution: Given that A, B, C are three non-collinear points with position vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c respectively.
−−→
Then, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = ⃗b − ⃗a
−→
and AC = Position vector of C − Position vector of A = ⃗c − ⃗a
1 −−→ −→ C
Thus, area of ∆ABC = |AB × AC|
2
1
= |(⃗b − ⃗a) × (⃗c − ⃗a)|
2
1 ⃗
= |b × ⃗c − ⃗b × ⃗a − ⃗a × ⃗c + ⃗a × ⃗a| A B
2 D
1
= |⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗c × ⃗a + ⃗0|
2
in
1 ⃗ 1
= |b × ⃗c + ⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗c × ⃗a| = |⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a|. ...(1)
2 2
Let CD be the perpendicular drawn from C on AB.
1 −−→ 1
Then, area of ∆ABC = |AB| (CD) = |⃗b − ⃗a| (CD). ...(2)
2 2
e.
From (1) and (2), we get
1 ⃗ 1
|b − ⃗a| (CD) = |⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a|
2 2
|⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a|
⇒ CD =
yd
|⃗b − ⃗a|
|⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a|
Hence, the required length of perpendicular is units.
|⃗b − ⃗a|
18.4.6 Area of Parallelogram Using Cross Product
In this subsection, we shall use cross product to find the area of parallelogram.
rif
Suppose that ⃗a and ⃗b be the adjacent sides of parallelogram ABCD, as shown in figure.
Then, area of parallelogram ABCD = (AB)(DE) D C

= |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ ⃗b
= |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ

la
θ
= |⃗a × ⃗b|. A E ⃗a B
Also, suppose that ⃗a and ⃗b be the adjacent sides of parallelogram ABCD whose diagonals are d⃗1 and
d⃗2 , as shown in figure.
C
Then, d⃗1 = ⃗a + ⃗b and d⃗2 = ⃗b − ⃗a. [By triangle law of vectors]

⃗ ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
Now, |d1 × d2 | = |(⃗a + b) × (b − ⃗a)|
D C
= |⃗a × (⃗b − ⃗a) + ⃗b × (⃗b − ⃗a)|
⃗b
= |⃗a × ⃗b − ⃗a × ⃗a + ⃗b × ⃗b − ⃗b × ⃗a| d⃗1 d⃗2
⃗
= |⃗a × b − 0 + 0 + ⃗a × b| ⃗
A ⃗a B
= 2 |⃗a × ⃗b|.
1
Then, area of parallelogram ABCD = |⃗a × ⃗b| = |d⃗1 × d⃗2 |.
2
Example 65 Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are represented by the vectors
2î − 3k̂ and 4ĵ + 2k̂.
Solution: Let ⃗a = 2î + 0ĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗b = 0î + 4ĵ + 2k̂ be the adjacent sides of a parallelogram.
î ĵ k̂
Now, ⃗a × ⃗b = 2 0 −3 = î(0 + 12) − ĵ(4 − 0) + k̂(8 − 0) = 12î − 4ĵ + 8k̂
0 4 2 ⃗b
√ √
⃗
p
2 2 2
and |⃗a × b| = (12) + (−4) + (8) = 224 = 4 14.
√
Hence, area of parallelogram = |⃗a × ⃗b| = 4 14 sq. units. ⃗a
Example 66 (ISC 2009) Find the area of a parallelogram whose diagonals are determined by the
in
vectors ⃗a = 3î + ĵ − 2k̂ and ⃗b = î − 3ĵ + 4k̂.
Solution: Given ⃗a = 3î + ĵ − 2k̂ and ⃗b = î − 3ĵ + 4k̂ are the diagonals of parallelogram.
î ĵ k̂
Now, ⃗a × ⃗b = 3 1 −2 = î(4 − 6) − ĵ(12 + 2) + k̂(−9 − 1) = −2î − 14ĵ − 10k̂
e.
1 −3 4
√ √
and |⃗a × ⃗b| = (−2)2 + (−14)2 + (−10)2 = 300 = 10 3.
p
1 √
Hence, area of parallelogram = |⃗a × ⃗b| = 5 3 sq. units.
2
yd
Example 67 Find the area of a parallelogram ABCD whose side AB and the diagonal DB are given
by the vectors 5î + 7k̂ and 2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂ respectively.
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
Solution: Given ABCD is a parallelogram such that AB = DC = 5î + 7k̂ and BC = AD.
−−→
Given DB = 2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂.
On applying triangle law of vectors to ∆ADB, we get D C
rif
−−→ −−→ −−→
AD = AB − DB = (5î + 7k̂) − (2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂)
= 3î − 2ĵ + 4k̂.
A B
−−→ −−→ î ĵ k̂
la
Now, AB × AD = 5 0 7 = î(0 + 14) − ĵ(20 − 21) + k̂(−10 − 0) = 14î + ĵ − 10k̂

3 −2 4
−−→ −−→ p √
and |AB × AD| = (14)2 + (1)2 + (−10)2 = 297.
−−→ −−→ √
Hence, area of parallelogram = |AB × AD| = 297 sq. units.
C
Example 68 The two adjacent sides of a parallelogram are given by the vectors 2î − 4ĵ − 5k̂ and
2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂. Find the two unit vectors parallel to its diagonals. Using the diagonal vectors, find the
area of the parallelogram.
−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
Solution: Let ABCD is a parallelogram with AB = DC = 2î−4ĵ−5k̂ and BC = AD = 2î+2ĵ+3k̂.
On applying triangle law of vectors to ∆ABD, we get
−−→ −−→ −−→
BD = BA + AD D C
−−→ −−→
= −AB + AD
= −(2î − 4ĵ − 5k̂) + (2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂)
A B
= 0î + 6ĵ + 8k̂.
On applying triangle law of vectors to ∆ABC, we get
−→ −−→ −−→
AC = AB + BC
= (2î − 4ĵ − 5k̂) + (2î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = 4î − 2ĵ − 2k̂.
Then, d⃗1 = 0î + 6ĵ + 8k̂ and d⃗2 = 4î − 2ĵ − 2k̂ are the diagonals of the parallelogram.
So, the unit vectors parallel to the diagonals of the parallelogram are given by
d⃗1 0î + 6ĵ + 8k̂ 1 1
dˆ1 = =p = (0î + 6ĵ + 8k̂) = (0î + 3ĵ + 4k̂)
|d⃗1 | (0)2 + (6)2 + (8)2 10 5
d⃗2 4î − 2ĵ − 2k̂ 1 1
and dˆ2 = =p = √ (4î − 2ĵ − 2k̂) = √ (2î − ĵ − k̂).
|d⃗2 | 2 2
(4) + (−2) + (−2) 2 2 6 6
in
î ĵ k̂
Now, d⃗1 × d⃗2 = 0 6 8 = î(−12 + 16) − ĵ(0 − 32) + k̂(0 − 24) = 4î + 32ĵ − 24k̂
4 −2 −2
√
and |d⃗1 × d⃗2 | = (4)2 + (32)2 + (−24)2 = 4 101.
p
e.
1 ⃗ √
Hence, area of parallelogram = |d1 × d⃗2 | = 2 101 sq. units.
2
Exercise 18.4
yd
(i) The angle between the vectors ⃗a × ⃗b and ⃗b × ⃗a is π.
(ii) If î, ĵ, k̂ are unit vectors along the three mutually perpendicular directions, then î × ĵ = ⃗0.
(i) The value of (î × ĵ) · k̂ + î · ĵ is .
rif
(ii) The value of (k̂ × ĵ) · î + ĵ · k̂ is .

(iii) The value of (k̂ × î) · ĵ + î · k̂ is .
(iv) The value of (î × ĵ) · k̂ + (ĵ × k̂) · î is .
⃗ ⃗
3. If ⃗a = î − 7ĵ + 7k̂ and b = 3î − 2ĵ + 2k̂, then find |⃗a × b|.
la
4. If ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = 2î − k̂, then find (⃗a + 3⃗b) × (2⃗a + 5⃗b).
* 5. Write the value of î · (ĵ × k̂) + ĵ · (k̂ × î) + k̂ · (î × ĵ).
* 6. Find λ and µ, if (2î + 6ĵ + 27k̂) × (î + λĵ + µk̂) = ⃗0. [NCERT]
C
⃗ ⃗
* 7. If ⃗a = 2î + ĵ − k̂, b = 4î − 7ĵ + k̂, find a vector ⃗c such that ⃗a × ⃗c = b and ⃗a · ⃗c = 6.
* 8. Find the value of λ for which the vectors ⃗a = 3î − 6ĵ + k̂ and ⃗b = 2î − 4ĵ + λk̂ are parallel.
[Exemplar]
* 9. For what value of a the vectors 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂ and aî + 6ĵ − 8k̂ are collinear?
10. Find the value of λ for which the vectors 3î + 2ĵ + 9k̂ and î − 2λĵ + 3k̂ are parallel.
* 11. Using vectors, prove that the points (2, −1, 3), (3, −5, 1) and (−1, 11, 9) are collinear.
12. Show that the points A(1, 2, 7), B(2, 6, 3) and C(3, 10, −1) are collinear.
* 13. Show that the points A(2, 3, −4), B(1, −2, 3) and C(3, 8, −11) are collinear.
* 14. Show that the points A(−2î + 3ĵ + 5k̂), B(î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) and C(7î − k̂) are collinear.
15. If the points (−1, −1, 2), (2, m, 5) and (3, 11, 6) are collinear, find the value of m. [Exemplar]
* 16. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, where ⃗a = î − 7ĵ + 7k̂ and
⃗b = 3î − 2ĵ + 2k̂.
* 17. Find the unit vector perpendicular to the vectors î + 2ĵ − k̂ and 2î + 3ĵ + k̂.
18. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both the vectors ⃗a = î − k̂ and ⃗b = î − ĵ + 2k̂.
√
* 19. Find a vector of magnitude 171 which is perpendicular to both of the vectors ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂
and ⃗b = 3î − ĵ + 2k̂.
√
20. Find all vectors of magnitude 10 3 that are perpendicular to the plane of î+2ĵ+k̂ and −î+3ĵ+4k̂.
* 21. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both of the vectors ⃗a + ⃗b and ⃗a − ⃗b, where ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂ and
⃗b = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂.
in
22. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors (⃗a + ⃗b) and (⃗a − ⃗b), where ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂
and ⃗b = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂.
* 23. Find a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors (⃗a +2⃗b) and (2⃗a +⃗b), where ⃗a = 3î+2ĵ +2k̂
and ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 2k̂.
e.
* 24. Let ⃗a = î + 4ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗b = 3î − 2ĵ + 7k̂ and ⃗c = 2î − ĵ + 4k̂. Find a vector d⃗ which is perpendicular
to both ⃗a and ⃗b and ⃗c · d⃗ = 27.
* 25. Let ⃗a = î + 4ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗b = 3î − 2ĵ + 7k̂ and ⃗c = 2î − ĵ + 4k̂. Find a vector p⃗ which is perpendicular
to both ⃗a and ⃗b, and p⃗ · ⃗c = 18.
yd
26. Let ⃗a = î + 4ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗b = 3î − 2ĵ + 7k̂ and ⃗c = 2î − ĵ + 4k̂. Find a vector d⃗ which is perpendicular
to both ⃗a and ⃗b, and ⃗c · d⃗ = 15. [NCERT]
27. If |⃗a| = 10, |⃗b| = 2 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 12, then find the value of |⃗a × ⃗b|. [Exemplar]
2
28. Let the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b be such that |⃗a| = 3, |⃗b| = and |⃗a × ⃗b| = 1, then find the angle between
3
⃗a and ⃗b.
rif
* 29. If |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 7 and ⃗a × ⃗b = 3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂, find the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b.
30. Find the sine of the angle between the vectors ⃗a = 3î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = 2î − 2ĵ + 4k̂. [Exemplar]
* 31. If |⃗a| = 13, |⃗b| = 5 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 60, then find |⃗a × ⃗b|.
la
* 32. Find a unit vector perpendicular to the vectors 4î + 3ĵ + k̂ and 2î − ĵ + 2k̂. Determine the sine of
angle between these two vectors. [ISC 2007]
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
* 33. Find the value of ⃗a · b, if |⃗a| = 10, |b| = 2 and |⃗a × b| = 16.
* 34. If |⃗a| = 8, |⃗b| = 3 and |⃗a × ⃗b| = 12, then find the value of ⃗a · ⃗b. [Exemplar]
C
* 35. ⃗
The vectors from origin to the points A and B are ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ + 2k̂ and b = 2î + 3ĵ + k̂,
respectively, then find the area of triangle OAB. [Exemplar]
* 36. Find the area of triangle with vertices A(1, 1, 2), B(2, 3, 5) and C(1, 5, 5). [NCERT]
* 37. Using vectors, find the area of the triangle ABC, whose vertices are A(1, 2, 3), B(2, −1, 4) and
C(4, 5, −1).
* 38. If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are the position vectors of the vertices A, B, C of a ∆ABC, show that the area of
1
∆ABC is |⃗a × ⃗b + ⃗b × ⃗c + ⃗c × ⃗a| sq. units.
2
* 39. Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors 2î and 3ĵ.
* 40. Find the area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides are represented by the vectors î + k̂ and
2î + ĵ + k̂. [Exemplar]
41. Find the area of parallelogram whose adjacent sides are determined by the vectors ⃗a = î − ĵ + 3k̂
and ⃗b = 2î − 7ĵ + k̂.
* 42. Find the area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are 2î − ĵ + k̂ and î + 3ĵ − k̂. [Exemplar]
* 43. Find the area of the parallelogram whose diagonals are represented by the vectors ⃗a = 2î−3ĵ +4k̂
and ⃗b = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂.
* 44. The vectors −2î + 4ĵ + 4k̂ and −4î − 2k̂ represent the diagonals BD and AC of a parallelogram
ABCD. Find the area of the parallelogram. [ISC 2006]
45. Find the area of a parallelogram whose diagonals are given by the vectors î + ĵ − k̂ and 2î + k̂.
* 46. Find the area of a parallelogram ABCD whose side AB and the diagonal AC are given by the
vectors 3î + ĵ + 4k̂ and 4î + 5k̂ respectively.
in
* 47. The two adjacent sides of the parallelogram are 2î − 4ĵ + 5k̂ and î − 2ĵ − 3k̂, find the unit vector
parallel to one of its diagonals. Also, find its area.
e.
48. The value of î · (ĵ × k̂) + ĵ · (î × k̂) + k̂ · (î × ĵ) is
(a) 1 (b) −1 (c) 0 (d) 3
49. The number of vector(s) of unit length perpendicular to the vectors ⃗a = 2î + ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗b = ĵ + k̂
is (are)
yd
(a) one (b) two (c) three (d) infinite
√
2
50. Let the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b be such that |⃗a| = 3 and |⃗b| = , then ⃗a × ⃗b is a unit vector, if the angle
3
between ⃗a and ⃗b is
π π π π
(a) (b) (c) (d)
6 4 3 2
rif
⃗
51. Consider the two vectors ⃗a = 3î + 2ĵ + 4k̂ and b = î − 3ĵ + k̂. The vector perpendicular to both
⃗a and ⃗b will be [ISC 2022]
(a) 14î + ĵ − 12k̂ (b) 14î − ĵ + 11k̂
(c) 14î + ĵ − 11k̂ (d) 14î + ĵ + 11k̂
⃗
52. Consider the two vectors ⃗a = 3î + 2ĵ + 4k̂ and b = î − 3ĵ + k̂. The unit vector perpendicular to
la
both ⃗a and ⃗b is [ISC 2022]

14î + ĵ − 12k̂ 14î − ĵ + 11k̂ 14î + ĵ − 11k̂ 14î + ĵ + 11k̂
(a) √ (b) √ (c) √ (d) √
308 318 318 318
53. Consider the two vectors ⃗a = 3î + 2ĵ + 4k̂ and ⃗b = î − 3ĵ + k̂. The area of the parallelogram
C
formed by ⃗a and ⃗b as its diagonals will be equal to [ISC 2022]

1√ √ 1√ √
(a) 318 (b) 2 318 (c) 308 (d) 2 308
2 2
Answers 18.4
1. (i) True (ii) False
2. (i) 1 (ii) −1 (iii) 1 (iv) 2
√ 27
3. 19 2 4. 3î − 4ĵ + 6k̂ 5. 3 6. λ = 3, µ =
2
2 1
7. 3î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ 8. 9. −4 10. −
3 3
1 1 1
15. 8 16. ± √ (0î + ĵ + k̂) 17. ± √ (5î−3ĵ − k̂) 18. − √ (î + 3ĵ + k̂)
2 35 11
1 1
19. ±(î − 11ĵ − 7k̂) 20. ±(10î−10ĵ +10k̂) 21. √ (−î + 2ĵ − k̂) 22. − √ (î − 2ĵ + k̂)
6 6
1 160 5 70
23. (2î − 2ĵ − k̂) 24. 96î − 3ĵ − 42k̂ 25. 64î − 2ĵ − 28k̂ 26. î − ĵ − k̂
3 3 3 3
π 2
27. 16 28. 29. 30◦ 30. √
6 7
√
7 6 10 185
31. 25 32. ± √ î − √ ĵ − √ k̂ , √ 33. ±12
185 185 185 3 26
√ √ √
in
√ 229 61 274
34. ±12 3 35. sq. units 36. sq. units 37. sq. units
2 2 2
√
√ √ 62
39. 6 sq. units 40. 3 sq. units 41. 15 2 sq. units 42. sq. units
2
√
e.
√ 14 √
43. 3 sq. units 44. 6 5 sq. units 45. sq. units 46. 42 sq. units
2
1 √
47. (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂), 11 5 sq. units 48. (a) 49. (b)
7
50. (b) 51. (c) 52. (c) 53. (a)
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18.5 Scalar Triple Product of Vectors
In the previous sections, we have learnt to find the product of two vectors (viz., scalar product and vector
product). Now, we shall discuss the product of three vectors.
Let ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c be three vectors. Then, ⃗b × ⃗c is a vector and we can describe the following products.
(i) The scalar product of ⃗a and ⃗b × ⃗c, i.e., ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) and it is called scalar triple product.
rif
(ii) The vector product of ⃗a and ⃗b × ⃗c, i.e., ⃗a × (⃗b × ⃗c) and it is called vector triple product.
Here, we discuss scalar triple product only and vector triple product is beyond the scope of this book.
Scalar Triple Product / Mixed Product / Box product of Three Vectors: It is defined as the dot
product of one of the vectors with the cross product of the other two.
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In other words, the scalar triple product of three vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c is defined as the number ⃗a · (⃗b ×⃗c)
and it is denoted by [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ].
It is not necessary to compute the dot product and cross product to evaluate a scalar triple product. The
C
value can be obtained directly from a formula involving a determinant as follows.
Theorem 18.3 (Scalar Triple Product as Determinant) If ⃗a = a1 î+a2 ĵ+a3 k̂, ⃗b = b1 î+b2 ĵ+b3 k̂
and ⃗c = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂, then
a1 a2 a3
[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
Proof: We have, ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂, ⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ and ⃗c = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂.

î ĵ k̂
b2 b3 b b3 b b2
Then, ⃗b × ⃗c = b1 b2 b3 = î − ĵ 1 + k̂ 1 .
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
a1 a2 a3
b b3 b b3 b b2
Hence, ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = a1 2 − b1 1 + c1 1 = b1 b2 b3 .
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
We shall now discuss the geometrical interpretation of the scalar triple product.
Theorem 18.4 (Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Triple Product) Geometrically, the abso-
lute value of the scalar triple product [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] represents the volume of the parallelepiped whose
coterminus edges ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c form a right-handed system.
Proof: Consider a parallelepiped whose coterminus edges ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c form a right-handed system, as
shown in figure.
in
From the geometric definition of the cross product,
we know that ⃗b × ⃗c
(i) |⃗b × ⃗c| is the area of the parallelogram base.
(ii) the direction of ⃗b × ⃗c is perpendicular to the
|⃗a| | cos θ|
base. ⃗a
e.
Let the direction of ⃗a make an angle θ with the ⃗c
θ
direction normal to the base, i.e., with the direction
of ⃗b × ⃗c.
⃗b
Thus, height of parallelepiped = |⃗a| | cos θ|. ...(1)
yd
Hence, volume of parallelepiped = Area of parallelogram base × Height of parallelepiped
= |⃗b × ⃗c| |⃗a| | cos θ| [Using (i) and (1)]
= |⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c)| = [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] .
Remark 18.8 The vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are coplanar if the volume of the parallelepiped, having these
rif
vectors as its edges, is zero, i.e., [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
We shall now state and prove some of the important properties of scalar triple product.
Theorem 18.5 (Properties of Scalar Triple Product) Let ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c be any three vectors. Then,
(i) [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = [ ⃗b ⃗c ⃗a ] = [ ⃗c ⃗a ⃗b ].
la
In other words, if three vectors are cyclically permuted, then the value of the scalar triple
product remains unchanged.
(ii) ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = (⃗a × ⃗b) · ⃗c.
C
In other words, the position of dot and cross in a scalar triple product can be interchanged,
provided the cyclic order of vectors remains the same.
(iii) [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = −[ ⃗a ⃗c ⃗b ].
In other words, the value of scalar triple product remains the same in magnitude, but changes
in sign, if the cyclic order of the vectors is changed.
(iv) If ⃗a = ⃗b (or ⃗b = ⃗c or ⃗c = ⃗a), then [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
In other words, if any two of the given vectors are equal, then their scalar triple product is zero.
(v) [ λ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = λ[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ], where λ is a scalar.
(vi) If ⃗a ∥ ⃗b (or ⃗b ∥ ⃗c or ⃗c ∥ ⃗a), then [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
In other words, if any two of the given vectors are parallel, then their scalar triple product is
zero.
Proof: Let ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂, ⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ and ⃗c = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂.

a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3 b1 b2 b3
(i) [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = b1 b2 b3 = − a1 a2 a3 = c1 c2 c3 = [ ⃗b ⃗c ⃗a ]
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3 a1 a2 a3
a1 a2 a3 c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
and [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = b1 b2 b3 = − b1 b2 b3 = a1 a2 a3 = [ ⃗c ⃗a ⃗b ].
c1 c2 c3 a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
Hence, [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = [ ⃗b ⃗c ⃗a ] = [ ⃗c ⃗a ⃗b ].
a1 a2 a3 c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
(ii) ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = b1 b2 b3 = − b1 b2 b3 = a1 a2 a3 = ⃗c · (⃗a × ⃗b) = (⃗a × ⃗b) · ⃗c.
in
c1 c2 c3 a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3
(iii) [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = b1 b2 b3 = − c1 c2 c3 = −[ ⃗a ⃗c ⃗b ].
c1 c2 c3 b1 b2 b3
e.
a1 a2 a3
(iv) If ⃗a = ⃗b, then [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = [ ⃗a ⃗a ⃗c ] = a1 a2 a3 = 0. [∵ R1 and R2 are identical]
c1 c2 c3
Similarly, if ⃗b = ⃗c or ⃗c = ⃗a, then [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
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(v) λ⃗a = λ(a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) = λa1 î + λa2 ĵ + λa3 k̂.
λa1 λa2 λa3 a1 a2 a3
On taking common
Hence, [ λ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = b1 b2 b3 = λ b1 b2 b3
λ from R1
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
= λ[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ].
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(vi) Let ⃗a is parallel to ⃗b, then for some scalar λ, we have ⃗a = λ⃗b = λb1 î + λb2 ĵ + λb3 k̂.
λb1 λb2 λb3 b1 b2 b3
On taking common
Hence, [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = b1 b2 b3 = λ b1 b2 b3
λ from R1
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
la
= λ(0) = 0. [∵ R1 and R2 are identical]

Let us now consider some examples.
Example 1 If ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î − 2ĵ + k̂ and ⃗c = −3î + ĵ + 2k̂, find [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ].
C
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î + 3ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î − 2ĵ + k̂ and ⃗c = −3î + ĵ + 2k̂.

2 3 1
Then, [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = 1 −2 1 = 2(−4 − 1) − 3(2 + 3) + 1(1 − 6) = −30.
−3 1 2
Example 2 If ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + 4ĵ − k̂, then find ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) and
(⃗a × ⃗b) · ⃗c. Is ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = (⃗a × ⃗b) · ⃗c ?
Solution: Given ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + 4ĵ − k̂.
2 −3 4
Then, ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = 1 2 −3 = 2(−2 + 12) + 3(−1 + 9) + 4(4 − 6) = 36
3 4 −1
3 4 −1
and (⃗a × ⃗b) · ⃗c = ⃗c · (⃗a × ⃗b) = 2 −3 4 = 3(9 − 8) − 4(−6 − 4) − 1(4 + 3) = 36.
1 2 −3
⃗ ⃗
Hence, ⃗a · (b × ⃗c) = (⃗a × b) · ⃗c.
Example 3 (ISC 2015) Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose edges are represented by the
vectors ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ − 4k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + ĵ + 2k̂.
Solution: Given, ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ − 4k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + ĵ + 2k̂.
2 −3 −4
Then, ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = 1 2 −1 = 2(4 + 1) + 3(2 + 3) − 4(1 − 6) = 45.
3 1 2
in
Hence, required volume = 45 cubic units.
Example 4 Show that the three vectors î − 2ĵ + 3k̂, −2î + 3ĵ − 4k̂ and î − 3ĵ + 5k̂ are coplanar.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î − 2ĵ + 3k̂, ⃗b = −2î + 3ĵ − 4k̂ and ⃗c = î − 3ĵ + 5k̂.
e.
1 −2 3
Then, ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = −2 3 −4 = 1(15 − 12) + 2(−10 + 4) + 3(6 − 3) = 0.
1 −3 5
Hence, given vectors are coplanar.
yd
Example 5 (Exemplar) Find λ, if the vectors λî + ĵ + 2k̂, î + λĵ − k̂ and 2ĵ − ĵ + λk̂ are coplanar.
Solution: Given that the vectors ⃗a = λî + ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗b = î + λĵ − k̂ and ⃗c = 2ĵ − ĵ + λk̂ are coplanar.
λ 1 2
Then, ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = 0 ⇒ 1 λ −1 = 0 ⇒ λ(λ2 − 1) − 1(λ + 2) + 2(−1 − 2λ) = 0
2 −1 λ
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⇒ λ3 − 6λ − 4 = 0
⇒ (λ + 2)(λ2 − 2λ − 2) = 0
√
⇒ λ = −2, 1 ± 3.
Example 6 Let ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î and ⃗c = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂, then

la
(i) Let c1 = 1 and c2 = 2, find c3 which makes ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c coplanar.

(ii) Let c2 = −1 and c3 = 1, show that no value of c1 can make ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c coplanar.
Solution: Given ⃗a = î + ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = î and ⃗c = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂.
C
(i) Given that c1 = 1 and c2 = 2, then ⃗c = î + 2ĵ + c3 k̂. Also, given that ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c coplanar.
1 1 1
Then, ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = 0 ⇒ 1 0 0 =0 ⇒ 1(0 − 0) − 1(c3 − 0) + 1(2 − 0) = 0
1 2 c3
⇒ −c3 + 2 = 0
⇒ c3 = 2.
(ii) Given that c2 = −1 and c3 = 1, then ⃗c = c1 î − ĵ + k̂.
1 1 1
Then, ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = 1 0 0 = 1(0 − 0) − 1(1 − 0) + 1(−1 − 0) = −2 ̸= 0.
c1 −1 1
Hence, ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are not coplanar for any value of c1 .
Example 7 (ISC 2018) Show that the four points A(4, 5, 1), B(0, −1, −1), C(3, 9, 4) and D(−4, 4, 4)
are coplanar.
Solution: Given points are A(4, 5, 1), B(0, −1, −1), C(3, 9, 4) and D(−4, 4, 4).
−−→
Then, AB = Position Vector of B − Position Vector of A
= (0î − ĵ − k̂) − (4î + 5ĵ + k̂) = −4î − 6ĵ − 2k̂,
−→
AC = Position Vector of C − Position Vector of A
= (3î + 9ĵ + 4k̂) − (4î + 5ĵ + k̂) = −î + 4ĵ + 3k̂,
−−→
AD = Position Vector of D − Position Vector of A
= (−4î + 4ĵ + 4k̂) − (4î + 5ĵ + k̂) = −8î − ĵ + 3k̂.
in
−4 −6 −2
−−→ −→ −−→
Now, [ AB AC AD ] = −1 4 3 = −4(12 + 3) + 6(−3 + 24) − 2(1 + 32) = 0.
−8 −1 3
−−→ −→ −−→
e.
Thus, AB, AC and AD are coplanar and hence the given points are coplanar.
Example 8 Show that the four points with position vectors 4î + 8ĵ + 12k̂, 2î + 4ĵ + 6k̂, 3î + 5ĵ + 4k̂
and 5î + 8ĵ + 5k̂ are coplanar.
Solution: Let A, B, C and D be the points with position vectors 4î+8ĵ +12k̂, 2î+4ĵ +6k̂, 3î+5ĵ +4k̂
yd
and 5î + 8ĵ + 5k̂ respectively.
−−→
= (2î + 4ĵ + 6k̂) − (4î + 8ĵ + 12k̂) = −2î − 4ĵ − 6k̂
−→
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= (3î + 5ĵ + 4k̂) − (4î + 8ĵ + 12k̂) = −î − 3ĵ − 8k̂
−−→
= (5î + 8ĵ + 5k̂) − (4î + 8ĵ + 12k̂) = î + 0ĵ − 7k̂
−2 −4 −6
la
−−→ −→ −−→
Now, [ AB AC AD ] = −1 −3 −8 = −2(21 − 0) + 4(7 + 8) − 6(0 + 3) = 0.
1 0 −7
−−→ −→ −−→
Thus, AB, AC and AD are coplanar and hence the given points are coplanar.
C
Example 9 Show that the points with position vectors î + ĵ, î − 5ĵ − 4k̂, 3ĵ + 2k̂ and 2î + ĵ + 4k̂ are
not coplanar.
Solution: Let A, B, C and D be the points with position vectors î + ĵ, î − 5ĵ − 4k̂, 3ĵ + 2k̂ and
2î + ĵ + 4k̂ respectively.
−−→
= (î − 5ĵ − 4k̂) − (î + ĵ) = 0î − 6ĵ − 4k̂
−→
= (3ĵ + 2k̂) − (î + ĵ) = −î + 2ĵ + 2k̂
−−→
= (2î + ĵ + 4k̂) − (î + ĵ) = î + 0ĵ + 4k̂
0 −6 −4
−−→ −→ −−→
Now, [ AB AC AD ] = −1 2 2 = 0 + 6(−4 − 2) − 4(0 − 2) = −28 ̸= 0.
1 0 4
−−→ −→ −−→
Thus, AB, AC and AD are not coplanar and hence the given points are not coplanar.
Example 10 Find the value of x, for which the four points A(x, −1, −1), B(4, 5, 1), C(3, 9, 4) and
D(−4, 4, 4) are coplanar.
Solution: Given points are A(x, −1, −1), B(4, 5, 1), C(3, 9, 4) and D(−4, 4, 4).
−−→
Then, BA = Position Vector of A − Position Vector of B
= (xî − ĵ − k̂) − (4î + 5ĵ + k̂) = (x − 4)î − 6ĵ − 2k̂,
in
−−→
BC = Position Vector of C − Position Vector of B
= (3î + 9ĵ + 4k̂) − (4î + 5ĵ + k̂) = −î + 4ĵ + 3k̂,
−−→
BD = Position Vector of D − Position Vector of B
e.
= (−4î + 4ĵ + 4k̂) − (4î + 5ĵ + k̂) = −8î − ĵ + 3k̂.
−−→ −−→ −−→
Given that the points A, B, C and D are coplanar, i.e., BA, BC and BD are coplanar.
−−→ −−→ −−→
Then, [ BA BC BD ] = 0
yd
x−4 −6 −2
⇒ −1 4 3 =0
−8 −1 3
⇒ (x − 4)(12 + 3) + 6(−3 + 24) − 2(1 + 32) = 0
⇒ 15x − 60 + 126 − 66 = 0
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⇒ x = 0.
Example 11 Find the value of λ, if four points with position vectors 3î + 6ĵ + 9k̂, î + 2ĵ + 3k̂,
2î + 3ĵ + k̂ and 4î + 6ĵ + λk̂ are coplanar.
la
Solution: Let A, B, C and D be the points with position vectors 3î + 6ĵ + 9k̂, î + 2ĵ + 3k̂, 2î + 3ĵ + k̂
and 4î + 6ĵ + λk̂ are coplanar.
−−→
Then, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = −2î − 4ĵ − 6k̂
−→
AC = Position vector of C − Position vector of A = −î − 3ĵ − 8k̂
C
−−→
AD = Position vector of D − Position vector of A = î + 0ĵ + (λ − 9)k̂
−−→ −→ −−→
Given that the points A, B, C and D are coplanar, i.e., AB, AC and AD are coplanar.
−−→ −→ −−→
Then, [ AB AC AD ] = 0
−2 −4 −6
⇒ −1 −3 −8 = 0
1 0 λ−9
⇒ 1(32 − 18) − 0 + (λ − 9)(6 − 4) = 0
⇒ 14 + 2λ − 18 = 0
⇒ λ = 2.
Example 12 (ISC 2016) For any three vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c, show that ⃗a − ⃗b, ⃗b − ⃗c, ⃗c − ⃗a are coplanar.
Solution: [ ⃗a − ⃗b ⃗b − ⃗c ⃗c − ⃗a ]
= (⃗a − ⃗b) · {(⃗b − ⃗c) × (⃗c − ⃗a)}
= (⃗a − ⃗b) · {(⃗b × ⃗c) − (⃗b × ⃗a) − (⃗c × ⃗c) + (⃗c × ⃗a)}
= (⃗a − ⃗b) · {(⃗b × ⃗c) − (⃗b × ⃗a) + (⃗c × ⃗a)} [∵ ⃗c × ⃗c = ⃗0 ]
= ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) − ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗a) + ⃗a · (⃗c × ⃗a) − ⃗b · (⃗b × ⃗c) + ⃗b · (⃗b × ⃗a) − ⃗b · (⃗c × ⃗a)
= ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) − 0 + 0 − 0 + 0 − ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c)
in
= 0.
Hence, ⃗a − ⃗b, ⃗b − ⃗c, ⃗c − ⃗a are coplanar.
Example 13 If the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are coplanar, then show that ⃗a + ⃗b, ⃗b + ⃗c and ⃗c + ⃗a are also
coplanar.
e.
Solution: Given that the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are coplanar, i.e., [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
Now, [ ⃗a + ⃗b ⃗b + ⃗c ⃗c + ⃗a ]
= (⃗a + ⃗b) · {(⃗b + ⃗c) × (⃗c + ⃗a)}
yd
= (⃗a + ⃗b) · {(⃗b × ⃗c) + (⃗b × ⃗a) + (⃗c × ⃗c) + (⃗c × ⃗a)}
= (⃗a + ⃗b) · {(⃗b × ⃗c) + (⃗b × ⃗a) + (⃗c × ⃗a)} [∵ ⃗c × ⃗c = ⃗0 ]
= ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) + ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗a) + ⃗a · (⃗c × ⃗a) + ⃗b · (⃗b × ⃗c) + ⃗b · (⃗b × ⃗a) + ⃗b · (⃗c × ⃗a)
= ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c)
rif
= 2 ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = 2[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
Hence, ⃗a + ⃗b, ⃗b + ⃗c and ⃗c + ⃗a are also coplanar.
Example 14 If ⃗a + ⃗b, ⃗b + ⃗c and ⃗c + ⃗a are coplanar, then show that the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are also
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coplanar.
Solution: Given that the vectors ⃗a + ⃗b, ⃗b + ⃗c and ⃗c + ⃗a are coplanar, i.e., [ ⃗a + ⃗b ⃗b + ⃗c ⃗c + ⃗a ] = 0.
Now, 0 = [ ⃗a + ⃗b ⃗b + ⃗c ⃗c + ⃗a ]
= (⃗a + ⃗b) · {(⃗b + ⃗c) × (⃗c + ⃗a)}
C
= (⃗a + ⃗b) · {(⃗b × ⃗c) + (⃗b × ⃗a) + (⃗c × ⃗c) + (⃗c × ⃗a)}
= (⃗a + ⃗b) · {(⃗b × ⃗c) + (⃗b × ⃗a) + (⃗c × ⃗a)} [∵ ⃗c × ⃗c = ⃗0 ]
= ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) + ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗a) + ⃗a · (⃗c × ⃗a) + ⃗b · (⃗b × ⃗c) + ⃗b · (⃗b × ⃗a) + ⃗b · (⃗c × ⃗a)
= ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c)
= 2 ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = 2[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ].
Thus, [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0 and hence the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are coplanar.
Example 15 (ISC 2014, 2005) Prove that: ⃗a · (⃗b + ⃗c) × (⃗a + 2⃗b + 3⃗c) = [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ].
Solution: ⃗a · (⃗b + ⃗c) × (⃗a + 2⃗b + 3⃗c)
= ⃗a · {(⃗b + ⃗c) × (⃗a + 2⃗b + 3⃗c)}
= ⃗a · {(⃗b × ⃗a) + 2(⃗b × ⃗b) + 3(⃗b × ⃗c) + (⃗c × ⃗a) + 2(⃗c × ⃗b) + 3(⃗c × ⃗c)}
= ⃗a · {(⃗b × ⃗a) + 3(⃗b × ⃗c) + (⃗c × ⃗a) + 2(⃗c × ⃗b)} [∵ ⃗b × ⃗b = ⃗0, ⃗c × ⃗c = ⃗0]
= ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗a) + 3⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) + ⃗a · (⃗c × ⃗a) + 2⃗a · (⃗c × ⃗b)
= 0 + 3⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) + 0 + 2⃗a · (⃗c × ⃗b)
= 3⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) − 2⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) [∵ ⃗c × ⃗b = −⃗b × ⃗c ]
= ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ].
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Example 16 (Exemplar) If ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are three vectors such that ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0, then prove that
⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗c × ⃗a, and hence show that [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
e.
Solution: Given ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c = ⃗0. ...(1)
Then, ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗a × (−⃗a − ⃗c) [Using (1)] and ⃗a × ⃗b = (−⃗b − ⃗c) × ⃗b [Using (1)]
= −⃗a × ⃗a − ⃗a × ⃗c = −⃗b × ⃗b − ⃗c × ⃗b
= −⃗0 + ⃗c × ⃗a = ⃗c × ⃗a.
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...(2) = −⃗0 + ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗b × ⃗c. ...(3)
From (2) and (3), we get ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗b × ⃗c = ⃗c × ⃗a.

Hence, [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = ⃗a · (⃗a × ⃗b) = 0.
√
Example 17 If p⃗ = î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗q = î − 2ĵ + k̂, find a vector of magnitude 5 3 units perpendicular
to the vector ⃗q and coplanar with vectors p⃗ and ⃗q.
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Solution: Given p⃗ = î + ĵ + k̂ and ⃗q = î − 2ĵ + k̂. Let ⃗r = aî + bĵ + ck̂ be the required vector.
Given that ⃗r is perpendicular to ⃗q.
Then, ⃗r · ⃗q = 0 ⇒ (aî + bĵ + ck̂) · (î − 2ĵ + k̂) = 0
⇒ a − 2b + c = 0 ...(1)
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Also, given that ⃗r is coplanar with vectors p⃗ and ⃗q.

1 1 1
Then, [ p⃗ ⃗q ⃗r ] = 0 ⇒ 1 −2 1 = 0
a b c
C
⇒ 1(−2c − b) − 1(c − a) + 1(b + 2a) = 0

⇒ 3a − 3c = 0
⇒ a=c
Putting value of a in (1), we get b = c and we have a = b = c.
Thus, ⃗r = aî + aĵ + ak̂.
√ p √ √ √
Also, given that |⃗r| = 5 3 ⇒ a2 + a2 + a2 = 5 3 ⇒ 3 |a| = 5 3
⇒ |a| = 5
⇒ a=±5
Hence, the required vector is ⃗r = 5î + 5ĵ + 5k̂ or ⃗r = −5î − 5ĵ − 5k̂.
→
− →
− →
−
Example 18 If the vectors A = aî + ĵ + k̂, B = î + bĵ + k̂ and C = î + ĵ + ck̂ are coplanar, then
1 1 1
for a, b, c ̸= 1, show that + + = 1.
1−a 1−b 1−c
→
− →
− →
−
Solution: Given that the vectors A = aî + ĵ + k̂, B = î + bĵ + k̂ and C = î + ĵ + ck̂ are coplanar.
→
− → − → −
Then, [ A B C ]=0
a 1 1
⇒ 1 b 1 =0
1 1 c
 
a 1 1 On applying
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⇒ 1−a b−1 0 =0 R2 → R2 − R1 
1−a 0 c−1 R3 → R3 − R1
⇒ a[(b − 1)(c − 1) − 0] − 1[(1 − a)(c − 1) − 0] + 1[0 − (1 − a)(b − 1)] = 0
⇒ a(b − 1)(c − 1) − (1 − a)(c − 1) − (1 − a)(b − 1) = 0
e.
⇒ a(1 − b)(1 − c) + (1 − a)(1 − c) + (1 − a)(1 − b) = 0
Dividing both sides by (1 − a)(1 − b)(1 − c), we get
a 1 1
+ + =0
1−a 1−b 1−c
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a 1 1
⇒ 1+ + + =1
1−a 1−b 1−c
1 1 1
⇒ + + = 1.
1−a 1−b 1−c
Exercise 18.5
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(i) If the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are coplanar, then [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
(ii) [ λ⃗a λ⃗b λ⃗c ] = λ[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ], where λ is a scalar.
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(i) The value of ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗a) is .
(ii) The value of ĵ · (k̂ × î) is .
(iii) The value of î · (k̂ × ĵ) is .
C
⃗ ⃗
* 3. Find ⃗a · (b × ⃗c), where ⃗a = 2î + ĵ + 3k̂, b = −î + 2ĵ + k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + ĵ + 2k̂.
4. If ⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂, ⃗b = î + 2ĵ − k̂ and ⃗c = 3î − ĵ + 2k̂, then find
(i) [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ]. (ii) [ ⃗a + ⃗b ⃗b + ⃗c ⃗c + ⃗a ].
5. If ⃗a = 7î − 2ĵ + 3k̂, ⃗b = î − ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗c = 3î + 8ĵ, then find ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) and (⃗a × ⃗b) · ⃗c. Find
whether ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) and (⃗a × ⃗b) · ⃗c are equal.
* 6. Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose three coterminus edges are represented by the vectors
î + ĵ + k̂, î − ĵ + k̂ and î + 2ĵ − k̂.
7. Find the volume of the parallelepiped whose coterminus edges are represented by the vectors
⃗a = 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂, ⃗b = 3î − ĵ + 2k̂ and ⃗c = î + 2ĵ − k̂.
* 8. Find the volume of a cuboid whose edges are given by −3î+7ĵ+5k̂, −5î+7ĵ−3k̂ and 7î−5ĵ−3k̂.
* 9. Show that the vectors ⃗a = 3î − 4ĵ + 5k̂, ⃗b = 2î − ĵ + k̂ and ⃗c = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ are coplanar.
10. Show that the vectors ⃗a = î − 2ĵ + 3k̂, ⃗b = −2î + 3ĵ − 4k̂ and ⃗c = î − 3ĵ + 5k̂ are coplanar.
* 11. Find λ, if the vectors ⃗a = î + 3ĵ + k̂, ⃗b = 2î − ĵ − k̂ and ⃗c = λĵ + 3k̂ are coplanar.
* 12. The vectors î + 3ĵ, 5k̂ and λî − ĵ are coplanar. Find the value of λ. [ISC 2006]
* 13. Using vectors, find the value of x such that the four points A(x, 5, −1), B(3, 2, 1), C(4, 5, 5) and
D(4, 2, −2) are coplanar.
* 14. Find x such that the four points A(4, 1, 2), B(5, x, 6), C(5, 1, −1) and D(7, 4, 0) are coplanar.
* 15. Find the value of x such that the points A(3, 2, 1), B(4, x, 5), C(4, 2, −2) and D(6, 5, −1) are
coplanar.
16. Find the value of λ if the points A(−1, 4, −3), B(3, λ, −5), C(−3, 8, −5) and D(−3, 2, 1) are
in
coplanar.
17. Show that the four points with position vectors 4î + 8ĵ + 12k̂, 2î + 4ĵ + 6k̂, 3î + 5ĵ + 4k̂ and
5î + 8ĵ + 5k̂ are coplanar.
18. Show that the points with position vectors 6î − 7ĵ, 16î − 29ĵ − 4k̂, 3ĵ − 6k̂ and 2î + 5ĵ + 10k̂ are
e.
coplanar.
* 19. Find the value of λ for which the four points with position vectors 6î − 7ĵ, 16î − 19ĵ − 4k̂, λĵ − 6k̂
and 2î − 5ĵ + 10k̂ are coplanar. [ISC 2017]
* 20. Find the value of λ for which the four points with positions vectors 2î+5ĵ+k̂, −ĵ−4k̂, 3î+λĵ+8k̂
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and −4î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ are coplanar. [ISC 2010]
* 21. Find the value of x such that the four points with position vectors A(3î + 2ĵ + k̂), B(4î + xĵ + 5k̂),
C(4î + 2ĵ − 2k̂) and D(6î + 5ĵ − k̂) are coplanar.
22. Find the value of λ for which the four points A, B, C, D with positions vectors −ĵ−k̂, 4î+5ĵ+λk̂,
3î + 9ĵ + 4k̂ and −4î + 4ĵ + 4k̂ are coplanar.
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* 23. For any three vectors ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c, prove that [ ⃗a − ⃗b ⃗b − ⃗c ⃗c − ⃗a ] = 0. [ISC 2012]
* 24. Prove that [ ⃗a + ⃗b ⃗b + ⃗c ⃗c + ⃗a ] = 2[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ]. [ISC 2011, 2007]
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25. If [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 5, then the value of [ 2⃗a 3⃗b 4⃗c ] is

(a) 10 (b) 15 (c) 20 (d) 120
⃗
26. The value of λ so that the vectors ⃗a = 2î − ĵ + k̂, b = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂ and ⃗c = 3î − λĵ + 5k̂ are
coplanar is
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(a) 4 (b) 5 (c) 6 (d) 7
Answers 18.5
2. (i) 0 (ii) 1 (iii) −1
3. −10 4. (i) −7 (ii) −14 5. −91, −91, Equal 6. 4 cubic units
1
7. 7 cubic units 8. 264 cubic units 11. 7 12. −
3
13. 6 14. 4 15. 5 16. 2
19. 3 20. 12 21. 5 22. 1
25. (d) 26. (a)
Vectors Jai Shri Ram18.85
Summary
1. The quantities which have only magnitude but no direction are called scalars (or scalar
quantities). They are represented by single letters such as a, b, c, . . .
2. The quantities which have magnitude as well as direction are called vectors (or vector
quantities). They are represented by single letters with an arrow on them such as ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c, . . .
3. Magnitude of vector ⃗a is called modulus or absolute value of ⃗a and it is denoted by |⃗a|.
4. Triangle Law of Vectors: If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the
two sides of a triangle taken in order, then their sum (or resultant) is represented in magnitude
and direction by the third side of the triangle, taken in opposite order.
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5. Parallelogram Law of Vectors: If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by
the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn from a point, then their sum (or resultant) is
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram, drawn from the
same point.
e.
6. Let ⃗a be a given vector and k be a scalar. Then, the multiplication of the vector ⃗a by scalar k
is a vector (denoted by k⃗a) such that
(i) magnitude of k⃗a is |k| times the magnitude of ⃗a, i.e., |k⃗a| = |k| |⃗a|, and
(ii) direction of k⃗a is same as that of ⃗a, if k is positive and
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direction of k⃗a is opposite to that of ⃗a, if k is negative.
7. Two vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are parallel (or collinear), if there exists a non-zero scalar k such that
⃗a = k⃗b. If k > 0, then ⃗a and ⃗b are like vectors and if k < 0, then ⃗a and ⃗b are unlike vectors.
8. Let ⃗a be a non-zero vector. Then, unit vector of ⃗a is a vector having magnitude unity and
direction same as that of ⃗a. Unit vector of ⃗a is denoted by â.
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⃗a Vector
â = =
|⃗a| Modulus of vector
9. Unit vectors along positive direction of x, y and z-axis are denoted by î, ĵ and k̂ respectively.
10. Given a point P (x, y, z), the position vector of P with respect to the origin O(0, 0, 0) is given
−−→ −−→
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p
by OP = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ and its modulus is given by |OP | = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
−−→
x, y and z are called scalar components or rectangular components of OP .
−−→
xî, y ĵ and z k̂ are called vector components of OP along x, y and z-axis respectively.
11. The angles α, β, γ made by the vector ⃗r with the positive directions of x, y and z-axis
C
respectively, are called the direction angles of ⃗r.

12. The cosines of the direction angles (i.e., cos α, cos β, cos γ) are called the direction cosines of
⃗r and are usually denoted by l, m, n respectively.
13. The numbers lr, mr and nr are called direction ratios of ⃗r and are usually denoted by a, b and
c respectively.
14. If l, m, n are direction cosines of a vector ⃗r, then
(i) l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
(ii) a = lr, b = mr, c = nr are the direction ratios of ⃗r, where r = |⃗r|.
−−→
15. Vector joining the points A and B = AB = Position vector of B− Position vector of A
16. Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors given in the component form as ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂ and
⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂. Then,
p
(i) Modulus of ⃗a is given by |⃗a| = a21 + a22 + a23 .
⃗a a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂
(ii) Unit vector of ⃗a is given by â = = p 2 .
|⃗a| a1 + a22 + a23
(iii) The sum (or resultant) of the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by
⃗a + ⃗b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) + (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂)
= (a1 + b1 )î + (a2 + b2 )ĵ + (a3 + b3 )k̂.
(iv) The difference of the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by
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⃗a − ⃗b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) − (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂)
= (a1 − b1 )î + (a2 − b2 )ĵ + (a3 − b3 )k̂.
(v) The multiplication of the vector ⃗a by scalar k is given by
e.
k ⃗a = k (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) = (ka1 )î + (ka2 )ĵ + (ka3 )k̂.
(vi) The vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are equal (i.e., ⃗a = ⃗b), if a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 and a3 = b3 .
(vii) The direction ratios of ⃗a are a1 , a2 and a3 .
(viii) The direction cosines of ⃗a are
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a1 a2 a3
l= p 2 , m= p 2 , n= p 2
a1 + a22 + a23 a1 + a22 + a23 a1 + a22 + a23
and in this case, unit vector of ⃗a is given by
⃗a a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂
â = = p 2 = lî + mĵ + nk̂.
|⃗a| a1 + a22 + a23
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17. Position vector of the point R(⃗r), which divides line joining P (⃗a) and Q(⃗b) internally in the
m⃗b + n⃗a
m+n
18. Position vector of the point R(⃗r), which divides line joining P (⃗a) and Q(⃗b) externally in the
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m⃗b − n⃗a
m−n
⃗a + ⃗b
19. If R is the mid-point of P Q, then position vector of R is given by ⃗r = .
C
2
20. Let ⃗a and ⃗b be two non-zero vectors. Then, scalar product (or dot product) of ⃗a and ⃗b is
denoted by ⃗a · ⃗b (read as ⃗a dot ⃗b) and defined as
⃗a · ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ,
where θ is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b, and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. If either ⃗a = ⃗0 or ⃗b = ⃗0, then the angle
θ between ⃗a and ⃗b is not defined and in this case, we define ⃗a · ⃗b = 0.
21. Two non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are perpendicular (or orthogonal) if and only if ⃗a · ⃗b = 0
⃗a · ⃗b
22. Angle between non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by cos θ = .
|⃗a| |⃗b|
Vectors Jai Shri Ram18.87
23. Projection of ⃗a on ⃗b (also known as scalar projection of ⃗a on ⃗b) is given by

⃗a · ⃗b
|⃗
p| = .
|⃗b|
24. Projection vector of ⃗a on ⃗b (also known as vector projection of ⃗a on ⃗b) is given by
!
⃗a · ⃗b ⃗
p⃗ = b.
|⃗b|2
25. Let ⃗a and ⃗b be two non-zero vectors. Then, vector product (or cross product) of ⃗a and ⃗b is
denoted by ⃗a × ⃗b (read as ‘⃗a cross ⃗b’) and defined as
⃗a × ⃗b = |⃗a| |⃗b| sin θ n̂,
in
where θ is the angle between ⃗a and ⃗b, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, and n̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the
plane containing the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b, which is given by ‘Right-hand Thumb Rule’.
Right-hand Thumb Rule: According to this rule, if we bend the fingers of the right hand in
e.
such a way that they point in the direction of rotation from ⃗a to ⃗b through the smaller angle
between them, then the thumb points in the direction of vector ⃗a × ⃗b.
If either ⃗a = ⃗0 or ⃗b = ⃗0, then the angle θ between ⃗a and ⃗b is not defined and in this case, we
define ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0.
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26. Two non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are parallel if and only if ⃗a × ⃗b = ⃗0.
27. Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors.
(i) If ⃗a and ⃗b are parallel (i.e., ⃗a ×⃗b = ⃗0), then there are infinitely many vectors perpendicular
to both ⃗a and ⃗b.
(ii) If ⃗a and ⃗b are not parallel (i.e., ⃗a × ⃗b ̸= ⃗0), then ⃗a × ⃗b is a vector perpendicular to both
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⃗a and ⃗b. So, any vector perpendicular to both ⃗a and ⃗b is of the form λ(⃗a × ⃗b), for some
non-zero scalar λ.
|⃗a × ⃗b|
28. Angle between non-zero vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by sin θ = .
|⃗a| |⃗b|
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î ĵ k̂
⃗a × ⃗b = (a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂) × (b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂) = a1 a2 a3 .
C
b1 b2 b3
30. Let ⃗a and ⃗b represent the adjacent sides of a triangle ABC.
1
Then, area of ∆ABC = |⃗a × ⃗b|.
2
31. Let ⃗a and ⃗b represent the adjacent sides of a parallelogram ABCD.
Then, area of parallelogram ABCD = |⃗a × ⃗b|.
32. Let d⃗1 and d⃗2 represent the diagonals of a parallelogram ABCD.
1 ⃗
Then, area of parallelogram ABCD = |d1 × d⃗2 |.
2
33. The scalar triple product (or mixed product or box product) of three vectors is defined as the
dot product of one of the vectors with the cross product of the other two. The scalar triple
product of the vectors ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c is the number ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) and it is denoted by [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ].
34. If ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ + a3 k̂, ⃗b = b1 î + b2 ĵ + b3 k̂ and ⃗c = c1 î + c2 ĵ + c3 k̂, then
a1 a2 a3
[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
35. Geometrically, the scalar triple product [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] represents the volume of the parallelepiped
whose co-terminus edges ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c form a right-handed system.
in
36. Some important properties of scalar triple product are:
(i) If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are any three vectors, then [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = [ ⃗b ⃗c ⃗a ] = [ ⃗c ⃗a ⃗b ].
(ii) If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are any three vectors, then ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗c) = (⃗a × ⃗b) · ⃗c.
(iii) If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are any three vectors, then [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = −[ ⃗a ⃗c ⃗b ].
e.
(iv) If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are any three vectors with ⃗a = ⃗b (or ⃗b = ⃗c or ⃗c = ⃗a), then [ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = 0.
(v) If ⃗a, ⃗b and ⃗c are any three vectors and λ be any scalar, then [ λ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ] = λ[ ⃗a ⃗b ⃗c ].
(vi) The scalar triple product of three vectors is zero if any two of them are parallel (or
collinear).
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❏❏❏
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C
Chapter 19
Three-Dimensional Geometry – I
“The dictionary is the only place where success comes before work.”
– Arthur Brisbane
Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have studied some basic concepts of vectors. In this chapter, we shall use
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vector algebra to study three-dimensional geometry. Firstly, we shall learn the concept of direction
cosines and direction ratios of a line and then learn about straight line in space. Let us start with a brief
review of some basic concepts of three-dimensional geometry that we discussed in Class XI.
Let O be the origin and let X ′ OX, Y ′ OY and Z ′ OZ
Z
be three mutually perpendicular lines in space as shown
e.
A(x, y, z)
in Figure 19.1. These three lines are called rectangular z X′
axes of coordinates and named as x-axis, y-axis and z-axis
respectively. Let A be any point in space such that O
Y′ Y
x = Perpendicular distance of A from yz-plane x
y
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y = Perpendicular distance of A from xz-plane X
z = Perpendicular distance of A from xy-plane
Z′
Then, (x, y, z) are called coordinates of A and we denote Figure 19.1
it as A(x, y, z).
Given two points in space, we can use distance formula to determine the distance between them.
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Distance Formula: The distance between two points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is given by
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AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 .
The coordinates of a point that divides (either internally or externally) a given line segment in a given
ratio can be determined using the section formula. The vector version of this formula has been discussed
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in the previous chapter.

Section Formula: The coordinates of a point that divides the line segment joining (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
(x2 , y2 , z2 ) internally in the ratio m : n are given by

mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz2 + nz1
C
, , .
m+n m+n m+n
The coordinates of a point that divides the line segment joining (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) externally
in the ratio m : n are given by

mx2 − nx1 my2 − ny1 mz2 − nz1
, , .
m−n m−n m−n

Example 1 (NCERT) Find the distance between the points P (2, 3, 5) and Q(4, 3, 1).
Solution: Given points are P (2, 3, 5) and Q(4, 3, 1).
Then, the distance between P and Q is given by
p √ √
P Q = (4 − 2)2 + (3 − 3)2 + (1 − 5)2 = 4 + 0 + 16 = 20 units.
Example 2 (Exemplar) Find the distance of the point (p, q, r) from the x-axis.
Solution: Given point is (p, q, r).
Then, the foot of perpendicular drawn from (p, q, r) on x-axis is (p, 0, 0).
Hence, distance of (p, q, r) from x-axis = Distance between (p, q, r) and (p, 0, 0)
p p
= (p − p)2 + (0 − q)2 + (0 − r)2 = q 2 + r2 units.
Example 3 Write the distance of the point (3, −5, 12) from x-axis.
Solution: Given point is (3, −5, 12).
Then, the foot of perpendicular drawn from (3, −5, 12) on x-axis is (3, 0, 0).
Hence, distance of (3, −5, 12) from x-axis = Distance between (3, −5, 12) and (3, 0, 0)
in
p
= (3 − 3)2 + (0 + 5)2 + (0 − 12)2 = 13 units.
Example 4 Find the coordinates of the point which divides the line segment joining the points
(−2, 3, 5) and (1, −4, 6) in the ratio (i) 2 : 3 internally, (ii) 2 : 3 externally.
e.
Solution: Let the given points be P (−2, 3, 5) and Q(1, −4, 6).
(i) Let point R divide the line segment joining the points P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) internally
in the ratio m : n = 2 : 3. Then, the coordinates of point R are given by

, , ,
m+n m+n m+n
yd

(2)(1) + (3)(−2) (2)(−4) + (3)(3) (2)(6) + (3)(5) 4 1 27
i.e., , , , i.e., − , , .
2+3 2+3 2+3 5 5 5
(ii) Let point R divide the line segment joining the points P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) externally
in the ratio m : n = 2 : 3. Then, the coordinates of point R are given by

, ,
rif
m−n m−n m−n

(2)(1) − (3)(−2) (2)(−4) − (3)(3) (2)(6) − (3)(5)
i.e., , , , i.e., (−8, 17, 3).
2−3 2−3 2−3
19.1 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line
la
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the concept of direction cosines and direction ratios of a
vector. In this section, we shall first introduce the concept of direction cosines and direction ratios of a
line and then discuss some problems based on them.
Let O be the origin and OXY Z be a set of rectangular coordinate axes. Consider any line L in space. If
−−→ −−→
C
A and B are two points on the line L, then the direction cosines of vectors AB and BA are the direction
cosines of the line L.
If the line L makes angles α, β and γ (known as direction angles) with the positive directions of x, y
and z-axis respectively, then cos α, cos β, cos γ and − cos α, − cos β, − cos γ are the direction cosines
of the two vectors and hence the direction cosines of the line L.
Direction Cosines of a Line: If a line makes angles α, β and γ with the positive directions of x,
y and z-axis respectively, then cos α, cos β, cos γ and − cos α, − cos β, − cos γ are the direction
cosines of the line.
If A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are the coordinates of the two points on line L, then
−−→
AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A
= (x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂) − (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) = (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂.
Section 19.1 Three-Dimensional Geometry – I Jai Shri Ram19.3
−−→ x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
Thus, the direction cosines of AB are −−→ , −−→ , −−→ ,
|AB| |AB| |AB|
−−→ p
2 2 2
where |AB| = (x2 − x1 ) + (y2 − y1 ) + (z2 − z1 ) = AB = Distance between A and B.
−−→ x1 − x2 y1 − y2 z1 − z2
Similarly, the direction cosines of BA are −−→ , −−→ , −−→ .
|AB| |AB| |AB|
Direction Cosines of a Line: If A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are two points on a line, then
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 x1 − x2 y1 − y2 z1 − z2
, , and , , are the direction cosines of the line.
AB AB AB AB AB AB
Remark 19.1 (i) If l, m, n are direction cosines of a line, then −l, −m, −n are also direction cosines
in
of that line.
(ii) For any line, there are two sets of direction cosines.
(iii) If l, m, n are direction cosines of a line, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
(iv) Direction cosines of x-axis are 1, 0, 0 and −1, 0, 0.
(v) Direction cosines of y-axis are 0, 1, 0 and 0, −1, 0.
e.
(vi) Direction cosines of z-axis are 0, 0, 1 and 0, 0, −1.
Let us now define the direction ratios of a line.
Direction Ratios / Direction Numbers of a Line: Any three numbers which are proportional to
yd
direction cosines of a line are called direction ratios of that line.
Let l, m, n be direction cosines of a line, then a = λl, b = λm, c = λn are direction ratios of that
line, where λ is a non-zero real number.
Remark 19.2 (i) For any line, there are infinitely many direction ratios.
(ii) For λ = 1, we have a = l, b = m, c = n. Thus, the direction cosines of a line are also the
direction ratios of that line.
rif
(iii) The direction ratios of a line passing through A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are proportional to
x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 .
(iv) If a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then ka, kb, kc are also direction ratios of that line, where k
is a non-zero real number.
la
(v) Direction ratios of x-axis are a, 0, 0, where a is a non-zero real number.

(vi) Direction ratios of y-axis are 0, b, 0, where b is a non-zero real number.
(vii) Direction ratios of z-axis are 0, 0, c, where c is a non-zero real number.
(viii) Given direction ratios of a line, we can compute the direction cosines of that line.
Consider a line having direction ratios a, b, c. Then, direction cosines of that line are given by
C
a b c
l= , m= , n= ,
λ λ λ
where λ is a non-zero real number.
a2 b2 c2
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ 2
+ 2 + 2 = 1 ⇒ a2 + b2 + c2 = λ2
λ λ λ p
⇒ λ = ± a2 + b2 + c2 .
Hence, direction cosines of the line with direction ratios a, b, c are
a b c
l= √ , m= √ , n= √
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2
a b c
or l = −√ , m = −√ , n = −√ .
2
a +b +c2 2 2
a +b +c2 2 a + b2 + c 2
2
Example 1 (NCERT) If a line makes angles 90◦ , 135◦ , 45◦ with positive directions of x, y and z-axis
respectively, find its direction cosines.
Solution: Given a line that makes angles 90◦ , 135◦ , 45◦ with positive directions of x, y and z-axis
respectively.
1 1
Hence, direction cosines of the line are cos 90◦ , cos 135◦ , cos 45◦ , i.e., 0, − √ , √ .
2 2
Example 2 If a line in the xz-plane makes an angle of 30◦ with x-axis, then find direction cosines of
the line.
Solution: Given a line in the xz-plane that makes an angle of 30◦ with the x-axis.
in
Then, the line will make an angle of 90◦ − 30◦ = 60◦ with z-axis.
Also, it will make an angle of 90◦ with y-axis. [∵ xz-plane ⊥ y-axis]
Thus, the line makes angles 30◦ , 90◦ , 60◦ with positive directions of x,√y and z-axis respectively.
3 1
Hence, direction cosines of the line are cos 30◦ , cos 90◦ , cos 60◦ , i.e., , 0, .
2 2
e.
Example 3 (NCERT) Find direction cosines of z-axis.
Solution: We know that z-axis makes angles 90◦ , 90◦ , 0◦ with x, y and z-axis respectively.
Hence, direction cosines of z-axis are cos 90◦ , cos 90◦ , cos 0◦ , i.e., 0, 0, 1.
1 1 1
yd
Example 4 Can a line have direction cosines √ , √ , √ ?
5 5 5
1 1 1
Solution: Let l = √ , m = √ , n = √ .
5 5 5
2 2 2
2 2 2 1 1 1 3
Then, l + m + n = √ + √ + √ = ̸= 1.
5 5 5 5
rif
1 1 1
Hence, √ , √ , √ cannot be the direction cosines of a line.
5 5 5
Example 5 (NCERT) Find the direction cosines of a line which makes equal angles with the
coordinate axes.
la
Solution: Let the line makes equal angles α with each of the coordinate axes.
Then, direction cosines of the line are l = cos α, m = cos α, n = cos α.
1
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ cos2 α + cos2 α + cos2 α = 1 ⇒ cos2 α =
3
1 1
C
⇒ cos α = √ or − √ .
3 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
Hence, direction cosines of the line are √ , √ , √ or − √ , − √ , − √ .
3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1
Example 6 If direction cosines of a line are , , , then find values of a.
a a a
1 1 1
Solution: Given a line with direction cosines l = , m = , .
a a a
1 1 1 3 √
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ + + = 1 ⇒ = 1 ⇒ a = ± 3.
a2 a2 a2 a2
Example 7 If direction cosines of a line are l, m, n, then how many sets of direction ratios of the line
are possible? Write any three distinct sets of direction ratios (if possible).
Solution: Given that direction cosines of a line are l, m, n.

Then, direction ratios of the line are λl, λm, λn, where λ is a non-zero real number.
Thus, there are infinitely many sets of direction ratios of the line.
Three distinct sets of direction ratios of the line are
(i) l, m, n. (ii) 2l, 2m, 2n. (iii) 3l, 3m, 3n.
9 6 2
Example 8 If direction cosines of a line are − , , , then write direction ratios of the line.
11 11 11
9 6 2
Solution: Given that direction cosines of a line are − , , .
11 11 11
9 6 2
Hence, direction ratios of the line are − , , .
11 11 11
in
Example 9 (NCERT) If a line has direction ratios −18, 12, −4, then what are its direction cosines?
Solution: Given that direction ratios of the line are −18, 12, −4, i.e., −9, 6, −2.
Then, direction cosines of the line are
−9 6 −2
e.
p ,p ,p ,
(−9)2 + (6)2 + (−2)2 (−9)2 + (6)2 + (−2)2 (−9)2 + (6)2 + (−2)2
9 6 2
i.e., − , ,− .
11 11 11
Example 10 Find the direction cosines of the line joining the points P (4, 3, −5) and Q(−2, 1, −8).
yd
Solution: Given a line joining the points P (4, 3, −5) and Q(−2, 1, −8).
Then, direction ratios of the line are −2 − 4, 1 − 3, −8 − (−5), i.e., −6, −2, −3, i.e., 6, 2, 3.
Hence, direction cosines of the line are
6 2 3 6 2 3
p ,p ,p , i.e., , , .
2 2
(6) + (2) + (3) 2 2 2
(6) + (2) + (3) 2 2 2
(6) + (2) + (3) 2 7 7 7
rif
Example 11 If a line makes angles 90◦ and 60◦ respectively with the positive directions of x and
y-axes, find the angle which it makes with the positive direction of z-axis.
Solution: Given that a line makes angles 90◦ and 60◦ with positive directions of x and y-axes
respectively. Let the line make an acute angle θ with the positive direction of z-axis.
la
1
Then, direction cosines of the line are l = cos 90◦ = 0, m = cos 60◦ = , n = cos θ.
2
1
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ 0 + + cos2 θ = 1
4
3
C
⇒ cos2 θ =
4√
3
⇒ cos θ = [∵ θ is acute]
2
⇒ θ = 30◦ ,
1 1
Example 12 Find the acute angle which the line with direction cosines √ , √ , n makes with
3 6
positive direction of z-axis.
1 1
Solution: Given a line with direction cosines l = √ , m = √ , n. Let the line make an acute angle θ
3 6
with the positive direction of z-axis.
1 1 1
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ + + cos2 θ = 1 ⇒ cos2 θ =
3 6 2
1
⇒ cos θ = √ [∵ θ is acute]
2
⇒ θ = 45◦ ,
Example 13 If a line makes angles α, β and γ with the positive directions of the coordinate axes, then
prove that
(i) sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = 2. [Exemplar] (ii) cos 2α + cos 2β + cos 2γ = −1.
in
Solution: Given that the line makes angles α, β and γ with the coordinate axes.
Then, direction cosines of the line are l = cos α, m = cos β, n = cos γ.
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1. ...(1)
(i) From (1), we have
e.
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1
⇒ (1 − sin2 α) + (1 − sin2 β) + (1 − sin2 γ) = 1
⇒ 3 − sin2 α − sin2 β − sin2 γ = 1
⇒ sin2 α + sin2 β + sin2 γ = 2.
yd
(ii) From (1), we have
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1
⇒ (2 cos2 α) + (2 cos2 β) + (2 cos2 γ) = 2
⇒ (1 + cos 2α) + (1 + cos 2β) + (1 + cos 2γ) = 2
⇒ cos 2α + cos 2β + cos 2γ = −1.
rif
Exercise 19.1
la
(i) Direction ratios of x-axis are 2, 0, 0.

(ii) Direction cosines of z-axis are 1, 0, 0.
(iii) There are infinitely many sets of direction ratios of a line.
(i) The coordinates of the point which is the reflection of the point (α, β, γ) in the xz-plane is
C
.
3 6 2
(ii) If direction cosines of a line are , , − , then its direction ratios are .
7 7 7
(iii) If direction ratios of a line are 2, 1, −3, then its direction cosines are .
(iv) The direction cosines of y-axis are . [NCERT]
(v) The direction cosines of the line joining the points (1, −1, 0) and (2, 1, 3) are .
◦ ◦ ◦
* 3. If a line makes an angle of 30 , 60 , 90 with positive direction of x, y and z-axes respectively,
find its direction cosines. [Exemplar]
π π π
4. If a line makes angles , and with the positive direction of x, y and z-axes respectively, find
2 3 6
its direction cosines. [NCERT]
5. Find direction cosines of x-axis. [NCERT]
6. If the directions cosines of a line are k, k, k, then find the value(s) of k. [Exemplar]
* 7. What are the direction cosines of a line, if direction ratios of the line are 2, −1, −2? [NCERT]
8. If a line has direction ratios 10, −5, −10, determine its direction cosines.
9. If the direction ratios of a line are 1, 1, 2, find the direction cosines of the line. [Exemplar]
* 10. Find direction ratios of the line passing through the two points (−2, 4, −5) and (1, 2, 3). Also,
find the direction cosines of the line. [NCERT]
11. Write the direction cosines of the line joining the points (1, 0, 0) and (0, 1, 1).
12. Find the direction cosines of the line passing through the points P (2, 3, 5) and Q(−1, 2, 4).
[Exemplar]
* 13. If a line makes angles 60◦ and 45◦ with the positive directions of x and z-axis respectively, then
in
find the angle that it makes with the y-axis.
14. P is a point on the line segment joining the points (3, 2, −1) and (6, 2, −2). If x-coordinate of P
is 5, then find its y-coordinate. [Exemplar]
π
15. A line makes an angle with each of y-axis and z-axis. Find the angle that it makes with the
4
e.
x-axis. [Exemplar]
16. The length of the perpendicular drawn from the point (4, −7, 3) on the y-axis is
(a) 3 units (b) 4 units (c) 5 units (d) 7 units
yd
17. The coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point (2, −3, 4) on the y-axis is
(a) (2, 3, 4) (b) (−2, −3, −4) (c) (0, −3, 0) (d) (2, 0, 4)
18. The coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point (2, 5, 7) on the x-axis are
given by [Exemplar]
(a) (2, 0, 0) (b) (0, 5, 0) (c) (0, 0, 7) (d) (0, 5, 7)
rif
π π
19. If a line makes an angle and with x-axis and z-axis respectively, then the angle made by the
3 4
line with y-axis is
π π π 5π
(a) (b) (c) (d)
la
2 4 3 12
20. If direction ratios of a line are proportional to 1, 2, −3; then its direction cosines are
1 2 3 1 2 3
(a) √ , √ , √ (b) √ , √ , − √
14 14 14 14 14 14
1 2 3 1 2 3
C
(c) √ , − √ , − √ (d) − √ , √ , − √
14 14 14 14 14 14
21. If α, β, γ are the angles that a line makes with the positive direction of x, y, z-axis, respectively,
then the direction cosines of the line are
(a) sin α, sin β, sin γ (b) cos α, cos β, cos γ
(c) tan α, tan β, tan γ (d) cos2 α, cos2 β, cos2 γ
Answers 19.1
1. (i) True (ii) False (iii) True
3 6 2 2 1 3
2. (i) (α, −β, γ) (ii) , ,− (iii) √ , √ , − √
7 7 7 14 14 14
1 2 3
(iv) 0, 1, 0 (v) √ , √ , √
14 14 14
√ √
3 1 1 3 1 1
3. , ,0 4. 0, , 5. 1, 0, 0 6. √ , − √
2 2 2 2 3 3
2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1 2
7. , − , − 8. , − , − 9. ± √ , ± √ , ± √
3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6
3 2 8 1 1 1
10. 3, −2, 8; √ , − √ , √ 11. − √ , √ , √
77 77 77 3 3 3
3 1 1
12. ±√ , ±√ , ±√ 13. 60◦ 14. 2
11 11 11
in
π
15. 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (a)
2
19. (c) 20. (b) 21. (b)
19.2 Cartesian and Vector Equations of a Line in Space
e.
It is very well known that the equation of the form y = mx + c represents a line in R2 (i.e., 2-D space).
Now, we need to take a look at the equation of a line in R3 (i.e., 3-D space). As we shall see in the next
chapter, the equation of the form y = mx + c does not describe a line in R3 , instead it describes a plane.
In this section, we shall study Cartesian and vector equations of a straight line in space.
Consider a line passing through the point A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having direction ratios a, b, c. Let P (x, y, z)
yd
be any point on the line. Then, direction ratios of the line are x − x1 , y − y1 , z − z1 .
There exists a non-zero real number λ such that
x − x1 = aλ, y − y1 = bλ, z − z1 = cλ
⇒ x = x1 + aλ, y = y1 + bλ, z = z1 + cλ
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
⇒ = λ, = λ, =λ
rif
a b c
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
⇒ = = .
a b c
Cartesian Equation of a Line: If a line passes through (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and has direction ratios a, b, c,
la
then its Cartesian equation in parametric form with parameter λ is given by

x = x1 + aλ, y = y1 + bλ, z = z1 + cλ
and its Cartesian equation in symmetrical form is given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= = .
C
a b c
Then, position vector of P is given by
⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ = (x1 + aλ)î + (y1 + bλ)ĵ + (z1 + cλ)k̂
= (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) + λ(aî + bĵ + ck̂).
Vector Equation of a Line: If a line passes through (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and has direction ratios a, b, c, then
its vector equation with parameter λ is given by
⃗r = (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) + λ(aî + bĵ + ck̂).
Remark 19.3 (i) We can determine the equation of a line in space if we know direction ratios of the
line and also the coordinates of a point on the line.
(ii) Equation of a line in space may not be unique. If we take different points (x1 , y1 , z1 ) on the line,
we get different equations of the same line. For instance, consider a line having direction ratios
−1, 2, 1 and passing through (1, −1, 2) and (0, 1, 3). Then, equation of line can be expressed as
x−1 y+1 z−2 x−0 y−1 z−3
= = and = = .
−1 2 1 −1 2 1
(iii) Suppose we have a line passing through point (1, 2, 3) and having direction ratios 2, 1, 0. Then,
Cartesian equation of the line in symmetrical form is
x−1 y−2 z−3
= = .
2 1 0
Here, we have ‘0’ in the denominator. It does not mean that we can divide by 0. It is just a notation.
x−0 y−0 z−0
(iv) Cartesian and vector equations of x-axis are = = and λî respectively.
in
1 0 0
x−0 y−0 z−0
(v) Cartesian and vector equations of y-axis are = = and λĵ respectively.
0 1 0
x−0 y−0 z−0
(vi) Cartesian and vector equations of z-axis are = = and λk̂ respectively.
0 0 1
e.
Example 1 Write the Cartesian equation of the line passing through the point (1, 4, 3) and having
direction ratios 3, 2, −2.
Solution: Given a line passing through the point (1, 4, 3) and having direction ratios 3, 2, −2.
yd
x−1 y−4 z−3
Hence, the Cartesian equation of the line is = = .
3 2 −2
Example 2 Write the vector equation of the line passing through the point (5, 2, −4) and having
direction ratios 3, 2, −8.
Solution: Given a line passing through the point (5, 2, −4) and having direction ratios 3, 2, −8.
rif
Hence, the vector equation of the line is ⃗r = (5î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) + λ(3î + 2ĵ − 8k̂).
2x − 1 3y + 5 2−z
Example 3 If the equation of a line is = = , then find direction ratios of the
4 2 3
line and a point on the line.
la
Solution: Given equation of line is

1 5
2 x− 3 y+
2x − 1 3y + 5 2−z 2 3 −(z − 2)
= = ⇒ = =
4 2 3 4 2 3
1 5
C
x− y+
2 3 z−2
⇒ = = .
2 2 −3
3

2 1 5
Hence, direction ratios of the given line are 2, , −3 and a point on the given line is ,− ,2 .
3 2 3
y−4 2−z
Example 4 Write the direction ratios of the line x = −3, = .
3 1
y−4 2−z
Solution: Given equation of line is x = −3, = .
3 1
y−4 2−z
Then, x = −3 + 0λ, = = λ, for some non-zero real number λ
3 1
x+3 y−4 z−2
⇒ = λ, = =λ
0 3 −1
x+3 y−4 z−2
⇒ = = .
0 3 −1
Hence, direction ratios of the given line are 0, 3, −1.
Example 5 The equations of a line are 5x − 3 = 15y + 7 = 3 − 10z. Write the direction cosines of
the line.

3 7 3
5x − 3 = 15y + 7 = 3 − 10z ⇒ 5 x− = 15 y + = −10 z −
5 15 10

3 7 3
in
x− y+ z−
5 15 10
⇒ = = .
1 1 1
−
5 15 10
1 1 1
e.
Thus, direction ratios of the given line are , , − , i.e., 6, 2, −3.
5 15 10
Hence, direction cosines of the line are
6 2 −3 6 2 3
p ,p ,p , i.e., , ,− .
2 2
(6) + (2) + (−3) 2 2 2
(6) + (2) + (−3)2 (6) + (2)2 + (−3)2
2 7 7 7
yd
Example 6 If the equation of a line is x = ay + b, z = cy + d, then find direction ratios of the line
and a point on the line.
x−b z−d
x = ay + b, z = cy + d ⇒ = y, =y
a c
x−b z−d
rif
⇒ =y=
a c
x−b y−0 z−d
⇒ = = .
a 1 c
Hence, direction ratios of the given line are a, 1, c and a point on the given line is (b, 0, d).
la
Example 7 If the equation of a line is ⃗r = (2î − 9ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(−î + 0ĵ + 5k̂), then find direction ratios
of the line and a point on the line.
Solution: Given equation of line is ⃗r = (2î − 9ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(−î + 0ĵ + 5k̂).
Hence, direction ratios of the given line are −1, 0, 5 and a point on the given line is (2, −9, 3).
C
Example 8 If the equation of a line is ⃗r = (1 − λ)î + (2λ − 1)ĵ + (λ + 2)k̂, then find direction ratios
of the line and a point on the line.
⃗r = (1 − λ)î + (2λ − 1)ĵ + (λ + 2)k̂ = (î − ĵ + 2k̂) + λ(−î + 2ĵ + k̂).
Hence, direction ratios of the given line are −1, 2, 1 and a point on the given line is (1, −1, 2).
Example 9 If the vector equation of a line is ⃗r = (2 + 3λ)î − (1 + 5λ)ĵ + 2(−3 + λ)k̂, then reduce
it to Cartesian form.
Solution: Given vector equation of line is
⃗r = (2 + 3λ)î − (1 + 5λ)ĵ + 2(−3 + λ)k̂ = (2î − ĵ − 6k̂) + λ(3î − 5ĵ + 2k̂).
Then, direction ratios of the given line are 3, −5, 2 and a point on the given line is (2, −1, −6).
x−2 y+1 z+6
Hence, equation of the given line in Cartesian form is = = .
3 −5 2
Second Method: Given vector equation of line is ⃗r = (2 + 3λ)î − (1 + 5λ)ĵ + 2(−3 + λ)k̂.
Let ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ be the position vector of any point on the line.
Then, xî + y ĵ + z k̂ = (2 + 3λ)î − (1 + 5λ)ĵ + 2(−3 + λ)k̂
⇒ x = 2 + 3λ, y = −1 − 5λ, z = −6 + 2λ
x−2 y+1 z+6
⇒ = λ, = λ, =λ
3 −5 2
x−2 y+1 z+6
⇒
in
= = ,
3 −5 2
which is the required Cartesian form.
3−x y+4 2z − 6
Example 10 If the Cartesian equation of a line is = = , write the vector equation
5 7 4
e.
of the line.
Solution: The Cartesian equation of given line is
3−x y+4 2z − 6 −(x − 3) y+4 2(z − 3)
= = ⇒ = =
5 7 4 5 7 4
x−3 y+4 z−3
yd
⇒ = = .
−5 7 2
Then, direction ratios of the given line are −5, 7, 2 and a point on given line is (3, −4, 3).
Hence, vector equation of given line is ⃗r = (3î − 4ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(−5î + 7ĵ + 2k̂).
Second Method: The Cartesian equation of given line is
3−x y+4 2z − 6 −(x − 3) y+4 2(z − 3)
= = ⇒ = =
5 7 4 5 7 4
rif
x−3 y+4 z−3
⇒ = = = λ (say)
−5 7 2
⇒ x = −5λ + 3, y = 7λ − 4, z = 2λ + 3.
Let ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ be the position vector of any point on the line.
la
Then, ⃗r = (−5λ + 3)î + (7λ − 4)ĵ + (2λ + 3)k̂

⇒ ⃗r = (3î − 4ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(−5î + 7ĵ + 2k̂),
which is the required vector form.
C
Example 11 (NCERT) Find the equation of the line in vector and in Cartesian form that passes
through the point with position vector 2î − ĵ + 4k̂ and is in the direction of î + 2ĵ − k̂.
Solution: Let ⃗a = î + 2ĵ − k̂, then direction ratios of ⃗a are 1, 2, −1.
Given that the required line is in the direction of ⃗a, then direction ratios of the required line are 1, 2, −1.
Also, given that the required line passes through the point with position vector 2î − ĵ + 4k̂, i.e., through
the point (2, −1, 4).
Hence, equation of the required line in vector form is ⃗r = (2î − ĵ + 4k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ − k̂)
x−2 y+1 z−4
and equation of the required line in Cartesian form is = = .
1 2 −1
Example 12 (NCERT) Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the line that passes through the
points (3, −2, −5) and (3, −2, 6).
Solution: Given that the required line passes through the points (3, −2, −5) and (3, −2, 6).
Then, direction ratios of the required line are 3 − 3, −2 + 2, 6 + 5, i.e., 0, 0, 11.
Also, the required line passes through (3, −2, −5).
Hence, equation of the required line in vector form is ⃗r = (3î − 2ĵ − 5k̂) + λ(0î + 0ĵ + 11k̂)
x−3 y+2 z+5
and equation of the required line in Cartesian form is = = .
0 0 11
Exercise 19.2
(i) The vector equation of x-axis is λî.
in
x−0 y−0 z−1
(ii) The Cartesian equation of z-axis is = = .
0 0 1
(i) The Cartesian equation of the line given in vector form ⃗r = (2î + ĵ − 4k̂) + λ(î − ĵ − k̂) is
.
e.
(ii) The vector equation of a line which passes through the points (3, 4, −7) and (1, −1, 6) is
.
x y
* 3. If the equation of a line is = = z, then find direction ratios of the line and a point on the
3 −4
line.
yd
x−2 2y − 5
* 4. If the equation of a line is = , z = −1, then find direction ratios of the line and a
2 −3
point on the line.
x−1 z+1
5. Find the direction cosines of the line = −y = .
2 2
x−3 y+2 z−6
* 6. The Cartesian equation of a line is = = . Find the vector equation of the line.
rif
2 −5 3
[Exemplar]
x+3 y−5 z+6
7. The Cartesian equation of a line is = = . Find the vector equation of the line.
2 4 2
x−5 y+4 z−6
8. The Cartesian equation of a line is = = . Write its vector form. [NCERT]
la
3 7 2
x−5 y+4 6−z
9. Write the vector equation of the line = = .
3 7 2
10. If the Cartesian equation of a line is 3x + 1 = 6y − 2 = 1 − z, then reduce it to vector form.
11. If the vector equation of a line is ⃗r = (5î − 4ĵ + 6k̂) + λ(3î + 7ĵ + 2k̂), then reduce it to Cartesian
C
form.
* 12. A line passes through the point with position vector 2î − ĵ + 4k̂ and is in the direction of the vector
î + ĵ − 2k̂. Find the equation of the line in Cartesian form.
13. If a line passes through the point with position vector 5î − 2ĵ + 4k̂ and is in the direction of
2î − ĵ + k̂, then find the equation of line in vector and Cartesian forms.
* 14. Write the vector equation of the line passing through the points (3, 5, 4) and (5, 8, 11). [Exemplar]
15. Find the vector equation for the line passing through the points (−1, 0, 2) and (3, 4, 6). [NCERT]
16. If the line passes through the points (1, 2, −1) and (2, 1, 4), then find the equation of the line in
Cartesian form and vector form.
17. Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the line that passes through the origin and (5, −2, 3).
[NCERT]

18. The equations of x-axis in space are [Exemplar]
(a) x = 0, y = 0 (b) x = 0, z = 0 (c) x = 0 (d) y = 0, z = 0
19. The equation of the line passing through the points (0, 1, 2) and (1, 3, 5) is [ISC 2022]
x−1 y−2 z−3 x y z
(a) = = (b) = =
0 1 2 1 2 3
x y−1 z−2 x−1 y−3 z−5
(c) = = (d) = =
1 2 3 1 3 5
x+2 2y − 1 3−z
20. Direction ratios of the line = = are
7 5 7
in
(a) 7, 5, 7 (b) 14, 5, 14 (c) 28, 10, −28 (d) −28, 10, 28
Answers 19.2
e.
1. (i) True (ii) True
x−2 y−1 z+4
2. (i) = = (ii) ⃗r = (3î + 4ĵ − 7k̂) + λ(2î + 5ĵ − 13k̂)
1 −1 −1

3 5
3. 3, −4, 1; (0, 0, 0) 4. 2, − , 0; 2, , −1
yd
2 2
2 1 2
5. ,− , 6. ⃗r = (3î − 2ĵ + 6k̂) + λ(2î − 5ĵ + 3k̂)
3 3 3
7. ⃗r = (−3î + 5ĵ − 6k̂) + λ(2î + 4ĵ + 2k̂) 8. ⃗r = (5î − 4ĵ + 6k̂) + λ(3î + 7ĵ + 2k̂)

1 1
9. ⃗r = (5î − 4ĵ + 6k̂) + λ(3î + 7ĵ − 2k̂) 10. ⃗r = − î + ĵ + k̂ + λ(2î + ĵ − 6k̂)
3 3
rif
x−5 y+4 z−6 x−2 y+1 z−4
11. = = 12. = =
3 7 2 1 1 −2
x−5 y+2 z−4
13. = = ; ⃗r = (5î − 2ĵ + 4k̂) + λ(2î − ĵ + k̂)
2 −1 1
la
14. ⃗r = (3î + 5ĵ + 4k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 7k̂)

15. ⃗r = (−î + 0ĵ + 2k̂) + λ(î + ĵ + k̂)
x−1 y−2 z+1
16. = = ; ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ − k̂) + λ(î − ĵ + 5k̂)
1 −1 5
C
x−0 y−0 z−0

17. ⃗r = (0î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) + λ(5î − 2ĵ + 3k̂); = =
5 −2 3
18. (d) 19. (c)
20. (c)
19.3 Angle between Two Lines

With the understanding of direction cosines and direction ratios of a line, we can now discuss the concept
of angle between two lines.
Angle between Two Lines: The angle between two lines is defined as the angle between two vectors
parallel to them.
Thus, the result for angle between two vectors is also applicable for angle between two lines.
It is clear from Figure 19.2 that there are two angles ϕ1 and ϕ2 between two lines such that 0 ≤ ϕ1 ≤ 90◦ ,
90◦ ≤ ϕ2 ≤ 180◦ and ϕ1 + ϕ2 = 180◦ .
L1 ⃗b −⃗a ⃗b
ϕ2 ϕ2
ϕ1 ϕ1
L2 ⃗a
Figure 19.2
Let L1 and L2 be any two lines having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 respectively.
Let ⃗a and ⃗b be any two vectors along L1 and L2 respectively, then direction ratios of ⃗a and ⃗b are a1 , b1 ,
c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 respectively.
Thus, ⃗a = a1 î + b1 ĵ + c1 k̂ and ⃗b = a2 î + b2 ĵ + c2 k̂ and the angle ϕ1 between ⃗a and ⃗b is given by
in
⃗a · ⃗b a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos ϕ1 = =p 2 .
⃗
p
|⃗a| |b| a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
Clearly, the angle between −⃗a and ⃗b is ϕ2 which is given by
e.
(−⃗a) · ⃗b −a1 a2 − b1 b2 − c1 c2
cos ϕ2 = =p 2 = − cos ϕ1 .
⃗
p
| − ⃗a| |b| a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
If one of ϕ1 and ϕ2 is acute, then the other is obtuse. By convention, we always consider the acute angle
between the two lines.
yd
Conclusion: The acute angle θ between two lines L1 and L2 having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and
a2 , b2 , c2 , respectively, is given by
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos θ = p p .
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
If L1 and L2 be two lines having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 respectively, then

rif
l12 + m21 + n21 = 1 and l22 + m22 + n22 = 1.

Thus, the acute angle θ between L1 and L2 is given by
l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2
cos θ = p = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
la
p
l12 + m21 + n21 l22 + m22 + n22
Conclusion: The acute angle θ between two lines L1 and L2 having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1
and l2 , m2 , n2 , respectively, is given by
cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
C

Example 1 Direction ratios of the two lines are 3, 4, 5 and 4, −3, 5. Find the angle between them.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between two lines with direction ratios 3, 4, 5 and 4, −3, 5.
Let a1 = 3, b1 = 4, c1 = 5 and a2 = 4, b2 = −3, c2 = 5.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(3)(4) + (4)(−3) + (5)(5) 25 1
= p p = √ √ = = cos 60◦ .
(3)2 2
+ (4) + (5) 2 2 2
(4) + (−3) + (5) 2 50 50 2
Example 2 (NCERT) Find the angle between the lines whose direction ratios are a, b, c and b − c,
c − a, a − b.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between the lines with direction ratios a, b, c and b − c, c − a, a − b.
Let a1 = a, b1 = b, c1 = c and a2 = b − c, b2 = c − a, c2 = a − b.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(a)(b − c) + (b)(c − a) + (c)(a − b)
= √ p = 0 = cos 90◦ .
a2 + b2 + c2 (b − c)2 + (c − a)2 + (a − b)2
in
Example 3 Find the angle between two lines, one of which has direction ratios 2, 2, 1 while the other
one is obtained by joining the points (5, 1, 4) and (9, 2, 12).
Solution: Let θ be the angle between two lines, one of which has direction ratios 2, 2, 1 while the other
one is obtained by joining the points (5, 1, 4) and (9, 2, 12).
e.
Then, direction ratios of the other line are 9 − 5, 2 − 1, 12 − 4, i.e., 4, 1, 8.
Let a1 = 2, b1 = 2, c1 = 1 and a2 = 4, b2 = 1, c2 = 8.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
yd
(2)(4) + (2)(1) + (1)(8) 18 2
= p p = √ √ = .
(2)2 2
+ (2) + (1) 2 2 2
(4) + (1) + (8) 2 9 81 3
2
Hence, θ = cos−1 , which is the required angle.
3
Example 4 (NCERT) If the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D be (1, 2, 3), (4, 5, 7), (−4, 3, −6)
rif
and (2, 9, 2) respectively, then find the angle between the lines AB and CD.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between the lines AB and CD, where given points are A(1, 2, 3),
B(4, 5, 7), C(−4, 3, −6) and D(2, 9, 2).
Direction ratios of line AB are 4 − 1, 5 − 2, 7 − 3, i.e., 3, 3, 4.
Direction ratios of line CD are 2 + 4, 9 − 3, 2 + 6, i.e., 6, 6, 8, i.e., 3, 3, 4.
la
Let a1 = 3, b1 = 3, c1 = 4 and a2 = 3, b2 = 3, c2 = 4.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
C
(3)(3) + (3)(3) + (4)(4)

= p p
(3)2 + (3)2 + (4)2 (3)2 + (3)2 + (4)2
34
= √ √ = 1 = cos 0◦ .
34 34
Example 5 If A(8, 3, 2), B(7, 1, 4) and C(5, 3, 5) are the vertices of ∆ABC. Find ∠ABC.
Solution: Given points are A(8, 3, 2), B(7, 1, 4) and C(5, 3, 5).
We know that ∠ABC is the angle between the sides BA and BC of ∆ABC.
Direction ratios of line BA are 8 − 7, 3 − 1, 2 − 4, i.e., 1, 2, −2.
Direction ratios of line BC are 5 − 7, 3 − 1, 5 − 4, i.e., −2, 2, 1.
Let a1 = 1, b1 = 2, c1 = −2 and a2 = −2, b2 = 2, c2 = 1.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos (∠ABC) = p 2 p
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(1)(−2) + (2)(2) + (−2)(1)
= p p = 0 = cos 90◦ .
(1)2 + (2)2 + (−2)2 (−2)2 + (2)2 + (1)2
Hence, ∠ABC = 90◦ , which is the required angle.
Example 6 Find the angle between the lines whose direction cosines are proportional to 2, 3, −6 and
−3, 4, 5.
Solution: Let θ be the angle between the lines whose direction cosines are proportional to 2, 3, −6 and
−3, 4, 5. Then, direction ratios of the lines are 2, 3, −6 and −3, 4, 5.
in
Let a1 = 2, b1 = 3, c1 = −6 and a2 = −3, b2 = 4, c2 = 5.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(2)(−3) + (3)(4) + (−6)(5) −24 24
e.
= p p = √ √ = √ .
(2)2 2
+ (3) + (−6) 2 2 2
(−3) + (4) + (5) 2 49 50 35 2

24
Hence, θ = cos−1 √ , which is the required angle.
35 2
1 1 2 1 2
yd
Example 7 The direction cosines of two lines are 0, − √ , √ and , − , − . Find the angle
2 2 3 3 3
between them.
1 1 2 1 2
Solution: Let θ be the angle between the lines with direction cosines 0, − √ , √ and , − , − .
2 2 3 3 3
1 1 2 1 2
Let l1 = 0, m1 = − √ , n1 = √ and l2 = , m2 = − , n2 = − .
rif
2 2 3 3 3

2 1 1 1 2 1
Then, cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 | = (0) + −√ − + √ − = √ .
3 2 3 2 3 3 2

1
3 2
la
Example 8 (ISC 2019) Find the angle between the pair of lines with equations 2x = 3y = −z and
6x = −y = −4z.
x−0 y−0 z−0
Solution: Equation of first line is 2x = 3y = −z, i.e., = = .
1 1 −1
C
2 3
1 1
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = , b1 = , c1 = −1.
2 3
x−0 y−0 z−0
Equation of second line is 6x = −y = −4z, i.e., = = .
1 −1 1
−
6 4
1 1
Then, direction ratios of second line are a2 = , b2 = −1, c2 = − .
6 4
Let θ be the angle between the given lines.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22

1 1 1 1
+ (−1) + (−1) −
2 6 3 4 ◦
= s s 2 = 0 = cos 90 .
2 2 2
1 1 1 1
+ + (−1)2 + (−1)2 + −
2 3 6 4
Example 9 (NCERT) Find the angle between the lines ⃗r = (2î − 5ĵ + k̂) + λ(3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂) and
⃗r = (7î − 6k̂) + µ(î + 2ĵ + 2k̂).
Solution: Equation of first line is ⃗r = (2î − 5ĵ + k̂) + λ(3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂).
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = 3, b1 = 2, c1 = 6.
in
Equation of second line is ⃗r = (7î + 0ĵ − 6k̂) + µ(î + 2ĵ + 2k̂).
Then, direction ratios of second line are a2 = 1, b2 = 2, c2 = 2.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
e.
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(3)(1) + (2)(2) + (6)(2) 19 19
= p p = = .
(3)2 + (2)2 + (6)2 (1)2 + (2)2 + (2)2 (7)(3) 21
yd
19
21
Example 10 (Exemplar) Find the angle between the lines whose direction cosines are given by the
equations 3l + m + 5n = 0 and 6mn − 2nl + 5lm = 0.
Solution: Given that the direction cosines of the lines are given by the equations
rif
3l + m + 5n = 0 ...(1)
and 6mn − 2nl + 5lm = 0. ...(2)
From (1), we have m = −3l − 5n.
Putting value of m in (2), we get
la
6n(−3l − 5n) − 2nl + 5l(−3l − 5n) = 0 ⇒ −45nl − 30n2 − 15l2 = 0

⇒ 3nl + 2n2 + l2 = 0
⇒ (l + n)(l + 2n) = 0
⇒ l = −n, −2n.
C
When l = −n, we have m = −2n. When l = −2n, we have m = n.

Then, direction cosines of two lines are −n, −2n, n and −2n, n, n.
Thus, direction ratios of two lines are a1 = 1, b1 = 2, c1 = −1 and a2 = 2, b2 = −1, c2 = −1.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(1)(2) + (2)(−1) + (−1)(−1) 1 1
= p p = √ √ = .
(1)2 + (2)2 + (−1)2 (2)2 + (−1)2 + (−1)2 ( 6)( 6) 6
1
6
Example 11 (Exemplar) Find the angle between the lines whose direction cosines are given by the
equations l + m + n = 0, l2 + m2 − n2 = 0.
Solution: Given that the direction cosines of the lines are given by the equations
l+m+n=0 ...(1)
2 2 2
and l + m − n = 0. ...(2)
From (1), we have n = −l − m.
Putting value of n in (2), we get
l2 + m2 − (−l − m)2 = 0 ⇒ −2lm = 0
⇒ l = 0 or m = 0.
in
When l = 0, we have n = −m. When m = 0, we have n = −l.
Then, direction cosines of two lines are 0, m, −m and l, 0, −l.
Thus, direction ratios of two lines are a1 = 0, b1 = 1, c1 = −1 and a2 = 1, b2 = 0, c2 = −1. Let θ be
the angle between the given lines.
e.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(0)(1) + (1)(0) + (−1)(−1) 1 1
= p p = √ √ = = cos 60◦ .
(0)2 2
+ (1) + (−1) 2 2 2
(1) + (0) + (−1) 2 ( 2)( 2) 2
yd
1
Example 12 Show that the angle between any two diagonals of a cube is cos−1 .
3
Solution: Let OA, OB and OC be the edges of a cube, taken along the coordinate axes such that
OA = OB = OC = a, as shown in the figure. Then, the coordinates of the vertices of the cube are
rif
O(0, 0, 0), A(a, 0, 0), B(0, a, 0), C(0, 0, a), L(0, a, a), M (a, 0, a), N (a, a, 0), P (a, a, a).
Direction ratios of the diagonals OP , AL, BM and CN Z
are a, a, a; −a, a, a; a, −a, a and a, a, −a respectively.
Thus, direction cosines of OP , AL, BM and CN are C L
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
√ , √ , √ ; − √ , √ , √ ; √ , − √ , √ and
la
M P
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Y
1 1 1 O
√ , √ , − √ respectively. B
3 3 3 A
X N
Let α be the angle between OP and AL.
C

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Then, cos α = √ −√ + √ √ + √ √ = − + + = .
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

1
Thus, α = cos−1 .
3

−1 1
Similarly, the angle between each of the other pairs of diagonals is cos .
3

1
Hence, the angle between any two diagonals of a cube is cos−1 .
3
Example 13 (NCERT) A line makes angles α, β, γ, δ with the four diagonals of a cube. Prove that
4
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ + cos2 δ = .
3
Solution: Let OA, OB and OC be the edges of a cube, taken along the coordinate axes such that
OA = OB = OC = a, as shown in the figure. Then, the coordinates of the vertices of the cube are
O(0, 0, 0), A(a, 0, 0), B(0, a, 0), C(0, 0, a),
Z
L(0, a, a), M (a, 0, a), N (a, a, 0), P (a, a, a). C L
Direction ratios of the diagonals OP , AL, BM and CN
are a, a, a; −a, a, a; a, −a, a and a, a, −a respectively. M P
O Y
Thus, direction cosines of OP , AL, BM and CN are
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A B
√ , √ , √ ; − √ , √ , √ ; √ , − √ , √ and
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 X N
1 1 1
√ , √ , − √ respectively.
in
3 3 3
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the line that makes angles α, β, γ, δ with the four diagonals OP ,
AL, BM , CN respectively. Then
1 1 1 l+m+n
cos α = √ l + √ m + √ n = √ .
e.
3 3 3 3
−l + m + n l−m+n l+m−n
Similarly, cos β = √ , cos γ = √ , cos δ = √ .
3 3 3
On squaring and adding above four equations, we get
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ + cos2 δ
yd
(l + m + n)2 (−l + m + n)2 (l − m + n)2 (l + m − n)2
= + + +
3 3 3 3
2
1 l + m2 + n2 + 2lm + 2ln + 2mn + l2 + m2 + n2 − 2lm − 2ln + 2mn
=
3 + l2 + m2 + n2 − 2lm + 2ln − 2mn + l2 + m2 + n2 + 2lm − 2ln − 2mn
1 2 4
rif
= 4 l + m2 + n2 = . [∵ l2 + m2 + n2 = 1]
3 3
Example 14 If the edges of a rectangular parallelepiped are a, b, c, then prove that the angles between
±a2 ± b2 ± c2
the four diagonals are given by cos−1 .
a2 + b2 + c2
la
Solution: Let OA, OB and OC be the edges of a parallelepiped, taken along the axes such that OA = a,
OB = b and OC = c, as shown in the figure. Then, the coordinates of the vertices of the parallelepiped
are O(0, 0, 0), A(a, 0, 0), B(0, b, 0), C(0, 0, c), L(0, b, c), M (a, 0, c), N (a, b, 0), P (a, b, c).
Direction ratios of the diagonals OP , AL, BM and CN
C
Z
are a, b, c; −a, b, c; a, −b, c and a, b, −c respectively.
Thus, direction cosines of OP , AL, BM and CN are
C L
a b c
√ , √ , √ ;
2
a +b +c2 2 2
a +b +c2 2 a + b2 + c2
2
M P
a b c O Y
−√ , √ , √ ;
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 A B
a b c X N
√ , −√ , √
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2
a b c
and √ , √ , −√ respectively.
2
a +b +c2 2 2
a +b +c2 2 a + b2 + c2
2
Let α be the angle between OP and AL.

a2 b2 c2 −a2 + b2 + c2
Then, cos α = − + 2 + 2 = .
a2 2
+b +c 2 2
a +b +c 2 a +b +c2 2 a2 + b2 + c2
−a2 + b2 + c2
Thus, α = cos−1 .
a2 + b2 + c2
Similarly, we can find the angles between the other pairs of diagonals.
±a2 ± b2 ± c2
Hence, the angles between the four diagonals are given by cos−1 .
a2 + b2 + c2
19.3.1 Condition of Perpendicularity of Two Lines
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition for the two given lines to be perpendicular.
Let L1 and L2 be two lines having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 respectively.
in
Then, the acute angle θ between them is given by
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos θ = p p .
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
Then, L1 and L2 are perpendicular ⇔ θ = 90◦ ⇔ cos θ = 0
e.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
⇔ p p =0
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
⇔ |a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 | = 0
yd
⇔ a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.
Condition of Perpendicularity: Two lines having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are

perpendicular if and only if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.
Let L1 and L2 be two lines having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 respectively.

rif
cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
Then, L1 and L2 are perpendicular ⇔ θ = 90◦ ⇔ cos θ = 0
⇔ |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 | = 0
la
⇔ l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0.
Condition of Perpendicularity: Two lines having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are

perpendicular if and only if l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0.
C

x−5 y+2 y z
Example 15 (NCERT) Show that the lines = = z and x = = are perpendicular to
7 −5 2 3
each other.
x−5 y+2 x−5 y+2 z−0
Solution: Equations of first line is = = z, i.e., = = .
7 −5 7 −5 1
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = 7, b1 = −5, c1 = 1.
y z x−0 y−0 z−0
Equations of second line is x = = , i.e., = = .
2 3 1 2 3
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (7)(1) + (−5)(2) + (1)(3) = 0.
Hence, given lines are perpendicular to each other.
Example 16 (NCERT) Show that the line joining the origin to the point (2, 1, 1) is perpendicular to
the line joining the points (3, 5, −1) and (4, 3, −1).
Solution: Given that the first line joins the points (0, 0, 0) and (2, 1, 1).
Then, direction ratios of first line are 2 − 0, 1 − 0, 1 − 0, i.e., 2, 1, 1. Let a1 = 2, b1 = 1, c1 = 1.
Given that the second line joins the points (3, 5, −1) and (4, 3, −1).
Then, direction ratios of second line are 4 − 3, 3 − 5, −1 + 1, i.e., 1, −2, 0. Let a2 = 1, b2 = −2, c2 = 0.
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (2)(1) + (1)(−2) + (1)(0) = 0.
Hence, given lines are perpendicular to each other.
Example 17 Find the vector equation of the line joining (1, 2, 3) and (−3, 4, 3) and show that it is
perpendicular to the z-axis.
in
Solution: Given that the required line passes through the points (1, 2, 3) and (−3, 4, 3).
Then, direction ratios of the required line are −3 − 1, 4 − 2, 3 − 3, i.e., −4, 2, 0.
Also, the required line passes through (1, 2, 3).
Thus, equation of the required line in vector form is ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(−4î + 2ĵ + 0k̂).
e.
Also, direction ratios of z-axis are 0, 0, 1.
Let a1 = −4, b1 = 2, c1 = 0 and a2 = 0, b2 = 0, c2 = 1.
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (−4)(0) + (2)(0) + (0)(1) = 0.
Hence, the required line is perpendicular to z-axis.
Example 18 Find k so that the lines x = −y = kz and x − 2 = 2y + 1 = −z + 1 are perpendicular
yd
to each other.
x−0 y−0 z−0
Solution: Equation of first line is x = −y = kz, i.e., = = .
1 −1 1
k
1
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = 1, b1 = −1, c1 = .
k
rif
1
x−2 y+
Equation of second line is x − 2 = 2y + 1 = −z + 1, i.e., = 2 = z − 1.
1 1 −1
2
1
Then, direction ratios of second line are a2 = 1, b2 = , c2 = −1.
la
2
Given that both the lines are perpendicular to each other, then

1 1 1 1
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (1)(1) + (−1) + (−1) = 0 ⇒ − =0
2 k 2 k
⇒ k = 2.
C
Example 19 (Exemplar) Prove that the lines x = py + q, z = ry + s and x = p′ y + q ′ , z = r′ y + s′

are perpendicular if pp′ + rr′ + 1 = 0.
Solution: Equation of first line is
x−q z−s x−q y−0 z−s
x = py + q, z = ry + s ⇒ =y= ⇒ = = .
p r p 1 r
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = p, b1 = 1, c1 = r.
Equation of second line is
x − q′ z − s′ x − q′ y−0 z − s′
x = p′ y + q ′ , z = r′ y + s′ ⇒ ′
=y= ⇒ = = .
p r′ p ′ 1 r′
Then, direction ratios of second line are a2 = p′ , b2 = 1, c2 = r′ .
Hence, the given lines are perpendicular to each other if
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (p)(p′ ) + (1)(1) + (r)(r′ ) = 0 ⇒ pp′ + rr′ + 1 = 0.
Example 20 Find the direction cosines of the line which is perpendicular to the lines with direction
cosines proportional to 1, −2, 2 and 0, 2, −1.
Solution: Given two lines with direction cosines proportional to 1, −2, 2 and 0, 2, −1.
Then, direction ratios of the two lines are 1, −2, 2 and 0, 2, −1.
Let direction ratios of the line which is perpendicular to both the given lines be a, b, c.
Then, 1a − 2b + 2c = 0 ...(1)
and 0a + 2b − 1c = 0. ...(2)
in
On solving (1) and (2) by cross multiplication, we get
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = = k (say)
2−4 −1 − 0 2+0 −2 1 2
⇒ a = −2k, b = k, c = 2k. ...(3)
e.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line are −2k, k, 2k, i.e., −2, 1, 2.
Hence, direction cosines of the required line are
−2 1 2 2 1 2
p , p , p , i.e., − , , .
2 2
(−2) + (1) + (2) 2 2 2
(−2) + (1) + (2) 2 2 2
(−2) + (1) + (2) 2 3 3 3
yd
Example 21 (Delhi 2016, 2015) Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the line through the point
(1, 2, −4) and perpendicular to the lines
⃗r = (8î − 19ĵ + 10k̂) + λ(3î − 16ĵ + 7k̂) and ⃗r = (15î + 29ĵ + 5k̂) + µ(3î + 8ĵ − 5k̂).
Solution: Equation of first line is ⃗r = (8î − 19ĵ + 10k̂) + λ(3î − 16ĵ + 7k̂).
Then, direction ratios of first line are 3, −16, = 7.
rif
Equation of second line is ⃗r = (15î + 29ĵ + 5k̂) + µ(3î + 8ĵ − 5k̂).
Then, direction ratios of second line are 3, 8, −5.
Let direction ratios of the required line which is perpendicular to both the given lines be a, b, c.
Then, 3a − 16b + 7c = 0 ...(1)
and 3a + 8b − 5c = 0. ...(2)
la

a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = = k (say)
80 − 56 −15 − 21 24 + 48 24 36 72
⇒ a = 24k, b = 36k, c = 72k.
C
Thus, direction ratios of the required line are 24k, 36k, 72k, i.e., 2, 3, 6.
Also, the required line passes through the point (1, 2, −4).
Hence, vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) + s(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂)
x−1 y−2 z+4
and Cartesian equation of the required line is = = .
2 3 6
Example 22 (ISC 2019) Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the line passing through the point
x−1 y−2 z−3 x y z
(2, 1, 3) and perpendicular to the lines = = and = = .
1 2 3 −3 2 5
x−1 y−2 z−3
Solution: Equation of first line is = = .
1 2 3
Then, direction ratios of first line are 1, 2, 3.
x y z
Equation of second line is = = .
−3 2 5
Then, direction ratios of second line are −3, 2, 5.
Then, 1a + 2b + 3c = 0 ...(1)
and −3a + 2b + 5c = 0. ...(2)
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = = k (say)
10 − 6 5+9 2+6 4 −14 8
⇒ a = 4k, b = −14k, c = 8k.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line are 4k, −14k, 8k, i.e., 2, −7, 4.
in
Also, the required line passes through the point (2, 1, 3).
Hence, vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (2î + ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(2î − 7ĵ + 4k̂)
x−2 y−1 z−3
2 −7 4
e.
Example 23 Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the line which is perpendicular to the lines
x+2 y−3 z+1 x−1 y−2 z−3
with equations = = and = = and passes through the point
1 2 4 2 3 4
(1, 1, 1). Also find the angle between the given lines.
yd
x+2 y−3 z+1
1 2 4
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = 1, b1 = 2, c1 = 4.
x−1 y−2 z−3
2 3 4
rif
Then, 1a + 2b + 4c = 0 ...(1)
and 2a + 3b + 4c = 0. ...(2)
la
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = = k (say)
8 − 12 4−8 3−4 −4 4 −1
⇒ a = −4k, b = 4k, c = −k.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line are −4k, 4k, −k, i.e., 4, −4, 1.
C
Thus, vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (î + ĵ + k̂) + λ(4î − 4ĵ + k̂)
x−1 y−1 z−1
4 −4 1
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos θ = p p
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(1)(2) + (2)(3) + (4)(4) 24 24
= p p = √ √ =√ .
(1)2 2 2 2 2
+ (2) + (4) (2) + (3) + (4) 2 21 29 609
24
609
Example 24 Find the vector and Cartesian equations of a line through the point (1, −1, 1) and
perpendicular to the lines joining the points (4, 3, 2), (1, −1, 0) and (1, 2, −1), (2, 1, 1).
Solution: Given that the first line joins the points (4, 3, 2) and (1, −1, 0).
Then, direction ratios of first line are 1 − 4, −1 − 3, 0 − 2, i.e., −3, −4, −2, i.e., 3, 4, 2.
Let a1 = 3, b1 = 4, c1 = 2.
Given that the second line joins the points (1, 2, −1) and (2, 1, 1).
Then, direction ratios of second line are 2 − 1, 1 − 2, 1 + 1, i.e., 1, −1, 2. Let a2 = 1, b2 = −1, c2 = 2.
Then, 3a + 4b + 2c = 0 ...(1)
and 1a − 1b + 2c = 0. ...(2)
in
a b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = = k (say)
8+2 −(6 − 2) −3 − 4 10 −4 −7
⇒ a = 10k, b = −4k, c = −7k.
e.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line are 10k, −4k, −7k, i.e., 10, −4, −7.
Also, the required line passes through the point (1, −1, 1).
Hence, vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (î − ĵ + k̂) + λ(10î − 4ĵ − 7k̂)
x−1 y+1 z−1
yd
10 −4 −7
Example 25 If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 be the direction cosines of the two lines, show that direction
cosines of the line perpendicular to both the given lines are proportional to (m1 n2 − m2 n1 ),
(n1 l2 − n2 l1 ), (l1 m2 − l2 m1 ).
Solution: Given two lines having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 .
Let direction cosines of the required line which is perpendicular to both the given lines be l, m, n.
rif
Then, l1 l + m1 m + n1 n = 0 ...(1)
and l2 l + m2 m + n2 n = 0. ...(2)
l −m n
la
= =
m1 n2 − m2 n1 n2 l1 − n1 l2 l1 m2 − l2 m1
l m n
⇒ = = = k (say)
m1 n2 − m2 n1 n1 l2 − n2 l1 l1 m2 − l2 m1
⇒ l = k(m1 n2 − m2 n1 ), m = k(n1 l2 − n2 l1 ), n = k(l1 m2 − l2 m1 ).
C
Hence, direction cosines of the required line are proportional to (m1 n2 − m2 n1 ), (n1 l2 − n2 l1 ),
(l1 m2 − l2 m1 ).
Example 26 (NCERT) If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 be the direction cosines of two mutually
perpendicular lines, then show that the direction cosines of the line perpendicular to both of them
are (m1 n2 − m2 n1 ), (n1 l2 − n2 l1 ), (l1 m2 − l2 m1 ).
Solution: Given two mutually perpendicular lines having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 .
Then, l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0. ...(1)
Let direction cosines of the required line which is perpendicular to both the given lines be l, m, n.
Then, l1 l + m1 m + n1 n = 0 ...(2)
and l2 l + m2 m + n2 n = 0. ...(3)

l −m n
= = = k (say)
m1 n2 − m2 n1 n2 l1 − n1 l2 l1 m2 − l2 m1
⇒ l = k(m1 n2 − m2 n1 ), m = k(n1 l2 − n2 l1 ), n = k(l1 m2 − l2 m1 ).
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
⇒ k 2 (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 + k 2 (n1 l2 − n2 l1 )2 + k 2 (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2 = 1
1
⇒ (m1 n2 − m2 n1 )2 + (n1 l2 − n2 l1 )2 + (l1 m2 − l2 m1 )2 =
k2
1
⇒ (l12 + m21 + n21 )(l22 + m22 + n22 ) − (l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 )2 = 2
k
in
1
⇒ (1)(1) − (0)2 = 2 [Using (1)]
k
⇒ k = ±1.
Thus, l = m1 n2 − m2 n1 , m = n1 l2 − n2 l1 , n = l1 m2 − l2 m1
e.
or l = −(m1 n2 − m2 n1 ), m = −(n1 l2 − n2 l1 ), n = −(l1 m2 − l2 m1 ).
Hence, direction cosines of the required line are (m1 n2 − m2 n1 ), (n1 l2 − n2 l1 ), (l1 m2 − l2 m1 ).
19.3.2 Condition of Parallelism of Two Lines
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition for the two given lines to be parallel.
yd
Let L1 and L2 be two lines having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 respectively.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos θ = p p .
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
s
p (a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 )2
rif
Now, sin θ = 1 − cos2 θ = 1−
(a21 + b21 + c21 )(a22 + b22 + c22 )
s
(a21 + b21 + c21 )(a22 + b22 + c22 ) − (a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 )2
=
(a21 + b21 + c21 )(a22 + b22 + c22 )
la
s
(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 + (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2 + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 )2
= .
(a21 + b21 + c21 )(a22 + b22 + c22 )
Then, L1 and L2 are parallel
⇔ θ = 0◦
C
⇔ sin θ = 0
s
(a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 + (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2 + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 )2
⇔ =0
(a21 + b21 + c21 )(a22 + b22 + c22 )
⇔ (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2 + (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )2 + (c1 a2 − c2 a1 )2 = 0
⇔ a1 b2 − a2 b1 = 0, b1 c2 − b2 c1 = 0, c1 a2 − c2 a1 = 0
a1 b1 b1 c1 c1 a1
⇔ = , = , =
a2 b2 b2 c2 c2 a2
a1 b1 c1
⇔ = =
a2 b2 c2
⇔ Direction ratios of L1 and L2 are proportional.
Condition of Parallelism: Two lines are parallel if and only if their direction ratios are proportional.
Remark 19.4 (i) Two lines are parallel if and only if their direction cosines are proportional.
(ii) Consider a line with direction ratios a, b, c.
Then, direction ratios of a line parallel to given line are proportional to a, b, c.
Thus, direction ratios of the line parallel to given line are ka, kb, kc, i.e., a, b, c.
(iii) Consider a vector aî + bĵ + ck̂ whose direction ratios are a, b, c.
Then, direction ratios of a line parallel to given vector are proportional to a, b, c.
Thus, direction ratios of the line parallel to given vector are ka, kb, kc, i.e., a, b, c.
Lets us now consider the following examples.
in
Example 27 Find direction ratios of a line parallel to the vector 3î + ĵ − k̂.
Solution: Given vector is 3î + ĵ − k̂.
Then, direction ratios of given vector are 3, 1, −1.
Hence, direction ratios of line parallel to given vector are 3k, k, −k, i.e., 3, 1, −1.
e.
Example 28 Find direction ratios of a line parallel to the line 6x − 12 = 3y + 9 = 2z − 2.
x−2 y+3 z−1
Solution: Equation of given line is 6x − 12 = 3y + 9 = 2z − 2, i.e., = = .
1 1 1
6 3 2
yd
1 1 1
Then, direction ratios of given line are , , .
6 3 2
k k k 1 1 1
Hence, direction ratios of line parallel to given line are , , , i.e., , , .
6 3 2 6 3 2
Example 29 Find direction ratios of a line parallel to the line ⃗r = (λ − 1)î + (λ + 1)ĵ − (1 + λ)k̂.
rif
Solution: Equation of given line is
⃗r = (λ − 1)î + (λ + 1)ĵ − (1 + λ)k̂ ⇒ ⃗r = (−î + ĵ − k̂) + λ(î + ĵ − k̂).
Then, direction ratios of given line are 1, 1, −1.
Hence, direction ratios of line parallel to given line are k, k, −k, i.e., 1, 1, −1.
la
x−1 y−2 z−3

Example 30 Show that the lines = = and ⃗r = (2î − k̂) + λ(−î + ĵ − k̂) are
1 −1 1
parallel to each other.
x−1 y−2 z−3
C
1 −1 1
Then, direction ratios of first line are 1, −1, 1.
Equation of second line ⃗r = (2î − k̂) + λ(−î + ĵ − k̂).
Then, direction ratios of second line are −1, 1, −1, i.e., 1, −1, 1.
Thus, direction ratios of both the given lines are proportional.
Hence, given lines are parallel to each other.
Example 31 (NCERT) Show that the line through the points (4, 7, 8) and (2, 3, 4) is parallel to the
line through the points (−1, −2, 1) and (1, 2, 5).
Solution: Given that the first line passes through the points (4, 7, 8) and (2, 3, 4).
Then, direction ratios of the first line are 2 − 4, 3 − 7, 4 − 8, i.e., −2, −4, −4, i.e., 1, 2, 2.
Given that the second line passes through the points (−1, −2, 1) and (1, 2, 5).
Then, direction ratios of the second line are 1 + 1, 2 + 2, 5 − 1, i.e., 2, 4, 4, i.e., 1, 2, 2.
Thus, direction ratios of both the given lines are proportional.

Hence, given lines are parallel to each other.
Example 32 If the line joining the points (3, 2, 5) and (a, 5, 0) is parallel to the line joining the points
(1, 3, b) and (6, 4, −1), then find the values of a and b.
Solution: Given that the first line joins the points (3, 2, 5) and (a, 5, 0).
Then, direction ratios of the first line are a − 3, 5 − 2, 0 − 5, i.e., a − 3, 3, −5.
Given that the second line joins the points (1, 3, b) and (6, 4, −1).
Then, direction ratios of the second line are 6 − 1, 4 − 3, −1 − b, i.e., 5, 1, −1 − b.
Given that the two lines are parallel to each other, i.e., direction ratios of both the lines are proportional.
a−3 3 −5 2
Then, = = ⇒ a − 3 = 15, −3 − 3b = −5 ⇒ a = 18, b = .
in
5 1 −1 − b 3
Example 33 (Exemplar) The x-coordinate of a point on the line joining the points Q(2, 2, 1) and
R(5, 1, −2) is 4. Find its z-coordinate.
Solution: Let P (4, y, z) be the point on the line joining the points Q(2, 2, 1) and R(5, 1, −2).
e.
Now, direction ratios of QP are 4 − 2, y − 2, z − 1, i.e., 2, y − 2, z − 1
and direction ratios of QR are 5 − 2, 1 − 2, −2 − 1, i.e., 3, −1, −3.
The lines QP and QR are parallel, i.e., direction ratios of QP and QR are proportional.
2 y−2 z−1 2 4
Then, = = ⇒ y − 2 = − , z − 1 = −2 ⇒ y = , z = −1.
3 −1 −3 3 3
yd
Hence, the z-coordinate of the required point is −1.
Example 34 (NCERT) Find the vector and the Cartesian equations of line through the point (5, 2, −4)
and which is parallel to the vector 3î + 2ĵ − 8k̂.
Solution: Given vector is 3î + 2ĵ − 8k̂.
rif
Then, direction ratios of given vector are 3, 2, −8.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line which is parallel to given vector are 3k, 2k, −8k, i.e., 3, 2, −8.
Hence, vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (5î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) + λ(3î + 2ĵ − 8k̂)
x−5 y−2 z+4
la

3 2 −8
Example 35 (ISC 2018) The Cartesian equation of a line is 2x − 3 = 3y + 1 = 5 − 6z. Find the
vector equation of a line passing through (7, −5, 0) and parallel to the given line.
C

3 1 5
2x − 3 = 3y + 1 = 5 − 6z ⇒ 2 x− =3 y+ = −6 z −
2 3 6
3 1 5
x− y+ z−
⇒ 2
= =3 6.
1 1 1
−
2 3 6
1 1 1
Then, direction ratios of given line are , , − , i.e., 3, 2, −1.
2 3 6
Thus, direction ratios of the required line which is parallel to given line are 3k, 2k, −k, i.e., 3, 2, −1.
Also, the required line passes through the point (7, −5, 0).
Hence, vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (7î − 5ĵ + 0k̂) + λ(3î + 2ĵ − k̂).
Example 36 Find the equation of a line passing through the point (2, 0, 1) and parallel to the line
whose equation is ⃗r = (2λ + 3)î + (7λ − 1)ĵ + (−3λ + 2)k̂.
⃗r = (2λ + 3)î + (7λ − 1)ĵ + (−3λ + 2)k̂ = (3î − ĵ + 2k̂) + λ(2î + 7ĵ − 3k̂).
Thus, direction ratios of the required line which is parallel to given line are 2k, 7k, −3k, i.e., 2, 7, −3.
Hence, equation of the required line is ⃗r = (2î + 0ĵ + k̂) + λ(2î + 7ĵ − 3k̂).
Example 37 (NCERT) Find the equation of a line parallel to x-axis and passing through the origin.
in
Solution: Direction ratios of x-axis are 1, 0, 0.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line which is parallel to x axis are k, 0, 0, i.e., 1, 0, 0.
Also, the required line passes through the origin, i.e., (0, 0, 0).
x−0 y−0 z−0 x y z
Hence, equation of the required line is = = , i.e., = = .
1 0 0 1 0 0
e.
Example 38 If a line passes through a point with position vector 6î − 2ĵ + 3k̂ and parallel to the line
joining the points with position vectors î − ĵ + 4k̂ and 2î + ĵ + 2k̂, then find the equation of the line
in vector and Cartesian form.
yd
Solution: Given a line joining the points with position vectors î − ĵ + 4k̂ and 2î + ĵ + 2k̂, i.e., the points
(1, −1, 4) and (2, 1, 2).
Then, direction ratios of given line are 2 − 1, 1 + 1, 2 − 4, i.e., 1, 2, −2.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line which is parallel to given line are k, 2k, −2k, i.e., 1, 2, −2.
Also, the required line passes through the point with position vector 6î − 2ĵ + 3k̂, i.e., (6, −2, 3).
Hence, vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (6î − 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ − 2k̂)
rif
x−6 y+2 z−3
1 2 −2
Example 39 (ISC 2014) Find the equation of a line passing through the points P (−1, 3, 2) and
Q(−4, 2, −2). If the point R(5, 5, λ) is collinear with the points P and Q, then find the value of λ.
la
Solution: Given that the required line passes through the points P (−1, 3, 2) and Q(−4, 2, −2).
Then, direction ratios of the required line are −4 + 1, 2 − 3, −2 − 2, i.e., −3, −1, −4, i.e., 3, 1, 4.
Also, the required line passes through P (−1, 3, 2).
x+1 y−3 z−2
Hence, equation of the required line is = = . ...(1)
3 1 4
C
Given that the point R(5, 5, λ) is collinear with the points P and Q.
Then, the point R lies on the line (1).
Putting x = 5, y = 5 and z = λ in (1), we get
5+1 5−3 λ−2 λ−2 λ−2
= = ⇒ 2=2= ⇒ =2
3 1 4 4 4
⇒ λ = 10.
Example 40 Find the value of p, so that the lines
1−x 7y − 14 z−3 7 − 7x y−5 6−z
L1 : = = and L2 : = =
3 p 2 3p 1 5
are perpendicular to each other. Also find the equation of a line passing through a point (3, 2, −4) and
parallel to line L1 .
1−x 7y − 14 z−3 x−1 y−2 z−3

Solution: Equation of first line is = = , i.e., = p = .
3 p 2 −3 2
7
p
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = −3, b1 = , c1 = 2.
7
7 − 7x y−5 6−z x−1 y−5 z−6
Equation of second line is = = , i.e., = = .
3p 1 5 3p 1 −5
−
7
3p
Then, direction ratios of second line are a2 = − , b2 = 1, c2 = −5.
7

3p p 10p
in
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (−3) − + (1) + (2)(−5) = 0 ⇒ − 10 = 0
7 7 7
⇒ p = 7.
Direction ratios of first line are −3, 1, 2.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line which is parallel to first line are −3k, k, 2k, i.e., −3, 1, 2.
e.
x−3 y−2 z+4
Hence, Cartesian equation of the required line is = = .
−3 1 2
Exercise 19.3
yd
(i) Direction ratios of two perpendicular lines are proportional.
(ii) Two lines having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 are perpendicular if and only if
l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0.
(iii) The points (1, 2, 3), (−2, 3, 4) and (7, 0, 1) are collinear.
rif
x−1 y+1 z x+5 y z−3
(i) If lines = = and = = are perpendicular to each other, then
3 2k 3 −2 4 k
the value of k is .
x−4 y+3 z+2
la
(ii) Direction cosines of a line parallel to the line = = are .

−2 3 6
(iii) The equation of line parallel to y-axis and passing through origin is .
(iv) Two lines having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are perpendicular if and only if
.
C
3. If the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D be (6, 2, 3), (9, 5, 7), (−4, 3, −7) and (2, 9, 1)
respectively, then find the angle between the lines AB and CD.
4. Find the angle between the pair of lines [NCERT]
x−2 y−1 z+3 x+2 y−4 z−5
= = and = = .
2 5 −3 −1 8 4
x y z x−5 y−2 z−3
5. Find the angle between the pair of lines = = and = = . [NCERT]
2 2 1 4 1 8
x+3 y−1 z+3 x+1 y−4 z−5
= = and = = .
3 5 4 1 1 2
−x + 2 y−1 z+3 x+2 2y − 8 z−5
* 7. Find the angle between the lines = = and = = and
−2 7 −3 −1 4 4
check whether the lines are parallel or perpendicular.
* 8. Find the angle between the lines [Exemplar]
⃗r = (3î − 2ĵ + 6k̂) + λ(2î + ĵ + 2k̂) and ⃗r = (2ĵ − 5k̂) + µ(6î + 3ĵ + 2k̂).
9. Find the angle between the pair of lines given by ⃗r = (3î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) and
⃗r = 5î − 2ĵ + µ(3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂). [NCERT]
10. Find the angle between the following lines:
⃗r = (4î − ĵ) + λ(î + 2ĵ − 2k̂) and ⃗r = (î − ĵ + 2k̂) − 3µ(−î − 2ĵ + 2k̂).
⃗r = (3î + ĵ − 2k̂) + λ(î − ĵ − 2k̂) and ⃗r = (2î − ĵ − 56k̂) + µ(3î − 5ĵ − 4k̂).
12. Find the angle between the given two lines
in
x−1 y+7 z−3
⃗r = (8î + 5ĵ − 2k̂) + λ(î − ĵ − 2k̂) and = = .
3 −5 −4
* 13. Show that the straight lines whose direction cosines are given by the equations 2l + 2m − n = 0
and mn + nl + lm = 0 are at right angles. [Exemplar]
14. Show that the line through the points (1, −1, 2) and (3, 4, −2) is perpendicular to the line through
e.
the points (0, 3, 2) and (3, 5, 6). [NCERT]
x−1 y+4 z − 21 x−6 y z−3
15. Show that the lines = = and = = are perpendicular to each
7 −5 1 1 2 3
other.
1−x y−2 z−3 x−1 y−1 6−z
yd
* 16. Find λ so that the lines = = and = = are perpendicular
3 2λ 2 3λ 1 7
to each other.
* 17. Find the value of p for which the following lines are perpendicular:
1−x 2y − 14 z−3 1−x y−5 6−z
= = and = = .
3 2p 2 3p 1 5
1−x 7y − 14 z−3 7 − 7x y−5 6−z
rif
18. Find the value of p so that the lines = = and = =
3 2p 2 3p 1 5
are at right angles. [NCERT]
1−x 7y − 14 5z − 10 7 − 7x y−5 6−z
19. Find the value of λ so that the lines = = and = =
3 2λ 11 3λ 1 5
are perpendicular to each other.
la
1−x y−2 z−3 x−1 y−1 z−6

20. If the lines = = and = = are perpendicular, find the
3 2k 2 3k 1 −5
value of k. [NCERT]
21. Find the value of λ so that the following lines are perpendicular to each other:
C
x−5 2−y 1−z x 2y + 1 1−z

= = ; = = .
5λ + 2 5 −1 1 4λ −3
* 22. Find the equation of the line passing through the point (−1, 3, −2) and perpendicular to the lines
x y z x+2 y−1 z+1
= = and = = . [ISC 2013]
1 2 3 −3 2 5
* 23. Find the vector and Cartesian equations of a line passing through (1, 2, −4) and perpendicular to
x−8 y + 19 z − 10 x − 15 y − 29 z−5
the two lines = = and = = . [NCERT]
3 −16 7 3 8 −5
* 24. A line passes through (2, −1, 3) and is perpendicular to the lines ⃗r = (î + ĵ − k̂) + λ(2î − 2ĵ + k̂)
and ⃗r = (2î − ĵ − 3k̂) + µ(î + 2ĵ + 2k̂). Obtain its equation in vector and Cartesian form.
25. Show that the line through the points (4, 5, 10) and (2, 3, 4) is parallel to the line through the points
(1, 2, −1) and (3, 4, 5).
26. Show that the given two lines are parallel to each other.
(i) ⃗r = (3î + 8ĵ) + λ(2î − ĵ + k̂) and ⃗r = (î + ĵ − k̂) + µ(−4î + 2ĵ − 2k̂).
x−1 y+1 z−0 x+1 y−5 z−8
(ii) = = and = = .
2 5 3 8 20 12
* 27. Find the vector equation of the line which passes through the point (3, 4, 5) and is parallel to the
vector 2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂.
* 28. Find the equation of a line, which is parallel to 2î + ĵ + 3k̂ and which passes through the point
(5, −2, 4). [Exemplar]
* 29. Find the Cartesian and vector equations of the line which passes through the point (−2, 4, −5) and
x+3 y−4 8−z
parallel to the line given by = = .
in
3 5 −6
* 30. Find the Cartesian equation of the line which passes through the point (−2, 4, −5) and is parallel
x+3 4−y z+8
to the line = = .
3 5 6
* 31. Find the vector equation of the line passing through the point A(1, 2, −1) and parallel to the line
e.
5x − 25 = 14 − 7y = 35z.
32. Find the vector equation of the line which is parallel to the vector 3î − 2ĵ + 6k̂ and which passes
through the point (1, −2, 3). Also, find its Cartesian equation. [Exemplar]
33. Find the Cartesian equation of the line which passes through the point (−2, 4, −5) and parallel to
x+3 y−4 z+8
yd
the line given by = = . [NCERT]
3 5 6
x−2 y−5
34. Find the equation of a line parallel to the line = , z = −1 and passing through
3 −2
(1, −1, 5).
35. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (1, 2, 3) and is parallel to the vector
3î + 2ĵ − 2k̂. [NCERT]
rif
36. Determine the equation of the line passing through the point (−1, 3, −2) and perpendicular to the
x−2 y z+3 x−2 y+7 z
lines = = and = = .
1 2 3 −3 2 5
37. Determine the vector equation of a line passing through (1, 2, −4) and perpendicular to the two
la
lines
⃗r = (8î − 16ĵ + 10k̂) + λ(3î − 16ĵ + 7k̂) and ⃗r = (15î + 29ĵ + 5k̂) + µ(3î + 8ĵ − 5k̂).

x+1 y−2 z x−3 y−7 z−5
C
38. The angle between the lines = = and = = is

2 5 4 1 2 −3
(a) 45◦ (b) 90◦ (c) 60◦ (d) 30◦
39. The angle between the lines ⃗r = 3î + 2ĵ − 4k̂ + λ(î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) and ⃗r = 5î − 2k̂ + µ(3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂)
is [ISC 2022]
19 22 19 19
(a) sin−1 (b) cos−1 (c) cos−1 (d) cos−1
21 21 20 21
x−1 y+3 z−6
40. The direction cosines of a line parallel to = = are [ISC 2022]
2 3 −6

2 3 6 2 3 6 2 3 6 2 3 6
(a) − , − , − (b) ,− , (c) , , (d) , ,−
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
41. The two lines x = ay + b, z = cy + d; and x = a′ y + b′ , z = c′ y + d′ are perpendicular to each
other, if
a c a c
(a) ′ + ′ = 1 (b) ′ + ′ = −1 (c) aa′ + cc′ = 1 (d) aa′ + cc′ = −1
a c a c
x−2 y−3 4−z x−1 y−4 z−5
42. The lines = = and = = are mutually perpendicular if
1 1 k k 2 −2
the value of k is
2 2
(a) − (b) (c) −2 (d) 2
3 3
x−3 y−2 z−1
43. The straight line = = is
3 1 0
in
(a) perpendicular to z-axis (b) parallel to x-axis
(c) parallel to y-axis (d) parallel to z-axis
Answers 19.3
e.
(iii) True
2. 6 2 3 6
(i) (ii) − , ,
11 7 7 7
x y z
yd
(iii) = = (iv) a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0
0 1 0
26 2 8
3. 0◦ 4. cos−1 √ 5. cos−1 6. cos−1 √
9 38 3 5 3
−1 19 19
7. 90◦ 8. cos 9. cos−1 10. 0◦
21 21
8 8
rif
11. cos−1 √ 12. cos −1 √
16. −2 17. 1
5 3 5 3
70 10
18. 19. 7 20. − 21. 1
11 7
x+1 y−3 z+2
22. = =
2 −7 4
la
x−1 y−2 z+4

23. ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂); = =
2 3 6
x−2 y+1 z−3
24. ⃗r = (2î − ĵ + 3k̂) + s(2î + ĵ − 2k̂); = =
2 1 −2
C
27. ⃗r = (3î + 4ĵ + 5k̂) + λ(2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) 28. ⃗r = (5î − 2ĵ + 4k̂) + λ(2î + ĵ + 3k̂)
x+2 y−4 z+5
29. = = ; ⃗r = (−2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) + λ(3î + 5ĵ + 6k̂)
3 5 6
x+2 y−4 z+5
30. = = 31. ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ − k̂) + λ(7î − 5ĵ + k̂)
3 −5 6
x−1 y+2 z−3
32. ⃗r = (î − 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(3î − 2ĵ + 6k̂); = =
3 −2 6
x+2 y−4 z+5 x−1 y+1 z−5
33. = = 34. = =
3 5 6 3 −2 0
x−1 y−2 z−3 x+1 y−3 z+2
35. = = 36. = =
3 2 −2 2 −7 4
37. ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂) 38. (b) 39. (d)
40. (d) 41. (d) 42. (d) 43. (a)
19.4 Parallel, Intersecting and Skew Lines

In a two-dimensional space, two lines are either parallel or intersecting, whereas is a three-dimensional
space, we can have line that are neither parallel nor intersecting. Such lines are called skew lines.
Skew Lines: Two lines in a three-dimensional space are called skew lines if they are neither parallel
nor intersecting.
Let OA, OB and OC be the edges of a cube, taken along the coordinate axes, as shown in the figure.
Then, we have the following: Z
(i) OA and BN are parallel lines.
C L
(ii) OA and OB are intersecting lines.
(iii) OA and BL are skew lines.
in
M P
In this section, we shall consider the following problems: Y
O
(i) To find the point of intersection of two intersecting lines.
A B
(ii) To find the distance of a line from a point.
X N
(iii) To find the shortest distance between two lines.
e.
19.4.1 Point of Intersection of Two Lines
In this subsection, we shall determine whether the given two lines intersect each other or not. In case they
intersect, we shall determine their point of intersection. We have the following working rule.
Step I Write the given equation of first line.
yd
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
If equation is in Cartesian form, then take = = = λ.
a1 b1 c1
If equation is in vector form, then we write
⃗r = (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) + λ(a1 î + b1 ĵ + c1 k̂)
= (a1 λ + x1 )î + (b1 λ + y1 )ĵ + (c1 λ + z1 )k̂.
rif
The general point on first line is (a1 λ + x1 , b1 λ + y1 , c1 λ + z1 ).
Step II Write the given equation of second line.
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
If equation is in Cartesian form, then take = = = µ.
a2 b2 c2
la
⃗r = (x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂) + µ(a2 î + b2 ĵ + c2 k̂)

= (a2 µ + x2 )î + (b2 µ + y2 )ĵ + (c2 µ + z2 )k̂.
The general point on second line is (a2 µ + x2 , b2 µ + y2 , c2 µ + z2 ).
C
Step III Take (a1 λ + x1 , b1 λ + y1 , c1 λ + z1 ) = (a2 µ + x2 , b2 µ + y2 , c2 µ + z2 ), i.e.,

a1 λ + x1 = a2 µ + x2 , b1 λ + y1 = b2 µ + y2 , c1 λ + z1 = c2 µ + z2 .
If values of λ and µ exist, then the given lines intersect each other, otherwise they do not
intersect each other.
Example 1 Show that lines ⃗r = (î + ĵ − k̂) + λ(3î − ĵ) and ⃗r = (4î − k̂) + µ(2î + 3k̂) intersect. Also
find their point of intersection.
⃗r = (î + ĵ − k̂) + λ(3î − ĵ) = (3λ + 1)î + (−λ + 1)ĵ − k̂.
Then, general point on first line is (3λ + 1, −λ + 1, −1). ...(1)
⃗r = (4î − k̂) + µ(2î + 3k̂) = (2µ + 4)î + 0ĵ + (3µ − 1)k̂.
Then, general point on second line is (2µ + 4, 0, 3µ − 1).
If given lines intersect, then (3λ + 1, −λ + 1, −1) = (2µ + 4, 0, 3µ − 1) for some λ and µ.
3λ + 1 = 2µ + 4 ⇒ 3λ − 2µ = 3 ...(2)
−λ + 1 = 0 ⇒ λ=1
−1 = 3µ − 1 ⇒ µ=0
Also, λ = 1, µ = 0 satisfy (2). Thus, the given lines intersect each other.
Putting λ = 1 in (1), we get the required point of intersection as (4, 0, −1).
in
x−4 y+3 z+1 x−1 y+1 z + 10
Example 2 (ISC 2017) Show that the lines = = and = =
1 −4 7 2 −3 8
intersect. Find the coordinates of their point of intersection.
x−4 y+3 z+1
1 −4 7
e.
x−4 y+3 z+1
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = λ + 4, y = −4λ − 3, z = 7λ − 1.
1 −4 7
Then, general point on first line is (λ + 4, −4λ − 3, 7λ − 1). ...(1)
x−1 y+1 z + 10
yd
2 −3 8
x−1 y+1 z + 10
Let = = =µ ⇒ x = 2µ + 1, y = −3µ − 1, z = 8µ − 10.
2 −3 8
Then, general point on second line is (2µ + 1, −3µ − 1, 8µ − 10).
If given lines intersect, then (λ + 4, −4λ − 3, 7λ − 1) = (2µ + 1, −3µ − 1, 8µ − 10) for some λ and µ.
λ + 4 = 2µ + 1 ⇒ λ − 2µ = −3 ...(3)
rif
−4λ − 3 = −3µ − 1 ⇒ −4λ + 3µ = 2 ...(4)
7λ − 1 = 8µ − 10 ⇒ 7λ − 8µ = −9 ...(5)
From (3) and (4), we get λ = 1, µ = 2.
la
Putting λ = 1 in (1), we get the required point of intersection as (5, −7, 6).
x−1 y−1 x−4 z+1
Example 3 Show that the lines = , z + 1 = 0 and = , y = 0 intersect each
3 −1 2 3
other. Also, find their point of intersection.
C
x−1 y−1
Solution: Equation of first line is = , z + 1 = 0.
3 −1
x−1 y−1
Let = = λ, z + 1 = 0 λ ⇒ x = 3λ + 1, y = −λ + 1, z = −1.
3 −1
Then, general point on first line is (3λ + 1, −λ + 1, −1). ...(1)
x−4 z+1
Equation of second line is = , y = 0.
2 3
x−4 z+1
Let = = µ, y = 0 ⇒ x = 2µ + 4, y = 0, z = 3µ − 1.
2 3
Then, general point on second line is (2µ + 4, 0, 3µ − 1).
If given lines intersect, then (3λ + 1, −λ + 1, −1) = (2µ + 4, 0, 3µ − 1) for some λ and µ.
3λ + 1 = 2µ + 4 ⇒ 3λ − 2µ = 3 ...(2)
−λ + 1 = 0 ⇒ λ=1
−1 = 3µ − 1 ⇒ µ=0
Putting λ = 1 in (1), we get the required point of intersection as (4, 0, −1).
x−1 y+1 z−1 x+2 y−1 z+1
Example 4 Show that the lines = = and = = do not
3 2 5 4 3 −2
intersect.
x−1 y+1 z−1
3 2 5
x−1 y+1 z−1
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 3λ + 1, y = 2λ − 1, z = 5λ + 1.
in
3 2 5
Then, general point on first line is (3λ + 1, 2λ − 1, 5λ + 1). ...(1)
x+2 y−1 z+1
4 3 −2
x+2 y−1 z+1
e.
Let = = =µ ⇒ x = 4µ − 2, y = 3µ + 1, z = −2µ − 1.
4 3 −2
Then, general point on second line is (4µ − 2, 3µ + 1, −2µ − 1).
If given lines intersect, then (3λ + 1, 2λ − 1, 5λ + 1) = (4µ − 2, 3µ + 1, −2µ − 1) for some λ and µ.
3λ + 1 = 4µ − 2 ⇒ 3λ − 4µ = −3 ...(2)
yd
2λ − 1 = 3µ + 1 ⇒ 2λ − 3µ = 2 ...(3)
5λ + 1 = −2µ − 1 ⇒ 5λ + 2µ = −2 ...(4)
From (2) and (3), we get λ = −17, µ = −12.
But λ = −17, µ = −12 do not satisfy (4). Thus, the given lines do not intersect each other.
Example 5 (Exemplar) Prove that the line through A(0, −1, −1) and B(4, 5, 1) intersects the line
rif
through C(3, 9, 4) and D(−4, 4, 4).
Solution: Given points are A(0, −1, −1), B(4, 5, 1), C(3, 9, 4) and D(−4, 4, 4).
Direction ratios of line AB are 4 − 0, 5 + 1, 1 + 1, i.e., 4, 6, 2, i.e., 2, 3, 1.
x y+1 z+1
Equation of line AB is = = .
2 3 1
la
x y+1 z+1
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ, y = 3λ − 1, z = λ − 1.
2 3 1
Then, general point on line AB is (2λ, 3λ − 1, λ − 1). ...(1)
Direction ratios of line CD are −4 − 3, 4 − 9, 4 − 4, i.e., −7, −5, 0, i.e., 7, 5, 0.
C
x−3 y−9 z−4

Equation of line CD is = = .
7 5 0
x−3 y−9 z−4
Let = = =µ ⇒ x = 7µ + 3, y = 5µ + 9, z = 4.
7 5 0
Then, general point on second line is (7µ + 3, 5µ + 9, 4).
If given lines intersect, then (2λ, 3λ − 1, λ − 1) = (7µ + 3, 5µ + 9, 4) for some λ and µ.
2λ = 7µ + 3 ⇒ 2λ − 7µ = 3 ...(2)
3λ − 1 = 5µ + 9 ⇒ 3λ − 5µ = 10 ...(3)
λ−1=4 ⇒ λ=5 ...(4)
Putting λ = 5 in (2), we get µ = 1.
Putting λ = 5 in (1), we get the required point of intersection as (10, 14, 4).
x+2 y−3 z+1
Example 6 Find the equation of the line which intersects the lines = = and
1 2 4
x−1 y−2 z−3
= = and passes through the point (1, 1, 1).
2 3 4
Solution: Given that the required line passes through (1, 1, 1).
x+2 y−3 z+1
Equation of first line is = = .
1 2 4
x+2 y−3 z+1
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = λ − 2, y = 2λ + 3, z = 4λ − 1.
1 2 4
Then, general point on first line is (λ − 2, 2λ + 3, 4λ − 1).
Now, the required line intersects the first line.
in
Let coordinates of point of intersection be (λ − 2, 2λ + 3, 4λ − 1), for some λ.
Then, direction ratios of the required line are (λ − 2) − 1, (2λ + 3) − 1, (4λ − 1) − 1,
i.e., λ − 3, 2λ + 2, 4λ − 2. ...(1)
x−1 y−2 z−3
2 3 4
e.
x−1 y−2 z−3
Let = = =µ ⇒ x = 2µ + 1, y = 3µ + 2, z = 4µ + 3.
2 3 4
Then, general point on second line is (2µ + 1, 3µ + 2, 4µ + 3).
Now, the required line intersects the second line.
Let coordinates of point of intersection be (2µ + 1, 3µ + 2, 4µ + 3), for some µ.
yd
Then, direction ratios of the required line are (2µ + 1) − 1, (3µ + 2) − 1, (4µ + 3) − 1,
i.e., 2µ, 3µ + 1, 4µ + 2. ...(2)
The two sets of direction ratios of the required line in (1) and (2) are proportional, then
λ−3 2λ + 2 4λ − 2
= = = k (say).
2µ 3µ + 1 4µ + 2
rif
We have, λ − 3 = 2kµ, ...(3) 2λ + 2 = 3kµ + k, ...(4) 4λ − 2 = 4kµ + 2k. ...(5)
λ−3
From (3), we have kµ = .
2
Putting value of kµ in (4), we get
3λ − 9 λ + 13
la
2λ + 2 = +k ⇒ 4λ + 4 = 3λ − 9 + 2k ⇒ k= . ...(6)
2 2
Putting value of kµ in (5), we get
4λ − 2 = 2(λ − 3) + 2k ⇒ 2λ − 1 = λ − 3 + k ⇒ k = λ + 2. ...(7)
From (6) and (7), we get
C
λ + 13
=λ+2 ⇒ λ + 13 = 2λ + 4 ⇒ λ = 9.
2
From (1), direction ratios of the required line are 6, 20, 34, i.e., 3, 10, 17.
x−1 y−1 z−1
Hence, the equation of required line is = = .
3 10 17
Example 7 (Exemplar) Find the equations of the two lines through the origin which intersect the line
x−3 y−3 z π
= = at angles of each.
2 1 1 3
x−3 y−3 z
Solution: Equation of given line is = = .
2 1 1
x−3 y−3 z
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ + 3, y = λ + 3, z = λ.
2 1 1
Then, general point on given line is (2λ + 3, λ + 3, λ).

Let R be the point on the given line where it intersects the required line.
Let coordinates of R be (2λ + 3, λ + 3, λ), for some λ.
Also, the required lines passes through the origin (0, 0, 0).
Then, direction ratios of the required line are 2λ + 3 − 0, λ + 3 − 0, λ − 0, i.e., 2λ + 3, λ + 3, λ.
Also, direction ratios of the given line are 2, 2, 1.
Let a1 = 2, b1 = 1, c1 = 1 and a2 = 2λ + 3, b2 = λ + 3, c2 = λ.
π
Given that the required line intersects the given line at an angle of .
3
π a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
Then, cos = p 2 p
3 a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
in
1 (2)(2λ + 3) + (1)(λ + 3) + (1)(λ)
⇒ = p p
2 (2)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 (2λ + 3)2 + (λ + 3)2 + (λ)2
1 6λ + 9
⇒ = √ √
e.
2 6 6λ2 + 18λ + 18
1 6λ + 9
⇒ = √
2 6 λ2 + 3λ + 3
2λ + 3
⇒ 1= √
2
λ + 3λ + 3
yd
(2λ + 3)2
⇒ 1= 2
λ + 3λ + 3
⇒ λ2 + 3λ + 3 = 4λ2 + 12λ + 9
⇒ 3λ2 + 9λ + 6 = 0
⇒ λ2 + 3λ + 2 = 0
rif
⇒ (λ + 1)(λ + 2) = 0
⇒ λ = −1, −2.
Thus, direction ratios of the required lines are 1, 2, −1 and −1, 1, −2.
x−0 y−0 z−0 x−0 y−0 z−0
Hence, the equations of required lines are = = and = = .
la
1 2 −1 −1 1 −2
19.4.2 Distance of a Line from a Point
In this subsection, we shall discuss the method of finding the perpendicular distance of a line from a
point. We have the following working rule:
C
Step I Write the given equation of line.

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a b c
⃗r = (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) + λ(aî + bĵ + ck̂)
= (aλ + x1 )î + (bλ + y1 )ĵ + (cλ + z1 )k̂.
The general point on the line is (aλ + x1 , bλ + y1 , cλ + z1 ).
Step II Let R(aλ + x1 , bλ + y1 , cλ + z1 ) be the foot of perpendicular drawn from the given point
P on the given line.
Step III We write the direction ratios of P R and the given line.
Step IV P R is perpendicular to given line, so by using the condition of perpendicularity, we can
compute λ.
Step V The coordinates of point R can be obtained and length of perpendicular P R can be
computed using distance formula.
We can also find the image of the given point in the given line using the above method.
Image of a Point in a Line: Given a line and a point P not lying on the line. Then, a point Q is said
to be the image of P in the given line if P Q is perpendicular to the given line and the mid-point R
of P Q lies on the given line. (See Figure 19.3)
in
R
e.
Q
Figure 19.3
Example 8 Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular and the length of the perpendicular
yd
drawn from the point P (5, 4, 2) to the line ⃗r = −î + 3ĵ + k̂ + λ(2î + 3ĵ − k̂). Also, find the image of
P in this line.
Solution: Equation of given line is P (5, 4, 2)
⃗r = −î + 3ĵ + k̂ + λ(2î + 3ĵ − k̂)
R
= (2λ − 1)î + (3λ + 3)ĵ + (−λ + 1)k̂. Given line
rif
Then, general point on given line is (2λ − 1, 3λ + 3, −λ + 1).

Let R be the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point Q
P (5, 4, 2) on the given line.
Let coordinates of R be (2λ − 1, 3λ + 3, −λ + 1), for some λ. ...(1)
la
Direction ratios of line P R are 2λ − 1 − 5, 3λ + 3 − 4, −λ + 1 − 2, i.e., 2λ − 6, 3λ − 1, −λ − 1.

Also, direction ratios of the given line are 2, 3, −1.
Let a1 = 2λ − 6, b1 = 3λ − 1, c1 = −λ − 1 and a2 = 2, b2 = 3, c2 = −1.
Now, P R is perpendicular to the given line, we have
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (2λ − 6)(2) + (3λ − 1)(3) + (−λ − 1)(−1) = 0
C
⇒ 14λ − 14 = 0
⇒ λ = 1.
Putting λ = 1 in (1), we get the coordinates of R as R(1, 6, 0).
p √
Thus, length of perpendicular = P R = (1 − 5)2 + (6 − 4)2 + (0 − 2)2 = 24 units.
Let Q(x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the image of the point P (5,
4, 2) in the given line.
5 + x0 4 + y0 2 + z0
Also, the coordinates of mid-point of P Q are R , , .
2 2 2
5 + x0 4 + y0 2 + z0
Then, = 1, = 6, =0 ⇒ x0 = −3, y0 = 8, z0 = −2.
2 2 2
Hence, the required image point is Q(−3, 8, −2).
Example 9 A line passing through the point A with position vector ⃗a = 4î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ is parallel to the
vector ⃗b = 2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂. Find the length of the perpendicular drawn on this line from a point P with
position vector r⃗1 = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂.
Solution: Equation of line passing through the point A with position vector ⃗a = 4î + 2ĵ + 2k̂ is parallel
to the vector ⃗b = 2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂ is given by
⃗r = ⃗a + λ⃗b = (4î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂) = (2λ + 4)î + (3λ + 2)ĵ + (6λ + 2)k̂.
Then, general point on given line is (2λ + 4, 3λ + 2, 6λ + 2).
Let R be the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point P with position vector r⃗1 = î + 2ĵ + 3λ̂,
i.e., P (1, 2, 3) on the given line.
in
Let coordinates of R be (2λ + 4, 3λ + 2, 6λ + 2), for some λ. ...(1)
Direction ratios of line P R are 2λ + 4 − 1, 3λ + 2 − 2, 6λ + 2 − 3, i.e., 2λ + 3, 3λ, 6λ − 1.
Also, direction ratios of the given line are 2, 3, 6.
Let a1 = 2λ + 3, b1 = 3λ, c1 = 6λ − 1 and a2 = 2, b2 = 3, c2 = 6.
e.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (2λ + 3)(2) + (3λ)(3) + (6λ − 1)(6) = 0
⇒ 49λ = 0
⇒ λ = 0.
Putting λ = 0 in (1), we get the coordinates of R as R(4, 2, 2).
yd
p √
Hence, length of perpendicular = P R = (4 − 1)2 + (2 − 2)2 + (2 − 3)2 = 10 units.
Example 10 Find the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular drawn from the point A(−1, 8, 4) to the
line joining the points B(0, −1, 3) and C(2, −3, −1). Hence find the image of the point A in the line
BC.
Solution: Given a line passing through the points B(0, −1, 3) and C(2, −3, −1).
rif
Then, direction ratios of the line BC are 2 − 0, −3 + 1, −1 − 3, i.e., 2, −2, −4, i.e., 1, −1, −2.
Equation of line BC is
A(−1, 8, 4)
⃗r = 0î − ĵ + 3k̂ + λ(î − ĵ − 2k̂)
= λî + (−λ − 1)ĵ + (−2λ + 3)k̂. R
la
B C
Then, general point on line BC is (λ, −λ − 1, −2λ + 3).
Let R be the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point
A(−1, 8, 4) on the line BC. Q
Let coordinates of R be (λ, −λ − 1, −2λ + 3), for some λ. ...(1)
C
Direction ratios of line AR are λ + 1, −λ − 1 − 8, −2λ + 3 − 4, i.e., λ + 1, −λ − 9, −2λ − 1.

Also, direction ratios of the line BC are 1, −1, −2.
Let a1 = λ + 1, b1 = −λ − 9, c1 = −2λ − 1 and a2 = 1, b2 = −1, c2 = −2.
Now, AR is perpendicular to the line BC, we have
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (λ + 1)(1) + (−λ − 9)(−1) + (−2λ − 1)(−2) = 0
⇒ 6λ + 12 = 0
⇒ λ = −2.
Putting λ = −2 in (1), we get the coordinates of R as R(−2, 1, 7).
Let Q(x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the image of the point A(−1, 8, 4) in the line BC.

−1 + x0 8 + y0 4 + z0
Also, the coordinates of mid-point of AQ are R , , .
2 2 2
−1 + x0 8 + y0 4 + z0
Then, = −2, = 1, =7 ⇒ x0 = −3, y0 = −6, z0 = 10.
2 2 2
Hence, the required image point is Q(−3, −6, 10).
x − 11 y+2 z+8
Example 11 (ISC 2016) Find the image of the point (2, −1, 5) in the line = = .
10 −4 −11
Also, find the length of the perpendicular from the point (2, −1, 5) to the line.
Solution: Equation of given line is P (2, −1, 5)
x − 11 y+2 z+8
= = .
10 −4 −11 R
x − 11 y+2 z+8 Given line
Let = = = λ.
in
10 −4 −11
Then, x = 10λ + 11, y = −4λ − 2, z = −11λ − 8. Q
Then, general point on given line is (10λ + 11, −4λ − 2, −11λ − 8).
Let R be the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point P (2, −1, 5) on the given line.
Let coordinates of R be (10λ + 11, −4λ − 2, −11λ − 8), for some λ. ...(1)
e.
Direction ratios of line P R are 10λ + 11 − 2, −4λ − 2 + 1, −11λ − 8 − 5,
i.e., 10λ + 9, −4λ − 1, −11λ − 13.
Also, direction ratios of the given line are 10, −4, −11.
Let a1 = 10λ + 9, b1 = −4λ − 1, c1 = −11λ − 13 and a2 = 10, b2 = −4, c2 = −11.
yd
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (10λ + 9)(10) + (−4λ − 1)(−4) + (−11λ − 13)(−11) = 0
⇒ 237λ + 237 = 0
⇒ λ = −1.
Putting λ = −1 in (1), we get the coordinates of R as R(1, 2, 3).
√
rif
p
Thus, length of perpendicular = P R = (1 − 2)2 + (2 + 1)2 + (3 − 5)2 = 14 units.
Let Q(x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the image of the point P (2, −1, 5) in the given line.

2 + x0 −1 + y0 5 + z0
2 2 2
la
2 + x0 −1 + y0 5 + z0
Then, = 1, = 2, =3 ⇒ x0 = 0, y0 = 5, z0 = 1.
2 2 2
Hence, the required image point is Q(0, 5, 1).
x+2 y+1 z−3 √
Example 12 Find the point on the line = = at a distance 3 2 from (1, 2, 3).
C
3 2 2
x+2 y+1 z−3
Solution: Equation of the given line is = = .
3 2 2
x+2 y+1 z−3
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 3λ − 2, y = 2λ − 1, z = 2λ + 3.
3 2 2
Then, general point on the given line is (3λ − 2, 2λ − 1, 2λ + 3).
√
Let R be the point on the given line at a distance of 3 2 units from P (1, 2, 3).
Let coordinates of R be (3λ − 2, 2λ − 1, 2λ + 3), for some λ. ...(1)
√ p √
Now, P R = 3 2 ⇒ 2 2
(3λ − 2 − 1) + (2λ − 1 − 2) + (2λ + 3 − 3) = 3 2 2
⇒ (3λ − 3)2 + (2λ − 3)2 + (2λ)2 = 18

⇒ 9λ2 + 9 − 18λ + 4λ2 + 9 − 12λ + 4λ2 = 18
⇒ 17λ2 − 30λ = 0
30
⇒ λ = 0, .
17
Putting λ = 0 in (1), we get the coordinates of point R as R(−2, −1, 3).

30 56 43 111
Putting λ = in (1), we get the coordinates of point R as R , , .
17 17 17 17

56 43 111
Hence, the required points are (−2, −1, 3) and , , .
17 17 17
19.4.3 Shortest Distance between Two Lines
In this subsection, we shall discuss the method to determine the shortest distance between two lines.
in
Consider two lines L1 and L2 having vector equations
⃗r = (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) + λ(p1 î + q1 ĵ + r1 k̂) = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1
and ⃗r = (x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂) + µ(p2 î + q2 ĵ + r2 k̂) = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2
e.
respectively, where ⃗a1 = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂ is the position vector of a point A on line L1 ,
and ⃗a2 = x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂ is the position vector of a point B on line L2 .
The following cases arise.
Case I L1 and L2 are intersecting lines.
In this case, the distance between L1 and L2 is zero.
yd
Case II L1 and L2 are parallel lines.
In this case, L1 and L2 are coplanar and ⃗b1 = ⃗b2 = ⃗b (say). Let C be the foot of perpendicular
drawn from B on the line L1 and let ∠BAC = θ, as shown in Figure 19.4.
−−→
Then, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = ⃗a2 − ⃗a1
Hence, the shortest distance between L1 and L2
rif
−−→ −−→
|AB| |⃗b| sin θ |AB × ⃗b| |(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) × ⃗b|
= BC = AB sin θ = = = .
|⃗b| |⃗b| |⃗b|
⃗b B(⃗a2 ) L
⃗b2
la
L2 B(⃗a2 )
D
L2
C
θ L1
L1 A(⃗a1 ) ⃗b1 C
A(⃗a1 ) ⃗b C
Case III L1 and L2 are skew lines (i.e., neither intersecting nor parallel.)
In this case, L1 and L2 are non-coplanar and ⃗b1 ̸= ⃗b2 . Let the line L of shortest distance
intersects the lines L1 and L2 in points C and D respectively, as shown in Figure 19.5.
−−→
Now, AB = Position vector of B − Position vector of A = ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 .
−−→ −−→ ⃗b1 × ⃗b2
Also, CD is perpendicular to both ⃗b1 and ⃗b2 , and unit vector along CD is n̂ = .
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
Also, CD is the projection of AB on line L.
Hence, the shortest distance between L1 and L2
−−→ ⃗
−−→ −−→ −−→ ⃗b1 × ⃗b2 AB · (b1 × ⃗b2 ) (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )
= |CD| = |AB · n̂| = AB · = = .
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 | |⃗b1 × ⃗b2 | |⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
If the lines L1 and L2 intersect, then the shortest distance between them is zero, i.e.,
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )
=0 ⇒ (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = 0.
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
Also, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂
î ĵ k̂
and ⃗b1 × ⃗b2 = p1
in
q1 r1 = î(q1 r2 − q2 r1 ) − ĵ(p1 r2 − p2 r1 ) + k̂(p1 q2 − p2 q1 ).
p2 q2 r2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
Then, (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = p1 q1 r1 .
e.
p2 q2 r2
Hence, for the lines L1 and L2 to intersect, we must have
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = p1 q1 r1 = 0.
p2 q2 r2
yd
We can use the above discussion to find whether the given two lines are parallel, intersecting or skew. In
case, the given two lines are parallel or skew, we can find the shortest distance between them. We have
the following procedure.
Step I Express the equations of two given lines in vector form ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 and ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 .
Step II If ⃗b1 = ⃗b2 (= ⃗b, say), then the lines are parallel and in this case, the shortest distance
rif
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) × ⃗b
between the given lines is .
|⃗b|
Step III If ⃗b1 ̸= ⃗b2 , then the lines are either intersecting or skew lines and in this case, the shortest
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )
la
distance between the given lines is .

|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
If the shortest distance between the given lines is 0, then they are intersecting, otherwise
they are skew lines.
C
Conditions for Lines to Intersect:

(i) The lines ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 and ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 intersect if (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = 0.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
(ii) The lines = = and = = intersect if
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2

Example 13 (ISC 2015) Find the shortest distance between the following lines:
⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) and ⃗r = (2î + 4ĵ + 5k̂) + µ(4î + 6ĵ + 8k̂).
Solution: Equations of given lines are

⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) and ⃗r = (2î + 4ĵ + 5k̂) + µ(4î + 6ĵ + 8k̂)
= ⃗a1 + λ ⃗b1 = (2î + 4ĵ + 5k̂) + 2µ(2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂)
= ⃗a2 + µ′ ⃗b2 ,
where ⃗a1 = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂, ⃗b1 = 2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂, ⃗a2 = 2î + 4ĵ + 5k̂, ⃗b2 = 2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂.
Here, ⃗b1 = ⃗b2 = 2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ = ⃗b (say), thus the given lines are parallel to each other.
Now, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (2î + 4ĵ + 5k̂) − (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) = î + 2ĵ + 2k̂,
î ĵ k̂
in
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) × ⃗b = 1 2 2 = î(8 − 6) − ĵ(4 − 4) + k̂(3 − 4) = 2î + 0ĵ − k̂,
2 3 4
√
|⃗b| = |2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂| = (2)2 + (3)2 + (4)2 = 29.
p
e.
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) × ⃗b 2î + 0ĵ − k̂
Hence, the shortest distance between given lines = = √
⃗
|b| 29
p
(2)2 + (0)2 + (−1)2
= √
29
yd
r
5
= units.
29
Example 14 Find the shortest distance between the lines
⃗r = 2î − ĵ + k̂ + λ(3î − 2ĵ + 5k̂) and ⃗r = 3î + 2ĵ − 4k̂ + µ(4î − ĵ + 3k̂).
rif
⃗r = 2î − ĵ + k̂ + λ(3î − 2ĵ + 5k̂) and ⃗r = 3î + 2ĵ − 4k̂ + µ(4î − ĵ + 3k̂)
= ⃗a1 + λ ⃗b1 = ⃗a2 + µ ⃗b2 ,
where ⃗a1 = 2î − ĵ + k̂, ⃗b1 = 3î − 2ĵ + 5k̂, ⃗a2 = 3î + 2ĵ − 4k̂, ⃗b2 = 4î − ĵ + 3k̂.
la
Here, ⃗b1 ̸= ⃗b2 , thus the given lines are either intersecting or skew lines.
Now, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (3î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) − (2î − ĵ + k̂) = î + 3ĵ − 5k̂,
î ĵ k̂
C
⃗b1 × ⃗b2 = 3 −2 5 = î(−6 + 5) − ĵ(9 − 20) + k̂(−3 + 8) = −î + 11ĵ + 5k̂,

4 −1 3
√ √
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 | = | − î + 11ĵ + 5k̂| = (−1)2 + (11)2 + (5)2 = 147 = 7 3.
p
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )

Hence, the shortest distance between given lines =
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
(î + 3ĵ − 5k̂) · (−î + 11ĵ + 5k̂)
= √
7 3
−1 + 33 − 25 1
= √ = √ unit.
7 3 3
Example 15 Write the nature of the lines
⃗r = (2ĵ − 3k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) and ⃗r = (2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂) + µ(2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂).
Also, find the shortest distance between them.
⃗r = (2ĵ − 3k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) and ⃗r = (2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂) + µ(2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂)
= ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 ,
where ⃗a1 = 0î + 2ĵ − 3k̂, ⃗b1 = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂, ⃗a2 = 2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂, ⃗b2 = 2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂.
in
Now, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂) − (0î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = 2î + 4ĵ + 6k̂,
î ĵ k̂
⃗b1 × ⃗b2 = 1 2 3 = î(8 − 9) − ĵ(4 − 6) + k̂(3 − 4) = −î + 2ĵ − k̂,
2 3 4
√
e.
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 | = | − î + 2ĵ − k̂| = (−1)2 + (2)2 + (−1)2 = 6.
p
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )

Thus, the shortest distance between given lines =
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
yd
(2î + 4ĵ + 6k̂) · (−î + 2ĵ − k̂)
= √ = 0 units.
6
Hence, the given lines are intersecting lines.
Example 16 Write the nature of the lines
⃗r = (4î − ĵ + 0k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) and ⃗r = (î − ĵ + 2k̂) + µ(2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂).
rif
Also, find the shortest distance between them.
⃗r = (4î − ĵ + 0k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) and ⃗r = (î − ĵ + 2k̂) + µ(2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂)
= ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 ,
la
where ⃗a1 = 4î − ĵ + 0k̂, ⃗b1 = î + 2ĵ − 3k̂, ⃗a2 = î − ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗b2 = 2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂.
Now, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (î − ĵ + 2k̂) − (4î − ĵ + 0k̂) = −3î + 0ĵ + 2k̂,
C
î ĵ k̂
⃗b1 × ⃗b2 = 1 2 −3 = î(−10 + 12) − ĵ(−5 + 6) + k̂(4 − 4) = 2î − ĵ + 0k̂,
2 4 −5
√
⃗ ⃗
p
|b1 × b2 | = |2î − ĵ + 0k̂| = (2)2 + (−1)2 + (0)2 = 5.
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )

Thus, the shortest distance between given lines =
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
(−3î + 0ĵ + 2k̂) · (2î − ĵ + 0k̂) 6
= √ = √ units.
5 5
Hence, the given lines are skew lines.
Example 17 (ISC 2012) Find the shortest distance between the following lines:
x−8 y+9 z − 10 x − 15 y − 29 5−z
= = ; = = .
3 −16 7 3 8 5
Solution: Equations of given lines in Cartesian form are
x−8 y+9 z − 10 x − 15 y − 29 5−z
= = and = =
3 −16 7 3 8 5
x−8 y+9 z − 10 x − 15 y − 29 z−5
⇒ = = and = = ,
3 −16 7 3 8 −5
which can be expressed in vector form as
⃗r = (8î − 9ĵ + 10k̂) + λ(3î − 16ĵ + 7k̂) and ⃗r = (15î + 29ĵ + 5k̂) + µ(3î + 8ĵ − 5k̂)
in
= ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 ,
where ⃗a1 = 8î − 9ĵ + 10k̂, ⃗b1 = 3î − 16ĵ + 7k̂, ⃗a2 = 15î + 29ĵ + 5k̂, ⃗b2 = 3î + 8ĵ − 5k̂.
e.
Now, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (15î + 29ĵ + 5k̂) − (8î − 9ĵ + 10k̂) = 7î + 38ĵ − 5k̂,
î ĵ k̂
⃗b1 × ⃗b2 = 3 −16 7 = î(80 − 56) − ĵ(−15 − 21) + k̂(24 + 48) = 24î + 36ĵ + 72k̂,
3 8 −5
yd
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 | = |24î + 36ĵ + 72k̂| = (24)2 + (36)2 + (72)2 = 84.
p
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )

|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
(7î + 38ĵ − 5k̂) · (24î + 36ĵ + 72k̂)

rif
=
84
= 14 units.
Example 18 Find the shortest distance between the pair of lines having equations x + 1 = 2y = −12z
la
and x = y + 2 = 6z − 6.
Solution: Equations of given lines in Cartesian form are
x + 1 = 2y = −12z and x = y + 2 = 6z − 6
x+1 y−0 z−0 x−0 y+2 z−1
C
⇒ = = and = = ,
1 1 1 1 1 1
−
2 12 6
which can be expressed in vector form as

1 1 1
⃗r = (−î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) + λ î + ĵ − k̂ and ⃗r = (0î − 2ĵ + k̂) + µ î + ĵ + k̂
2 12 6
= ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 ,
where ⃗a1 = −î + 0ĵ + 0k̂, ⃗b1 = î + 1 ĵ − 1 k̂, ⃗a2 = 0î − 2ĵ + k̂, ⃗b2 = î + ĵ + 1 k̂.
2 12 6
Here, ⃗b1 =
̸ ⃗b2 , thus the given lines are either intersecting or skew lines.
Now, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (0î − 2ĵ + k̂) − (−î + 0ĵ + 0k̂) = î − 2ĵ + k̂,
î ĵ k̂
1 1

⃗b1 × ⃗b2 = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
− = î + − ĵ + + k̂ 1 − = î − ĵ + k̂,
2 12 12 12 6 12 2 6 4 2
1
1 1
6
s
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 7
|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 | = î − ĵ + k̂ = + − + = .
6 4 2 6 4 2 12
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )

|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
in

1 1 1
(î − 2ĵ + k̂) · î − ĵ + k̂
6 4 2
= = 2 units.
7
12
e.
Example 19 Find the vector equation of a line passing through the point (2, 3, 2) and parallel to the
line ⃗r = (−2î + 3ĵ) + λ(2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂). Also, find the distance between these two lines.
Solution: Equation of given line is ⃗r = (−2î + 3ĵ) + λ(2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂).
yd
Then, direction ratios of given line are 2, −3, 6.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line which is parallel to given line are 2k, −3k, 6k, i.e., 2, −3, 6.
Hence, vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (2î + 3ĵ + 2k̂) + µ(2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂).
Equations of the two lines are
⃗r = (−2î + 3ĵ + 0k̂) + λ(2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂) and ⃗r = (2î + 3ĵ + 2k̂) + µ(2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂)
rif
= ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 ,
where ⃗a1 = −2î + 3ĵ + 0k̂, ⃗b1 = 2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂, ⃗a2 = 2î + 3ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗b2 = 2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂.
Here, ⃗b1 = ⃗b2 = 2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂ = ⃗b (say), thus the given lines are parallel to each other.
la
Now, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (2î + 3ĵ + 2k̂) − (−2î + 3ĵ + 0k̂) = 4î + 0ĵ + 2k̂,
î ĵ k̂
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) × ⃗b = 4 0 2 = î(0 + 6) − ĵ(24 − 4) + k̂(−12 − 0) = 6î − 20ĵ − 12k̂,
2 −3 6
C
|⃗b| = |2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂| = (2)2 + (−3)2 + (6)2 = 7.

p
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) × ⃗b
|⃗b|
6î − 20ĵ − 12k̂
=
7
p
(6)2 + (−20)2 + (−12)2
=
√ 7
580
= units.
7
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−1 y−1 z−6

Example 20 If the lines = = and = = are perpendicular,
−3 2λ 2 3λ 2 −5
find the value of λ. Hence find whether the lines are intersecting or not.
x−1 y−2 z−3
−3 2λ 2
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = −3, b1 = 2λ, c1 = 2.
x−1 y−1 z−6
3λ 2 −5
Then, direction ratios of second line are a2 = 3λ, b2 = 2, c2 = −5.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (−3)(3λ) + (2λ)(2) + (2)(−5) = 0 ⇒ −5λ − 10 = 0
in
⇒ λ = −2.
Thus, equations of given lines are
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−1 y−1 z−6
= = and = =
−3 −4 2 −6 2 −5
e.
which are of the form
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = ,
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
where x1 = 1, y1 = 2, z1 = 3; x2 = 1, y2 = 1, z2 = 6;
yd
a1 = −3, b1 = −4, c1 = 2; a2 = −6, b2 = 2, c2 = −5.
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 0 −1 3
Now, a1 b1 c1 = −3 −4 2 = 0 + 1(15 + 12) + 3(−6 − 24) = −63 ̸= 0.
a2 b2 c2 −6 2 −5
Hence, the given lines are not intersecting, i.e., they are skew lines.
rif
Example 21 Find the values of a so that the following lines are skew:
x−1 y−2 z−a x−4 y−1
= = , = = z.
2 3 4 5 2
x−1 y−2 z−a x−4 y−1
la
= = and = = z.
2 3 4 5 2
x−1 y−2 z−a x−4 y−1 z−0
⇒ = = and = =
2 3 4 5 2 1
C
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = ,
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
where x1 = 1, y1 = 2, z1 = a; x2 = 4, y2 = 1, z2 = 0;
a1 = 2, b1 = 3, c1 = 4; a2 = 5, b2 = 2, c2 = 1.
Hence, the given lines are skew if
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 3 −1 −a
a1 b1 c1 ̸= 0 ⇒ 2 3 4 ̸= 0
a2 b2 c2 5 2 1
⇒ 3(3 − 8) + 1(2 − 20) − a(4 − 15) ̸= 0
⇒ −15 − 18 + 11a ̸= 0
⇒ a ̸= 3.
Exercise 19.4
(i) Skew lines are always colpanar.
(ii) Parallel lines are always coplanar.
(iii) Intersecting lines are always coplanar.
(iv) The distance between skew lines is always positive.
(v) If L1 and L2 are two skew lines, then a line perpendicular to both L1 and L2 is the line of
the shortest distance.
(i) The lines ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 and ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 intersect each other if
in
.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
(ii) The two lines = = and = = are skew lines
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
if .
(iii) The line of shortest distance between two skew lines is to both the lines.
e.
* 3. Show that the lines ⃗r = (3î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) and ⃗r = (5î − 2ĵ) + µ(3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂)
are intersecting. Hence, find their point of intersection.
4. Show that the lines ⃗r = (2ĵ − 3k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) and ⃗r = (2î + 6ĵ + 3k̂) + µ(2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂)
intersect and find their point of intersection.
yd
5. Show that the lines ⃗r = (î − ĵ) + λ(2î + 3ĵ − k̂) and ⃗r = (−î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) + µ(5î + ĵ) do not
intersect.
x+1 y+3 z+5 x−2 y−4 z−6
* 6. Show that the lines = = and = = intersect. Also find
3 5 7 1 3 5
their point of intersection.
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−4 y−1
* 7. Show that the lines = = and = = z intersect. Also, find their
rif
2 3 4 5 2
point of intersection. [Exemplar]
x−1 y−1 z+1 x−4 y−0 z+1
8. Show that the lines = = and = = intersect each other
3 −1 0 2 0 3
and find their point of intersection.
la
9. Find the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the point (0, 2, 3) on the line whose equation is
⃗r = (5λ − 3)î + (2λ + 1)ĵ + (3λ − 4)k̂. Also, find the length of the perpendicular.
x−1 y+1 z + 10
10. Find perpendicular distance of (1, 0, 0) from the line = = . Also, find the
2 −3 8
C
coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular.

4−x y 1−z
11. Find the foot of perpendicular from the point (2, 3, −8) to the line = = . Also,
2 6 3
find the perpendicular distance from the given point to the line. [Exemplar]
12. Find the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular drawn from the point A (1, 8, 4) to the line joining
the points B(0, −1, 3) and C(2, −3, −1). [Exemplar]
x+5 y+3 z−6
13. Find the distance of a point (2, 4, −1) from the line = = . [Exemplar]
1 4 −9
x+3 y−4 z+8
14. Find the distance of the point (−2, 4, −5) from the line = = .
3 5 6
x y−1 z−2
15. Find the image of the point (1, 6, 3) in the line = = . [Exemplar]
1 2 3
x+2 y+1 z−3

16. Find the points on the line = = at a distance of 5 units from the point
3 2 2
P (1, 3, 3).
* 17. Find the shortest distance between the following lines: [ISC 2010]
⃗r = (4î − ĵ + 2k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) and ⃗r = (2î + ĵ − k̂) + µ(3î + 2ĵ − 4k̂).
* 18. Find the distance between the lines l1 and l2 given by
l1 : ⃗r = î + 2ĵ − 4k̂ + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂); l2 : ⃗r = 3î + 3ĵ − 5k̂ + µ(4î + 6ĵ + 12k̂).
* 19. Find the shortest distance between the lines given by ⃗r = (8 + 3λ)î − (9 + 16λ)ĵ + (10 + 7λ)k̂
and ⃗r = (15î + 29ĵ + 5k̂) + µ(3î + 8ĵ − 5k̂). [Exemplar]
in
* 20. Find the shortest distance between the lines whose vector equations are ⃗r = î + ĵ + λ(2î − ĵ + k̂)
and ⃗r = 2î + ĵ − k̂ + µ(3î − 5ĵ + 2k̂).
* 21. Find the shortest distance between the lines: [Exemplar]
⃗r = (λ − 1)î + (λ + 1)ĵ − (1 + λ)k̂ and ⃗r = (1 − µ)î + (2µ − 1)ĵ + (µ + 2)k̂.
e.
22. Find the shortest distance between following pairs of lines: [NCERT]
⃗r = (1 − t)î + (t − 2)ĵ + (3 − 2t)k̂ and ⃗r = (s + 1)î + (2s − 1)ĵ − (2s + 1)k̂.
23. Find the shortest distance between following pairs of lines:
⃗r = (2î − ĵ − k̂) + λ(3î − 5ĵ + 2k̂) and ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + k̂) + µ(î − ĵ + k̂).
yd
24. Find the shortest distance between the lines: [NCERT]
⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + k̂) + λ(î − ĵ + k̂) and ⃗r = (2î − ĵ − k̂) + µ(2î + ĵ + 2k̂).
25. Find the shortest distance between the lines: [NCERT]
⃗r = (6î + 2ĵ + 2k̂) + λ(î − 2ĵ + 2k̂) and ⃗r = (−4î − k̂) + µ(3î − 2ĵ − 2k̂).
26. Find the shortest distance between following pairs of lines:
rif
⃗r = (2î + ĵ − k̂) + λ(4î − 2ĵ + 2k̂) and ⃗r = (î + ĵ) + µ(2î − ĵ + k̂).
27. Find the shortest distance between the pair of lines ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(î − 3ĵ + 2k̂) and
⃗r = (4î + 5ĵ + 6k̂) + µ(2î + 3ĵ + k̂). [NCERT]
28. Find the shortest distance between the lines:
la
⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂); ⃗r = (2î + 4ĵ + 5k̂) + µ(3î + 4ĵ + 5k̂).
* 29. Find the shortest distance between the following lines:
x+1 y+1 z+1 x−3 y−5 z−7
= = and = = .
7 −6 1 1 −2 1
C
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−2 y−4 z−5

30. Write the nature of the lines = = and = = . Also, find
4 6 8 2 3 4
the shortest distance between them.
31. Write the vector equations of the following lines and hence determine the distance between them.
x−1 y−2 z+4 x−3 y−3 z+5
= = ; = = .
2 3 6 4 6 12
32. Find the shortest distance between the following pair of lines and hence write whether the lines
are intersecting or not.
x−1 y+1 x+1 y−2
= = z; = ; z = 2.
2 3 5 1
* 33. Find the vector equation of the line passing through the point (2, 1, −1) and parallel to the line
⃗r = (î + ĵ) + λ(2î − ĵ + k̂). Also, find the distance between these two lines.
* 34. Find the vector equation of the line passing through the point (−1, 2, 1) and parallel to the line
⃗r = 2î + 3ĵ − k̂ + λ(î − 2ĵ + k̂). Also, find the distance between these lines. [ISC 2011]
1−x 7y − 14 z−3 7 − 7x y−5 6−z
* 35. Find the value of λ so that the lines = = and = =
3 λ 2 3λ 1 5
are at right angles. Also, find whether the lines are intersecting or not.
x−2 y+4 z−3 x y−1 z+3
36. The lines = = and = = are
1 2 3 2 4 6
(a) skew (b) parallel (c) intersecting (d) coincident
37. Two adjacent edges of a cuboid are
in
(a) skew (b) parallel (c) intersecting (d) coincident
Answers 19.4
(i) False (ii) True (iii) True (iv) True (v) True
e.
1.
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
2. (i) (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = 0 (ii) a1 b1 c1 ̸= 0
a2 b2 c2
(iii) perpendicular
yd

1 1 3
3. (−1, −6, −12) 4. (2, 6, 3) 6. ,− ,−
2 2 2
√
7. (−1, −1, −1) 8. (4, 0, −1) 9. (2, 3, −1), 21 units
√ √

5 2 19
10. 2 6 units, (3, −4, −2) 11. (2, 6, −2), 3 5 units 12. − , ,
3 3 3
rif
√
370
13. 7 units 14. units 15. (1, 0, 7)
10 √
6 293
16. (−2, −1, 3), (4, 3, 7) 17. √ unit 18. units
45 7
la
10 5
19. 14 units 20. √ units 21. √ units
59 2
8 4 3
22. √ units 23. √ units 24. √ units
29 14 2
C
1 3
25. 9 units 26. √ unit 27. √ unit
6 19
√
r
1 5
28. √ unit 29. 116 units 30. parallel, units
6 29
√
293
31. ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ − 4k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂), ⃗r = (3î + 3ĵ − 5k̂) + µ(4î + 6ĵ + 12k̂), units
r 7
9 11
32. √ units, skew lines 33. ⃗r = (2î + ĵ − k̂) + µ(2î − ĵ + k̂), units
195 6
r
83
34. ⃗r = (−î + 2ĵ + k̂) + µ(î − 2ĵ + k̂), units 35. 7, skew lines
6
36. (b) 37. (c)
Three-Dimensional Geometry – I Jai Shri Ram19.51
Summary
1. Distance Formula: The distance between two points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is given
p
by AB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2 .
2. Section Formula: The coordinates of a point that divides the line segment joining (x1 , y1 , z1 )
and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) internally in the ratio m : n are given by

, , .
m+n m+n m+n
The coordinates of a point that divides the line segment joining (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x2 , y2 , z2 )
externally in the ratio m : n are given by
in

, , .
m−n m−n m−n
3. If a line makes angles α, β and γ with the positive directions of x, y and z-axis respectively,
then cos α, cos β, cos γ and − cos α, − cos β, − cos γ are the direction cosines of the line.
e.
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
4. If A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are two points on a line, then , ,
AB AB AB
x1 − x2 y1 − y2 z1 − z2
and , , are the direction cosines of the line.
AB AB AB
5. If l, m, n are direction cosines of a line, then −l, −m, −n are also its direction cosines.
yd
6. For any line, there are two sets of direction cosines.
7. If l, m, n are direction cosines of a line, then l2 + m2 + n2 = 1.
8. Any three numbers which are proportional to direction cosines of a line are called direction
ratios or direction numbers of that line.
9. Let l, m, n be direction cosines of a line, then a = λl, b = λm, c = λn are direction ratios of
that line, where λ is a non-zero real number.
rif
10. For any line, there are infinitely many direction ratios.
11. For λ = 1, we have a = l, b = m, c = n. Thus, the direction cosines of a line are also the
direction ratios of that line.
12. The direction ratios of a line passing through A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) are proportional
la
to x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 .
13. If a, b, c are direction ratios of a line, then ka, kb, kc are also direction ratios of that line,
where k is a non-zero real number.
14. Direction cosines of the line with direction ratios a, b, c are
a b c
C
l= √ , m= √ , n= √
2
a +b +c2 2 2
a +b +c2 2 a + b2 + c2
2
a b c
or l = −√ , m = −√ , n = −√ .
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2
15. If a line passes through (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and has direction ratios a, b, c, then its Cartesian equation
in parametric form with parameter λ is given by
x = x1 + aλ, y = y1 + bλ, z = z1 + cλ
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
and its Cartesian equation in symmetrical form is given by = = .
a b c
16. If a line passes through (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and has direction ratios a, b, c, then its vector equation
with parameter λ is given by ⃗r = (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) + λ(aî + bĵ + ck̂).
x−0 y−0 z−0
17. Cartesian and vector equations of x-axis are = = and λî respectively.
1 0 0
x−0 y−0 z−0
18. Cartesian and vector equations of y-axis are = = and λĵ respectively.
0 1 0
x−0 y−0 z−0
19. Cartesian and vector equations of z-axis are = = and λk̂ respectively.
0 0 1
20. The angle between two lines is defined as the angle between two vectors parallel to them.
21. The acute angle θ between lines having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 is given by
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos θ = p p .
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
22. The acute angle θ between lines having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 is given by
in
cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
23. Condition of Perpendicularity: Two lines having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are
e.
24. Condition of Perpendicularity: Two lines having direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2
are perpendicular if and only if l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 = 0.
25. Condition of Parallelism: Two lines are parallel if and only if their direction ratios are
proportional.
26. Two lines in a three-dimensional space are called skew lines if they are neither parallel nor
yd
intersecting.
27. Given a line and a point P not lying on the line. Then, a point Q is said to be the image of P
in the given line if P Q is perpendicular to the given line and the mid-point R of P Q lies on
the given line.
28. Let the equations of lines L1 and L2 be ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 and ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 .
(i) If ⃗b1 = ⃗b2 (= ⃗b, say), then the lines are parallel and in this case, the shortest distance
rif
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) × ⃗b
between L1 and L2 is .
|⃗b|
(ii) If ⃗b1 ̸= ⃗b2 , then the lines are either intersecting or skew lines and in this case, the shortest
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 )
la
distance between L1 and L2 is .

|⃗b1 × ⃗b2 |
If the shortest distance between L1 and L2 is 0, then L1 and L2 are intersecting, otherwise
they are skew lines.
C
(iii) Conditions for Lines to Intersect: The lines ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 and ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 intersect
if (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = 0.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
(iv) Conditions for Lines to Intersect: The lines = = and
a1 b1 c1
x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = intersect if
a2 b2 c2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
❏❏❏
Chapter 20
Three-Dimensional Geometry – II
“The important thing in science is not so much to obtain new facts as to discover new ways of
thinking about them.”
– William Lawrence Bragg
Introduction
in
In the previous chapter, we have discussed the concept of direction cosines and direction ratios of a
line. We have also learnt the concept of straight line in space. In this chapter, we shall proceed with the
discussion about plane in space. We shall study equations of plane in various forms. We shall also discuss
coplanar lines and problems related to finding the angle between two planes and the angle between a line
and a plane. Let us first understand the definition of a plane.
e.
Look closely at a room in your house. It has four walls, a roof and a floor. The floor and roof are parts of
two parallel planes extending infinitely beyond the boundary. You will also see two pairs of parallel walls
which are also parts of parallel planes. Similarly, the tops of tables, doors of rooms etc. are examples of
parts of planes. If we consider any two points in a plane, the line joining these points will lie entirely in
the same plane. This is the characteristic of a plane.
yd
Plane: It is a surface such that if any two distinct points A and B are taken on it, then the line
segment AB lies on the surface.
We shall use the definition of plane to find its general equation.
Consider the general equation of first degree in x, y and z given by
ax + by + cz + d = 0. ...(1)
rif
Let P (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) be any two points lying on the surface represented by equation (1).
Then, ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d = 0 ...(2)
and ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d = 0. ...(3)
la
Let R be any point lying on the line segment P Q and suppose that R divides P Q in the ratio m : n.

Then, the coordinates of R are , , .
m+n m+n m+n

Now, a +b +c +d
C
m+n m+n m+n

1
= [a(mx2 + nx1 ) + b(my2 + ny1 ) + c(mz2 + nz1 ) + d(m + n)]
m+n
1
= [m(ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d) + n(ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d)]
m+n
1
= [m(0) + n(0)] [Using (2) and (3)]
m+n
= 0.
Thus, point R lies on the surface represented by equation (1).
The point R is an arbitrary point on the line segment P Q which implies all the points lying on P Q lie
on the surface represented by equation (1).
Hence, equation (1) represents the general equation of a plane.
General Equation of a Plane: The general equation of a plane is the general equation of first degree
in x, y and z, given by ax + by + cz + d = 0.
Let us now discuss the concept of a plane in detail.
20.1 Equation of Plane in Space
The general equation of a plane does not give much information about the plane except that the equation
of a plane is of first degree in x, y and z. In this section, we shall understand the vector and Cartesian
equations of plane in space in the following forms:
(i) Point-Normal Form (ii) Normal Form (iii) Three-Point Form (iv) Intercept Form
All these equations of plane are non-parametric forms as they do not involve any parameter.
in
20.1.1 Equation of Plane in Point-Normal Form
Consider a plane passing through a point A with position vector ⃗r1 . Let ⃗n be a vector perpendicular (or
normal or orthogonal) to the plane.
Let ⃗r be the position vector of any point P ⃗n
e.
lying on the plane, as shown in Figure 20.1. Z
By triangle law of vectors in ∆OAP , we have
−→ A
AP = ⃗r − ⃗r1 . ⃗r1 P
−→
Also, AP lies in the plane and AP ⊥ ⃗n.
⃗r
yd
−→ O
Then, AP · ⃗n = 0 Y
⇒ (⃗r − ⃗r ) · ⃗n = 0 X
1
⇒ ⃗r · ⃗n = ⃗r1 · ⃗n. Figure 20.1
Vector Equation of Plane in Point-Normal Form: The vector equation of plane perpendicular to
rif
the vector ⃗n and passing through a point with position vector ⃗r1 is given by
(⃗r − ⃗r1 ) · ⃗n = 0.
It is also called equation of plane in scalar product form.
Let the coordinates of the point P be (x, y, z) and that of A be (x1 , y1 , z1 ). Then, we have
la
⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ and ⃗r1 = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂.

Let a, b, c be the direction ratios of ⃗n, then ⃗n = aî + bĵ + ck̂.
Now, (⃗r − ⃗r1 ) · ⃗n = 0 ⇒ [(x − x1 )î + (y − y1 )ĵ + (z − z1 )k̂] · (aî + bĵ + ck̂) = 0
C
⇒ a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0.
Cartesian Equation of Plane in Point-Normal Form: The Cartesian equation of plane having
direction ratios of normal to the plane as a, b, c and passing through a point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) is given by
a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0.
Remark 20.1 (i) The vector equation of the plane can also be written as
⃗r · (aî + bĵ + ck̂) = ax1 + by1 + cz1 .
(ii) The Cartesian equation of the plane can also be written as ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 .
(iii) In the vector equation ⃗r · (aî + bĵ + ck̂) = d and the Cartesian equation ax + by + cz = d of the
plane, the coefficients a, b, c represent the direction ratios of a vector (or line) normal to the plane.
Section 20.1 Three-Dimensional Geometry – II Jai Shri Ram20.3

Example 1 (NCERT) Find the vector equation of the plane that passes through the point (1, 4, 6) and
the normal vector to the plane is î − 2ĵ + k̂.
Solution: Given a plane passing through the point (1, 4, 6) and having î − 2ĵ + k̂ as its normal vector.
Then, direction ratios of its normal are 1, −2, 1.
Let a = 1, b = −2, c = 1 and x1 = 1, y1 = 4, z1 = 6.
Hence, equation of the required plane is
⃗r · (aî + bĵ + ck̂) = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + k̂) = (1)(1) + (−2)(4) + (1)(6)
⇒ ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + k̂) = −1.
in
Example 2 Find the Cartesian equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 5, 2) and having
2, 3, 2 as the direction ratios of normal to the plane.
Solution: Given a plane passing through the point (1, 5, 2) and having 2, 3, 2 as the direction ratios of
its normal. Let a = 2, b = 3, c = 2 and x1 = 1, y1 = 5, z1 = 2.
e.
Hence, Cartesian equation of the required plane is
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ 2x + 3y + 2z = (2)(1) + (3)(5) + (2)(2)
⇒ 2x + 3y + 2z = 21.
Example 3 (NCERT) If O be the origin and the coordinates of P be (1, 2, −3), then find the equation
yd
of the plane passing through P and perpendicular to OP .
Solution: Given a plane passing through P (1, 2, −3) and perpendicular to OP , where O is the origin.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are 1 − 0, 2 − 0, −3 − 0, i.e., 1, 2, −3.
Let a = 1, b = 2, c = −3 and x1 = 1, y1 = 2, z1 = −3.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ x + 2y − 3z = (1)(1) + (2)(2) + (−3)(−3)
rif
⇒ x + 2y − 3z = 14.
Example 4 If the foot of perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane is (3, −1, 2), then find the
equation of the plane.
Solution: Given a plane such that the foot of perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane is
la
(3, −1, 2).

Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are 3 − 0, −1 − 0, 2 − 0, i.e., 3, −1, 2.
Let a = 3, b = −1, c = 2 and x1 = 3, y1 = −1, z1 = 2.
C
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ 3x − y + 2z = (3)(3) + (−1)(−1) + (2)(2)

⇒ 3x − y + 2z = 14.
Example 5 Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (3, −6, 4) and normal to the line
joining the points (2, −1, 5) and (3, 4, −1).
Solution: Given a plane passing through the point (3, −6, 4) and normal to the line joining the points
(2, −1, 5) and (3, 4, −1).
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are 3 − 2, 4 + 1, −1 − 5, i.e., 1, 5, −6.
Let a = 1, b = 5, c = −6 and x1 = 3, y1 = −6, z1 = 4.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ x + 5y − 6z = (1)(3) + (5)(−6) + (−6)(4)
⇒ x + 5y − 6z = −51.
Example 6 Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the plane which bisects the line segment joining
the points (3, −2, 1) and (1, 4, −3) at right angles.
Solution: Given a plane which bisects the line segment joining the points A(3, −2, 1) and B(1, 4, −3)
at right angles.
3 + 1 −2 + 4 1 − 3
Then, mid-point of AB is , , , i.e., (2, 1, −1)
2 2 2
and direction ratios of AB are 1 − 3, 4 − (−2), −3 − 1, i.e., −2, 6, −4, i.e., 1, −3, 2.
Thus, the given plane passes through (2, 1, −1) and direction ratios of normal to the plane are 1, −3, 2.
Let a = 1, b = −3, c = 2 and x1 = 2, y1 = 1, z1 = −1.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ x − 3y + 2z = (1)(2) + (−3)(1) + (2)(−1)
in
⇒ x − 3y + 2z = −3
and vector equation of the required plane is ⃗r · (î − 3ĵ + 2k̂) = −3.
Example 7 If Cartesian equation of a plane is 3x − 4y + 2z = −5, then reduce it to vector form.
e.
Solution: Equation of given plane is
3x − 4y + 2z = −5 ⇒ (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · (3î − 4ĵ + 2k̂) = −5.
Let ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ be the position vector of any point on the plane.
Hence, ⃗r · (3î − 4ĵ + 2k̂) = −5, which is the required vector equation of the given plane.
yd
Example 8 If vector equation of a plane is ⃗r · (4î + ĵ − k̂) = −2, then reduce it to Cartesian form.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (4î + ĵ − k̂) = −2.
Then, (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · (−4î − ĵ + k̂) = 2 ⇒ −4x − y + z = 2,
rif
which is the required Cartesian equation of the given plane.
Example 9 (NCERT) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane ⃗r ·[(s−2t)î+(3−t)ĵ +(2s+t)k̂] = 15.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · [(s − 2t)î + (3 − t)ĵ + (2s + t)k̂] = 15.
la
Then, (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · [(s − 2t)î + (3 − t)ĵ + (2s + t)k̂] = 15

⇒ (s − 2t)x + (3 − t)y + (2s + t)z = 15,
which is the required Cartesian equation of the given plane.
C
Example 10 Write the direction ratios of the normal to the plane ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ) = −6.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + 0k̂) = −6.
Hence, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are −1, 2, 0.
Example 11 If the equation of the plane is 2x − 3y + 4z + 11 = 0, then what are the direction ratios
of the normal to the plane?
Solution: Equation of given plane is 2x − 3y + 4z + 11 = 0.
Hence, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are 2, −3, 4.
Example 12 Write the direction cosines of the normal to the plane 3x + 4y + 12z = 52.
Solution: Equation of given plane is 3x + 4y + 12z = 52.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are 3, 4, 12.
Hence, direction cosines of normal to the given plane are

3 4 12 3 4 12
p ,p ,p , i.e., , , .
2 2
(3) + (4) + (12) 2 2 2
(3) + (4) + (12) 2 2 2
(3) + (4) + (12) 2 13 13 13
Example 13 Find a vector normal to the plane 2x + y − 3z = 1.
Solution: Equation of given plane is 2x + y − 3z = 1.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are 2, 1, −3.
Hence, a vector normal to the given plane is ⃗n = aî + bĵ + ck̂ = 2î + ĵ − 3k̂.
Example 14 Find a unit vector normal to the plane 2x + 3y + 6z = 4.
Solution: Equation of given plane is 2x + 3y + 6z = 4.
in
Then, direction ratios of vector normal to the given plane are 2, 3, 6.
Thus, a vector normal to the given plane is ⃗n = 2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂.
Hence, a unit vector normal to the given plane is given by
⃗n 2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂ 2 3 6
n̂ = =p = î + ĵ + k̂.
e.
|⃗n| 2 2
(2) + (3) + (6) 2 7 7 7
20.1.2 Equation of Plane in Normal Form
In this subsection, we shall study the equation of plane in normal form.
Consider a plane whose perpendicular distance from the origin O is p (p > 0). Let A be the foot of
−→
yd
perpendicular drawn from O on the plane, then OA is perpendicular to the plane.
−→ −→ −→
Let n̂ be a unit vector along OA, then OA = |OA| n̂ = p n̂.
Let ⃗r be the position vector of any point P
lying on the plane, as shown in Figure 20.2. Z
n̂
By triangle law of vectors in ∆OAP , we have
−→
AP = ⃗r − p n̂.
rif
A
−→ P
Also, AP lies in the plane and AP ⊥ n̂.
−→ p
Then, AP · n̂ = 0
⃗r
⇒ (⃗r − p n̂) · n̂ = 0
Y
la
⇒ ⃗r · n̂ − p n̂ · n̂ = 0 X O
⇒ ⃗r · n̂ − p |n̂|2 = 0 Figure 20.2
⇒ ⃗r · n̂ = p.
Let l, m, n be the direction cosines of the normal to the plane, then n̂ = lî + mĵ + nk̂ and we have
C
⃗r · (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = p,

which is the vector equation of plane in normal form.
Let the coordinates of the point P be (x, y, z), then ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ and we have
(xî + y ĵ + z k̂) · (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = p ⇒ lx + my + nz = p,
which is the Cartesian equation of plane in normal form.
−→
Also, OA = p n̂ = p(lî + mĵ + nk̂) = lp î + mp ĵ + np k̂ and the coordinates of A are (lp, mp, np).
Equation of Plane in Normal Form: The equation of plane, having direction cosines of the normal
as l, m, n and whose perpendicular distance from origin is p, can be expressed in Cartesian form as
lx + my + nz = p and in vector form as ⃗r · (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = p.
The coordinates of the foot of perpendicular drawn from origin to the plane are (lp, mp, np).
Remark 20.2 (i) Consider a plane having equation ax + by + cz = d with d ≥ 0.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are a, b, c and direction cosines of normal to the plane
a b c
are l = √ ,m= √ ,n= √ .
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2
Now, ax + by + cz = d
ax + by + cz d
⇒ √ =√
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2
d
⇒ lx + my + nz = √ ,
a + b2 + c2
2
which is the equation of plane in normal form.

d
in
Hence, the distance of plane from origin is p = √ .
a2 + b2 + c2
(ii) If plane passes through origin, then p = d = 0.
e.
6
Example 15 (NCERT) Find the vector equation of the plane which is at a distance of √ from the
29
origin and its normal from the origin is 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂. Also, find its Cartesian form.
6
Solution: Given a plane at a distance of √ from the origin and its normal vector is 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂.
yd
29
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are 2, −3, 4.
Also, direction cosines of normal to the plane are given by
2 −3 4 2 3 4
p ,p ,p , i.e., √ , − √ , √ .
(2)2 + (−3)2 + (4)2 (2)2 + (−3)2 + (4)2 (2)2 + (−3)2 + (4)2 29 29 29
2 3 4 6
Let l = √ , m = − √ , n = √ and p = √ .
rif
29 29 29 29
Hence, vector equation of required plane in normal form is

2 3 4 6
⃗r · (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = p ⇒ ⃗r · √ î − √ ĵ + √ k̂ = √
29 29 29 29
⇒ ⃗r · (2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂) = 6.
la
and Cartesian equation of required plane in normal form is 2x − 3y + 4z = 6.

Example 16 Find the equation of a plane which is at a distance of 6 units from the origin and has
2, 1, 2 as the direction ratios of normal to it. Also, find the foot of the normal drawn from the origin.
C
Solution: Given a plane at a distance of 6 units from the origin and direction ratios of normal to the
plane are 2, 1, 2.
Then, direction cosines of normal to the plane are given by
2 1 2 2 1 2
p ,p ,p , i.e., , , .
2 2
(2) + (1) + (2) 2 2 2
(2) + (1) + (2) 2 2 2
(2) + (1) + (2) 2 3 3 3
2 1 2
Let l = , m = , n = and p = 6.
3 3 3
Hence, equation of required plane in normal form is
2x y 2z
lx + my + nz = p ⇒ + + =6
3 3 3
⇒ 2x + y + 2z = 18.
Also, foot of normal drawn from the origin to the plane is (lp, mp, np) = (4, 2, 4).
√
Example 17 Write the equation of a plane which is at a distance of 5 3 units from origin and the
normal to which is equally inclined to coordinate axes.
√
Solution: Given a plane at a distance of 5 3 units from origin and the normal to the plane is equally
inclined (say, at an angle α) to the coordinate axes.
Then, direction cosines of normal to the plane are l = cos α, m = cos α, n = cos α.
Now, l2 + m2 + n2 = 1 ⇒ cos2 α + cos2 α + cos2 α = 1
⇒ 3 cos2 α = 1
1
⇒ cos α = ± √ .
3
1 1 1 1 1 1 √
Thus, l = √ , m = √ , n = √ or l = − √ , m = − √ , n = − √ and p = 5 3.
in
3 3 3 3 3 3
Hence, equation of required plane in normal form is
lx + my + nz = p
x y z √ x y z √
⇒ √ + √ + √ = 5 3 or − √ − √ − √ = 5 3
e.
3 3 3 3 3 3
⇒ x + y + z = 15 or x + y + z = −15.
Example 18 If the equation of the plane is −2x + 6y − 3z = −7, then find the
(i) equation of plane in normal form.
yd
(ii) direction cosines of the vector normal to the plane.
(iii) length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane.
(iv) foot of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane.
Solution: (i) Equation of given plane is
−2x + 6y − 3z = −7
⇒ 2x − 6y + 3z = 7
rif
2x − 6y + 3z 7
⇒ p =p
(2)2+ (−6)2 + (3)2 (2) + (−6)2 + (3)2
2
2x 6y 3z
⇒ − + = 1,
7 7 7
la
which is the equation of given plane in normal form.

2 6 3
(ii) Direction cosines of normal to the plane are given by l = ,m=− ,n= .
7 7 7
(iii) Length of perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane is p = 1 unit.
C

2 6 3
(iv) The foot of perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane is (lp, mp, np) = ,− , .
7 7 7
Note: While converting the general equation ax + by + cz = d of a plane to the normal form, the
constant term d on the RHS should be positive.
Example 19 Find the length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane having equation
2x − 3y + 6z + 21 = 0.
2x − 3y + 6z + 21 = 0 ⇒ −2x + 3y − 6z = 21
−2x + 3y − 6z 21
⇒ p =p
(−2)2 + (3)2 + (−6)2 (−2)2 + (3)2 + (−6)2
2x 3y 6z
⇒ − + − = 3,
7 7 7
Hence, the length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane is 3 units.
Example 20 Find the distance of the plane 3x − 4y + 12z = 3 from the origin.
3x − 4y + 12z = 3
3x − 4y + 12z 3
⇒ p =p
2 2
(3) + (−4) + (12) 2 (3) + (−4)2 + (12)2
2
3x 4y 12z 3
⇒ − + = ,
in
13 13 13 13
3
Hence, the distance of the plane from the origin is units.
13
20.1.3 Equation of Plane in Three-Point Form
e.
In this subsection, we shall discuss the equation of plane in three-point form. A plane can be uniquely
determined if it is given to pass through three given non-collinear points.
Consider a plane passing through the three non-collinear points (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and (x3 , y3 , z3 ).
Let a, b, c be the direction ratios of the plane.
yd
Then, the equation of the plane can be written as
a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0 ...(1)
The above plane passes through the points (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and (x3 , y3 , z3 ), then
a(x2 − x1 ) + b(y2 − y1 ) + c(z2 − z1 ) = 0 ...(2)
and a(x3 − x1 ) + b(y3 − y1 ) + c(z3 − z1 ) = 0 ...(3)
rif
a −b c
= = = k (say)
y2 − y1 z2 − z1 x2 − x1 z2 − z1 x2 − x1 y2 − y1
y3 − y1 z3 − z1 x3 − x1 z3 − z1 x3 − x1 y3 − y1
la
y2 − y1 z2 − z1 x − x1 z2 − z1 x − x1 y2 − y1
Then, a = k , b = −k 2 ,c=k 2 .
y3 − y1 z3 − z1 x3 − x1 z3 − z1 x3 − x1 y3 − y1
Substituting these values in (1), we get
y − y1 z2 − z1 x − x1 z2 − z1 x − x1 y2 − y1
k(x − x1 ) 2 − k(y − y1 ) 2 + k(z − z1 ) 2 =0
C
y3 − y1 z3 − z1 x3 − x1 z3 − z1 x3 − x1 y3 − y1
which implies
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0.
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
This is the equation of plane in three-point form.
Equation of Plane in Three-Point Form: The equation of a plane passing through the three
non-collinear points (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and (x3 , y3 , z3 ) is given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0.
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1

Example 21 Find the Cartesian and vector equations of the plane passing through the three points
A(2, 5, −3), B(−2, −3, 5) and C(5, 3, −3).
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points A(2, 5, −3), B(−2, −3, 5) and C(5, 3, −3).
Let x1 = 2, y1 = 5, z1 = −3; x2 = −2, y2 = −3, z2 = 5; x3 = 5, y3 = 3, z3 = −3.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−2 y−5 z+3
in
⇒ −4 −8 8 =0
3 −2 0
⇒ (x − 2)(0 + 16) − (y − 5)(0 − 24) + (z + 3)(8 + 24) = 0
⇒ 16(x − 2) + 24(y − 5) + 32(z + 3) = 0
e.
⇒ 2(x − 2) + 3(y − 5) + 4(z + 3) = 0
⇒ 2x + 3y + 4z = 7
and vector equation of the plane is ⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) = 7.
Example 22 (NCERT) Find the equation of plane passing through the points (1, 1, −1), (6, 4, −5),
yd
(−4, −2, 3).
Solution: The required plane passes through the points (1, 1, −1), (6, 4, −5), (−4, −2, 3).
Let x1 = 1, y1 = 1, z1 = −1; x2 = 6, y2 = 4, z2 = −5; x3 = −4, y3 = −2, z3 = 3.
Then, equation of the required plane is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
rif
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−1 y−1 z+1
⇒ 5 3 −4 = 0
−5 −3 4
la
⇒ (x − 1)(12 − 12) − (y − 1)(20 − 20) + (z + 1)(−15 + 15) = 0

⇒ 0 = 0.
Thus, the given points are collinear and there are infinitely many planes passing through them.
Example 23 From the point P (a, b, c) perpendiculars P L and P M are drawn to yz-plane and
C
zx-plane respectively. Find the equation of the plane OLM .

Solution: Given that perpendiculars P L and P M are drawn to yz-plane and zx-plane respectively from
the point P (a, b, c), then the coordinates of points L and M are (0, b, c) and (a, 0, c) respectively.
The plane OLM passes through the points O(0, 0, 0), L(0, b, c) and M (a, 0, c).
Let x1 = 0, y1 = 0, z1 = 0; x2 = 0, y2 = b, z2 = c; x3 = a, y3 = 0, z3 = c.
Hence, equation of the plane OLM is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x y z
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0 ⇒ 0 b c =0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1 a 0 c
⇒ x(bc − 0) − y(0 − ac) + z(0 − ab) = 0
⇒ bcx + acy − abz = 0.
Example 24 Show that the points (0, −1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (3, 3, 0) and (0, 1, 3) are coplanar. Also, find
the plane containing them.
Solution: Let given points are A(0, −1, 0), B(1, 1, 1), C(3, 3, 0) and D(0, 1, 3).
Let x1 = 0, y1 = −1, z1 = 0; x2 = 1, y2 = 1, z2 = 1; x3 = 3, y3 = 3, z3 = 0.
Then, equation of plane through A, B and C is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x y+1 z
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0 ⇒ 1 2 1 =0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1 3 4 0
⇒ x(0 − 4) − (y + 1)(0 − 3) + z(4 − 6) = 0
⇒ −4x + 3y − 2z + 3 = 0
in
⇒ 4x − 3y + 2z = 3.
Also, D(0, 1, 3) lies on the above plane.
Hence, given points are coplanar and the plane containing them is 4x − 3y + 2z = 3.
Example 25 Find the equation of plane passing through the points A(3, 2, 1), B(4, 2, −2) and
e.
C(6, 5, −1) and hence find the value of λ for which A(3, 2, 1), B(4, 2, −2), C(6, 5, −1) and D(λ, 5, 5)
are coplanar.
Solution: Given points are A(3, 2, 1), B(4, 2, −2) and C(6, 5, −1).
Let x1 = 3, y1 = 2, z1 = 1; x2 = 4, y2 = 2, z2 = −2; x3 = 6, y3 = 5, z3 = −1.
Then, equation of plane through A, B and C is
yd
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−3 y−2 z−1
⇒ 1 0 −3 = 0
rif
3 3 −2
⇒ (x − 3)(0 + 9) − (y − 2)(−2 + 9) + (z − 1)(3 − 0) = 0
⇒ 9(x − 3) − 7(y − 2) + 3(z − 1) = 0
⇒ 9x − 7y + 3z = 16. ...(1)
la
Also, given a point D(λ, 5, 5) such that A, B, C and D are coplanar.

Then, point D(λ, 5, 5) satisfies the equation (1) of the plane.
⇒ 9(λ) − 7(5) + 3(5) = 16 ⇒ λ = 4.
20.1.4 Equation of Plane in Intercept Form
C
In this subsection, we shall discuss the equation of plane in intercept form. Let us first understand the
meaning of the term intercept by a plane.
Intercept by a Plane: It is the distance from origin of a point where a plane crosses a coordinate
axis.
Remark 20.3 (i) In three-dimensional space, there are three intercepts, viz., x, y and z-intercepts.
(ii) A plane parallel to xy-plane has no x and y-intercepts. Similarly, we can have for planes parallel
to yz-plane and xz-plane.
(iii) A plane passing through the origin has zero x, y and z-intercepts.
(iv) The intercept measured along the positive direction of a coordinate axis is taken as positive,
whereas the intercept measured along the negative direction of a coordinate axis is taken as
negative.
Consider the system of coordinate axes with O as origin. Consider a plane (not passing through origin)
which makes intercepts of lengths u, v, w with the x, y and z-axes respectively.
Then, the plane passes through the points (u, 0, 0), (0, v, 0) and (0, 0, w).
Let x1 = u, y1 = 0, z1 = 0; x2 = 0, y2 = v, z2 = 0; x3 = 0, y3 = 0, z3 = w.
Now, equation of plane is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x−u y z
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0 ⇒ −u v 0 =0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1 −u 0 w
⇒ (x − u)(vw − 0) − y(−uw + 0) + z(0 + uv) = 0
⇒ vwx + uwy + uvz = uvw
in
x y z
⇒ + + = 1,
u v w
which is the equation of plane in intercept form.
Equation of Plane in Intercept Form: The equation of plane, having intercepts u, v, w on the
x y z
e.
coordinate axes, is given by + + = 1.
u v w
Example 26 Find the vector equation of the plane with intercepts 3, −4 and 2 on x, y and z-axes
respectively.
yd
Solution: Equation of plane, with intercepts 3, −4 and 2 on x, y and z-axes respectively, is given by
x y z
+ + =1 ⇒ 4x − 3y + 6z = 12.
3 (−4) 2
Hence, the vector equation of the plane is ⃗r · (4î − 3ĵ + 6k̂) = 12.
Example 27 Find the intercepts on the coordinate axis cut off by the plane ⃗r · (2î − 4ĵ + 3k̂) = 12.
rif
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (2î − 4ĵ + 3k̂) = 12.

Then, equation of given plane in Cartesian form is
x y z
2x − 4y + 3z = 12 ⇒ + + = 1.
6 (−3) 4
la
Hence, the intercepts cut off by the given plane on the coordinate axes are 6, −3, 4.
Example 28 Write the sum of intercepts cut off by the plane ⃗r · (2î + ĵ − k̂) − 5 = 0 on the three axes.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (2î + ĵ − k̂) = 5.
C
Then, equation of given plane in Cartesian form is

2x y z
2x + y − z = 5 ⇒ + − =1
5 5 5
x y z
⇒ + + = 1.
5 5 (−5)
2
5
Thus, the intercepts cut off by the given plane on the coordinate axes are , 5, −5.
2
5 5
Hence, the required sum of intercepts = + 5 + (−5) = .
2 2
Example 29 Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (−2, 1, −3) and making equal
intercepts on the coordinate axes.
Solution: Given a plane which makes equal intercepts (say, a) on the coordinate axes.
x y z
+ + =1 ⇒ x + y + z = a. ...(1)
a a a
Also, the required plane passes through the point (−2, 1, −3), then
−2 + 1 − 3 = a ⇒ a = −4.
Putting a = −4 in (1), we get the equation of required plane as x + y + z = −4.
Example 30 Find the equations of the two planes passing through the points (0, 4, −3) and (6, −4, 3),
if the sum of their intercepts on the three axes is zero.
Solution: Equation of plane, having intercepts u, v, w on the coordinate axes, is
in
x y z
+ + = 1. ...(1)
u v w
Given that the required planes passes through the points (0, 4, −3) and (6, −4, 3), then
4 3
0+ − =1 ...(2)
v w
e.
6 4 3
and − + =1 ...(3)
u v w
6
On adding (2) and (3), we get = 2, i.e., u = 3.
u
Also, given that the sum of their intercepts on the three axes is zero, then
yd
u+v+w =0 ⇒ 3+v+w =0 ⇒ w = −(3 + v). ...(4)
Putting value of w in (2), we get
4 3 12 + 4v + 3v
+ =1 ⇒ =1
v 3+v v(3 + v)
⇒ 12 + 7v = 3v + v 2
rif
⇒ v 2 − 4v − 12 = 0
⇒ (v − 6)(v + 2) = 0
⇒ v = 6, −2.
x y z
Putting v = 6 in (4), we get w = −9 and from (1), we have + − = 1.
la
3 6 9
x y z
Putting v = −2 in (4), we get w = −1 and from (1), we have − − = 1.
3 2 1
x y z x y z
Hence, the required equations of planes are + − = 1 and − − = 1.
3 6 9 3 2 1
C
Example 31 A variable plane moves in such a way that the sum of reciprocals of its intercepts on three
coordinate axes is constant. Show that the plane passes through a fixed point.
Solution: Equation of plane, having intercepts u, v, w on the coordinate axes, is
x y z
+ + = 1. ...(1)
u v w
Given that the sum of reciprocals of its intercepts on three coordinate axes is constant, say k, then
1 1 1
+ + =k
u v w
1 1 1
⇒ + + = 1.
uk vk wk
1 1 1
This shows that the plane (1) passes through a fixed point , , .
k k k
Example 32 (Exemplar) A plane meets the coordinate axes in A, B, C such that the centroid of
x y z
∆ABC is the point (α, β, γ). Show that the equation of the plane is + + = 3.
α β γ
Solution: Let the given plane meets the coordinate axes in A(u, 0, 0), B(0, v, 0) and C(0, 0, w).
Then, equation of plane is given by
x y z
+ + =1 ...(1)
u v w u v w
and the centroid of ∆ABC is , , .
3 3 3
u v w
Given that centroid of ∆ABC is (α, β, γ), then = α, = β, = γ, i.e., u = 3α, v = 3β, w = 3γ.
3 3 3
in
Putting values of u, v, w in (1), we get the equation of the required plane as
x y z x y z
+ + =1 ⇒ + + = 3.
3α 3β 3γ α β γ
Exercise 20.1
e.
1 2 3
(i) The unit vector normal to the plane x + 2y + 3z − 6 = 0 is √ î + √ ĵ + √ k̂.
14 14 14
(ii) If the foot of perpendicular drawn from the origin to a plane is (5, −3, −2), then the equation
yd
of plane is ⃗r · (5î − 3ĵ − 2k̂) = 38.
4 4
(iii) The intercepts of the plane 2x − 3y + 5z + 4 = 0 on the coordinate axes are −2, , − .
3 5
(i) If P (1, 0, −3) is the foot of the perpendicular from the origin to the plane, then the Cartesian
equation of the plane is .
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(ii) The intercepts made by the plane 2x−6y+4z = 12 on the coordinate axes are .
(iii) The equation of the plane with intercept 3 on the y-axis and parallel to xz-plane is
. [NCERT]
(iv) A plane passes through the points (2, 0, 0) and (0, 3, 0) and (0, 0, 4). The equation of plane
la
is .
(v) The Cartesian equation of the plane ⃗r · (î + ĵ − k̂) = 2 is . [Exemplar]
3. If O be the origin and coordinates of R be (1, 2, −3), then find the equation of the plane passing
through R and perpendicular to OR.
4. Find the equation of plane which passes through the point (1, 0, −2) and the normal to plane is
C
î + ĵ − k̂. [NCERT]
* 5. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, −2, 1) and perpendicular to the line
joining the points A(3, 2, 1) and B(1, 4, 2).
6. If Cartesian equation of a plane is 8x + 3y − z + 7 = 0, then derive its vector form.
7. If vector equation of a plane is ⃗r · (11î − ĵ + 6k̂) = 7, then derive its Cartesian form.
8. Find the direction cosines of the vector normal to the plane 5x + y − 3z = −6.
9. Find a unit vector normal to the plane 2x − 2y + z = 39.
10. Find the direction cosines of the unit vector perpendicular to the plane ⃗r · (6î − 3ĵ − 2k̂) + 1 = 0
and passing through the origin. [NCERT]
* 11. Find the vector equation of a plane which is at a distance of 5 units from the origin and its normal
vector is 2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂.
√
* 12. Find the equation of a plane which is at a distance of 3 3 units from origin and the normal to
which is equally inclined to the coordinate axes.
13. If the equation of the plane is 2x − y + 2z = 9, then reduce it to the normal form and hence find
the length of the perpendicular from the origin to plane.
14. Find the equation of a plane which is at a distance of 7 units from the origin and normal to the
vector 3î + 5ĵ − 6k̂.
√
* 15. Find the distance of the plane 2x + 5y + 7z + 12 = 0 from the origin.
* 16. Find the equation of the plane passing through (1, 1, 0), (1, 2, 1) and (−2, 2, −1). [NCERT]
* 17. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points A(2, 1, −3), B(−3, −2, 1) and
C(2, 4, −1).
18. Find the vector equations of the plane passing through the points R(2, 5, −3), S(−2, −3, 5) and
in
T (5, 3, −3). [NCERT]
19. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (2, 1, 0), (3, −2, −2) and (3, 1, 7).
[Exemplar]
20. Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the points A(2, 2, −1), B(3, 4, 2) and
e.
C(7, 0, 6). Also, find the Cartesian equation of the plane.
21. Show that the given four points (4, 5, 1), (0, −1, −1), (3, 9, 4) and (−4, 4, 4) are coplanar.
22. Write the equation of the plane whose intercepts on the coordinate axes are 2, −3, 7.
23. Find the equation of the plane with intercepts 2, 3 and 4 on the x, y and z-axes respectively.
24. Find the intercepts cut off by the plane 2x + y − z − 5 = 0. [NCERT]
yd
* 25. Find the length of the intercept, cut off by the plane 2x + y − z = 5 on the x-axis.
* 26. The distance of the origin (0, 0, 0) from the plane −2x + 6y − 3z = −7 is
√ √
(a) 1 unit (b) 2 units (c) 2 2 units (d) 3 units
rif
27. The vector equation of xy-plane is
(a) ⃗r · k̂ = 0 (b) ⃗r · ĵ = 0 (c) ⃗r · î = 0 (d) ⃗r · ⃗n = 1

2 3 6
28. The distance of the plane ⃗r · î + ĵ − k̂ = 1 from the origin is [Exemplar]
7 7 7
la
1
(a) 1 (b) 7 (c) (d) none of these
7
29. The equation of the plane which cuts equal intercepts of unit length on the coordinate axes is
(a) x + y − z = 1 (b) x + y + z = 0 (c) x + y + z = 2 (d) x + y + z = 1
C
30. The intercepts made by the plane 2x − 3y + 4z = 12 on the coordinate axes are
1 1 1
(a) 6, −4, 3 (b) 2, −3, 4 (c) , − , (d) 1, 1, 1
6 4 3
31. The vectors 3î − ĵ + 2k̂, 2î + ĵ + 3k̂ and î + λĵ − k̂ are coplanar if value of λ is
(a) −2 (b) 0 (c) 2 (d) any real number
Answers 20.1
1. (i) True (ii) True (iii) True
x y z
2. (i) x − 3z = 10 (ii) 6, −2, 3 (iii) y = 3 (iv) + + =1
2 3 4
(v) x + y − z = 2
3. x + 2y − 3z = 14 4. x + y − z = 3 5. −2x + 2y + z = −5
5 1 3
6. ⃗r · (−8î − 3ĵ + k̂) = 7 7. 11x − y + 6z = 7 8. − √ , − √ , √
35 35 35
2 2 1 6 3 2
9. î − ĵ + k̂ 10. − , , 11. ⃗r · (2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂) = 35
3 3 3 7 7 7
2x y 2z
12. x + y + z = 9 or x + y + z = −9 13. − + = 3; 3 units
3 3 3
3x 5y 6z
14. √ + √ − √ = 7 15. 2 units 16. −2x − 3y + 3z + 5 = 0
70 70 70
17. −18x + 10y − 15z − 19 = 0 18. ⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) = 7 19. 21x + 9y − 3z − 51 = 0
in
x y z
20. ⃗r · (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) − 17 = 0, 5x + 2y − 3z − 17 = 0 22. − + =1
2 3 7
x y z 5 5
23. + + =1 24. , 5, −5 25. units
2 3 4 2 2
26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (a)
e.
29. (d) 30. (a) 31. (a)
20.2 Angle of a Plane with a Given Plane or a Given Line

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the concept of angle between two lines. In this section, we
yd
shall extend the concept to the angle between two planes and the angle between a line and a plane. We
shall also discuss the conditions under which the two planes or a plane and a line are either parallel or
perpendicular to each other.
20.2.1 Angle between Two Planes
In this subsection, we shall define the angle between two planes and then discuss some problems based
on them.
rif
Angle between Two Planes: The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between the lines
that are normal to the planes.
Consider two planes having direction ratios of the normal as a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 . Let θ be the angle
between them.
la
By definition, θ is the angle between the lines that are normal of the planes, which is given by
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 |
cos θ = p 2 p .
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
C
Conclusion: The angle θ between two planes, having direction ratios of the normal as a1 , b1 , c1 and
a2 , b2 , c2 , is given by
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 |
cos θ = p 2 p .
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
If direction cosines of the normals to the planes are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 , then

cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 | .
Conclusion: The angle θ between two planes, having direction cosines of the normal as l1 , m1 , n1
and l2 , m2 , n2 , is given by
cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 | .

Example 1 (NCERT) Find the angle between the two planes 3x − 6y + 2z = 7 and 2x + 2y − 2z = 5.
Solution: Equations of given planes are 3x − 6y + 2z = 7 and 2x + 2y − 2z = 5.
Then, direction ratios of normals to the planes are a1 = 3, b1 = −6, c1 = 2 and a2 = 1, b2 = 1,
c2 = −1 respectively.
Let θ be the angle between the given planes, then
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 | |(3)(1) + (−6)(1) + (2)(−1)| 5
cos θ = p 2 2 2
p
2 2 2
=p p = √ .
a1 + b1 + c1 a2 + b2 + c2 2 2
(3) + (−6) + (2) 2 2 2
(1) + (1) + (−1)2 7 3
5
7 3
Example 2 Find the cosine of the angle between the planes ⃗r · (î + ĵ + 2k̂) = 13 and 2x − y + z = 7.
in
Solution: Equations of given planes are ⃗r · (î + ĵ + 2k̂) = 13 and 2x − y + z = 7.
Then, direction ratios of normals to the planes are a1 = 1, b1 = 1, c1 = 2 and a2 = 2, b2 = −1, c2 = 1
respectively.
Let θ be the angle between the given planes, then
e.
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 | |(1)(2) + (1)(−1) + (2)(1)| 1
cos θ = p 2 p =p p = .
2 2 2
a1 + b1 + c1 a2 + b2 + c22 2 (1)2 + (1) 2 + (2) 2 (2)2 + (−1)2 + (1) 2 2
1
Hence, cosine of the angle between the given planes is .
2
yd
2 3 6
Example 3 Find the angle between the planes having direction cosines of their normals as , ,
7 7 7
and 1, 0, 0.
2 3 6
Solution: Given two planes having direction cosines of their normals as l1 = , m1 = , n1 = and
7 7 7
l2 = 1, m2 = 0, n2 = 0. Let θ be the angle between the given planes.
rif

2 3 6 2
Then, cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 | = (1) + (0) + (0) = .
7 7 7 7
2
7
20.2.2 Condition of Perpendicularity of Two Planes
la
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition for the two given planes to be perpendicular.
Consider two planes with direction ratios of their normals as a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 .
Then, the two planes are perpendicular ⇔ The normals to the two planes are perpendicular
C
⇔ a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.
Condition of Perpendicularity of Two Planes: Two planes with direction ratios of their normals as
a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are perpendicular if and only if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.
Example 4 Show that the planes 2x + 6y + 6z = 7 and ⃗r · (3î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) = 8 are perpendicular to
each other.
Solution: Equation of first plane is 2x + 6y + 6z = 7.
Then, direction ratios of normal to first plane are a1 = 2, b1 = 6, c1 = 6.
Equation of second plane is ⃗r · (3î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) = 8.
Then, direction ratios of normal to second plane are a2 = 3, b2 = 4, c2 = −5.
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (2)(3) + (6)(4) + (6)(−5) = 0.
Hence, given planes are perpendicular to each other.
Example 5 If the planes ⃗r · (2î − ĵ + λk̂) = 15 and 3x + 2y + 2z = 7 are perpendicular to each other,
then find the value of λ.
Solution: Equation of first plane is ⃗r · (2î − ĵ + λk̂) = 15.
Then, direction ratios of normal to first plane are a1 = 2, b1 = −1, c1 = λ.
Equation of second plane is 3x + 2y + 2z = 7.
Then, direction ratios of normal to second plane are a2 = 3, b2 = 2, c2 = 2.
Given that both planes are perpendicular to each other, then
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (2)(3) + (−1)(2) + (λ)(2) = 0
⇒ 6 − 2 + 2λ = 0
⇒ λ = −2.
in
Example 6 Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (−1, 3, 2) and perpendicular to
the planes x + 2y + 3z = 5 and 3x + 3y + z = 0.
Solution: Given equations of planes are x + 2y + 3z = 5 and 3x + 3y + z = 0.
Then, direction ratios of normals to the given planes are 1, 2, 3 and 3, 3, 1 respectively.
e.
Let a, b, c be direction ratios of normal to the required plane.
Given that the required plane is perpendicular to the given planes, then
1a + 2b + 3c = 0 ...(1)
and 3a + 3b + 1c = 0 ...(2)
yd
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = .
2−9 1−9 3−6 −7 8 −3
Thus, direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a = −7, b = 8, c = −3.
Also, the required plane passes through the point (−1, 3, 2). Let x1 = −1, y1 = 3, z1 = 2.
rif
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ −7x + 8y − 3z = (−7)(−1) + (8)(3) + (−3)(2)

⇒ −7x + 8y − 3z = 25.
Example 7 Find the equation of the plane through the point (4, −3, 2) and perpendicular to the line of
intersection of the planes x − y + 2z − 3 = 0 and 2x − y − 3z = 0.
la
Solution: Equations of given planes are x − y + 2z − 3 = 0 and 2x − y − 3z = 0.

Then, direction ratios of normals to the given planes are 1, −1, 2 and 2, −1, −3 respectively.
Given that the required plane is perpendicular to the line of intersection of given planes, i.e., the required
C
plane is perpendicular to the given planes.

Then, 1a − 1b + 2c = 0 ...(1)
and 2a − 1b − 3c = 0 ...(2)
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = .
3+2 −3 − 4 −1 + 2 5 7 1
Thus, direction ratios of required plane are a = 5, b = 7, c = 1.
Also, the required plane passes through the point (4, −3, 2). Let x1 = 4, y1 = −3, z1 = 2.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ 5x + 7y + z = (5)(4) + (7)(−3) + (1)(2)
⇒ 5x + 7y + z = 1.
Example 8 Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (2, −3, 1) and (−1, 1, −7) and
perpendicular to the plane x − 2y + 5z + 1 = 0.
Solution: Given equation of plane is x − 2y + 5z + 1 = 0.
Then, direction ratios of normal to given plane are 1, −2, 5.
Given that the required plane is perpendicular to the given plane, then
1a − 2b + 5c = 0. ...(1)
Given that the required plane passes through the point (2, −3, 1). Let x1 = 2, y1 = −3, z1 = 1.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ax + by + cz = 2a − 3b + c. ...(2)
in
Also, the required plane passes through the point (−1, 1, −7), then
−a + b − 7c = 2a − 3b + c ⇒ −3a + 4b − 8c = 0. ...(3)
On solving (1) and (3) by cross-multiplication, we get
a −b c a b c
e.
= = ⇒ = =
16 − 20 −8 + 15 4−6 −4 −7 −2
a b c
⇒ = = .
4 7 2
Thus, direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a = 4, b = 7, c = 2.
Hence, from (2), we get the equation of the required plane as 4x + 7y + 2z = −11.
yd
20.2.3 Condition of Parallelism of Two Planes
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition for the two given planes to be parallel.
Suppose that we are given two planes.
Then, the two planes are parallel ⇔ The normals to the planes are parallel
⇔ Direction ratios of normals to the planes are proportional.
rif
Condition of Parallelism of Two Planes: Two planes with are parallel if and only if direction ratios
of their normals are proportional.
Consider a plane ax + by + cz = d having direction ratios of its normal as a, b, c.

la
Then, direction ratios of any plane parallel to the given plane are ak, bk, ck, i.e., a, b, c.
Thus, the equation of any plane parallel to the given plane is ax+by+cz = K, for some K ∈ R.
Conclusion: The equation of a plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz = d is ax + by + cz = K,
where K is a real number.
C

Example 9 Show that the planes ⃗r · (2î − 3ĵ + 5k̂) = 2 and 8x − 12y + 20z = 11 are parallel.
Solution: Equation of first plane is ⃗r · (2î − 3ĵ + 5k̂) = 2.
Then, direction ratios of normal to first plane are 2, −3, 5.
Equation of second plane is 8x − 12y + 20z = 11.
Then, direction ratios of normal to second plane are 8, −12, 20, i.e., 2, −3, 5.
Thus, direction ratios of normals to the given planes are proportional.
Hence, given planes are parallel to each other.
Example 10 Write the vector equation of the plane, passing through the point (α, β, γ) and parallel to
the plane ⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = 2.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = 2.

Then, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are 1, 1, 1.
Given that the required plane is parallel to given plane.
Thus, direction ratios of normal to the required plane are k, k, k, i.e., 1, 1, 1.
Also, the required plane passes through the point (α, β, γ).
Let a = 1, b = 1, c = 1 and x1 = α, y1 = β, z1 = γ.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1
⇒ x + y + z = (1)(α) + (1)(β) + (1)(γ)
⇒ x + y + z = α + β + γ.
in
and vector equation of the required plane is ⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = α + β + γ.
Example 11 Find the equation of the plane with intercept 3 on the y-axis and parallel to xz-plane.
Solution: Equation of xz-plane is y = 0, i.e., 0x + y + 0z = 0.
Then, direction ratios of its normal are 0, 1, 0.
e.
Given that the required plane is parallel to xz-plane.
Thius, direction ratios of normal to the required plane are 0, k, 0, i.e., 0, 1, 0.
Also, the required plane has intercept 3 on the y-axis, i.e., it passes through the point (0, 3, 0).
Let a = 0, b = 1, c = 0 and x1 = 0, y1 = 3, z1 = 0.
yd
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ 0x + y + 0z = (0)(0) + (1)(3) + (0)(0)
⇒ y = 3.
Example 12 Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the plane passing through the points (2, 2, −1),
(3, 4, 2) and (7, 0, 6). Also, find the vector equation of a plane passing through (4, 3, 1) and parallel to
the plane obtained above.
rif
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points (2, 2, −1), (3, 4, 2) and (7, 0, 6).
Let x1 = 2, y1 = 2, z1 = −1; x2 = 3, y2 = 4, z2 = 2; x3 = 7, y3 = 0, z3 = 6.
Then, equation of first plane in Cartesian form is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
la
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−2 y−2 z+1
⇒ 1 2 3 =0
−2
C
5 7
⇒ (x − 2)(14 + 6) − (y − 2)(7 − 15) + (z + 1)(−2 − 10) = 0
⇒ 20(x − 2) + 8(y − 2) − 12(z + 1) = 0
⇒ 5(x − 2) + 2(y − 2) − 3(z + 1) = 0
⇒ 5x + 2y − 3z = 17
and vector equation of first plane is ⃗r · (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = 17.
Then, direction ratios of the normal to the first plane are 5, 2, −3.
Given that second plane is parallel to the first plane.
Thus, direction ratios of the normal to the second plane are 5k, 2k, −3k, i.e., 5, 2, −3.
Also, second plane passes through the point (4, 3, 1).
Let a = 5, b = 2, c = −3 and x4 = 4, y4 = 3, z4 = 1.
Hence, Cartesian equation of second plane is
ax + by + cz = ax4 + by4 + cz4 ⇒ 5x + 2y − 3z = (5)(4) + (2)(3) + (−3)(1)
⇒ 5x + 2y − 3z = 23
and vector equation of second plane is ⃗r · (5î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = 23.
20.2.4 Angle between a Line and a Plane
In this subsection, we shall define the angle between a line and a plane and then discuss some problems
based on them.
Angle between a Line and a Plane: The angle between a line and a plane is defined as the
complement of the angle between the line and the normal to the plane.
in
Consider a line with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a plane with direction ratios of its normal as a2 , b2 ,
c2 . Let θ be the angle between the line and the plane.
π
By definition, − θ is the angle between the line and the normal to the plane, then
2
π |a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 |
e.

cos −θ = p 2 p
2 a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 |
⇒ sin θ = p p .
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
yd
Conclusion: The angle θ between a line with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a plane with direction
ratios of its normal as a2 , b2 , c2 is given by
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 |
sin θ = p 2 p .
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
If direction cosines of the line are l1 , m1 , n1 and direction cosines of normal to the plane are l2 , m2 , n2 ,
rif
then
sin θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
Conclusion: The angle θ between a line with direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and a plane with direction
la
cosines of its normal as l2 , m2 , n2 is given by

sin θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.

x−6 y−7 z−7
C
Example 13 Find the angle between the line = = and the plane x + y + 2z = 0.
3 2 −2
x−6 y−7 z−7
3 2 −2
Then, direction ratios of given line are a1 = 3, b1 = 2, c1 = −2.
Equation of given plane is x + y + 2z = 0.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are a2 = 1, b2 = 1, c2 = 2.
Let θ be the angle between given line and plane, then
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 | |(3)(1) + (2)(1) + (−2)(2)| 1
sin θ = p 2 2 2
p
2 2 2
=p p =√ .
a1 + b1 + c1 a2 + b2 + c2 2 2
(3) + (2) + (−2) 2 2 2
(1) + (1) + (2) 2 102

−1 1
Hence, θ = sin √ , which is the required angle.
102
Example 14 Find the angle between the line ⃗r = (2î − ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(3î − ĵ + 2k̂) and the plane
⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = 3.
Solution: Equation of given line is ⃗r = (2î − ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(3î − ĵ + 2k̂).
Then, direction ratios of given line are a1 = 3, b1 = −1, c1 = 2.
Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = 3.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are a2 = 1, b2 = 1, c2 = 1.
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 | |(3)(1) + (−1)(1) + (2)(1)| 4
sin θ = p 2 2 2
p
2 2 2
=p p =√ .
a1 + b1 + c1 a2 + b2 + c2 2 2
(3) + (−1) + (2) 2 2 2
(1) + (1) + (1) 2 42
in

4
Hence, θ = sin−1 √ , which is the required angle.
42
Example 15 Find the angle between the line ⃗r = 2î − 3ĵ + λk̂ and the plane whose vector equation is
⃗r · (ĵ − k̂) = 7.
e.
Solution: Equation of given line is ⃗r = 2î − 3ĵ + λk̂, i.e., ⃗r = 2î − 3ĵ + λ(0î + 0ĵ + k̂).
Then, direction ratios of given line are a1 = 0, b1 = 0, c1 = 1.
Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (ĵ − k̂) = 7, i.e., ⃗r · (î − ĵ + 0k̂) = 7.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are a2 = 1, b2 = −1, c2 = 0.
yd
Let θ is the angle between given line and plane, then
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 | |(0)(1) + (0)(−1) + (1)(0)|
sin θ = p 2 2 2
p
2 2 2
=p p = 0.
a1 + b1 + c1 a2 + b2 + c2 (0) + (0)2 + (1)2 (1)2 + (−1)2 + (0)2
2

Example 16 Find the acute angle between the plane having equation 5x − 4y + 7z − 13 = 0 and the
rif
y-axis.
Solution: Direction ratios of y-axis are a1 = 0, b1 = 1, c1 = 0.
Equation of given plane is 5x − 4y + 7z − 13 = 0.
la
Let θ be the angle between the given plane and y-axis, then
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 | |(0)(5) + (1)(−4) + (0)(7)| 4
sin θ = p 2 p =p p =√ .
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22 (0)2 + (1)2 + (0)2 (5)2 + (−4)2 + (7)2 90

4
Hence, θ = sin−1 √
C
, which is the required angle.

90
Example 17 (Exemplar) The plane 2x − 3y + 6z − 11 = 0 makes an angle sin−1 θ with x-axis. Find
the value of θ.
Solution: Direction ratios of x-axis are a1 = 1, b1 = 0, c1 = 0.
Equation of given plane is 2x − 3y + 6z − 11 = 0.
Given that the plane makes an angle sin−1 θ with x-axis, then
|a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 | |(1)(2) + (0)(−3) + (0)(6)| 2
sin (sin−1 θ) = p 2 p =p p = .
2 2 2
a1 + b1 + c1 a2 + b2 + c22 2 2 2
(1) + (0) + (0) 2 2 2
(2) + (−3) + (6) 2 7
2
Hence, θ = .
7
Example 18 Find the angles at which the vector normal to the plane ⃗r · (4î + 8ĵ + k̂) = 5 is inclined
to the coordinate axes.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (4î + 8ĵ + k̂) = 5.
Then, direction ratios of vector normal to the given plane are 4, 8, 1.
Also, direction cosines of vector normal to the given plane are
4 8 1 4 8 1
p ,p ,p , i.e., , , .
(4)2 + (8)2 + (1)2 (4)2 + (8)2 + (1)2 (4)2 + (8)2 + (1)2 9 9 9
4 8 1
Let l = , m = , n = .
9 9 9
Let the vector normal to the plane be inclined at angles α, β, γ with the coordinate axes.
in
4 8 1
Then, cos α = l = , cos β = m = , cos γ = n =
9 9 9
4 8 1
⇒ α = cos−1 , β = cos−1 , γ = cos−1
9 9 9
4 8 1
Hence, the required angles are cos−1 , cos−1 and cos−1 .
e.
9 9 9
Example 19 Find the angle between a line having direction cosines 0, −1, 0 and a plane having
2 6 3
direction cosines of its normal as − , , − .
7 7 7
yd
Solution: Direction cosines of the given line are l1 = 0, m1 = −1, n1 = 0.
2 6 3
Direction cosines of normal to the given plane are l2 = − , m2 = , n2 = −
7 7 7

2 6 3 6
sin θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 | = (0) − + (−1) + (0) − = .
7 7 7 7
rif
6
Hence, θ = sin−1 , which is the required angle.
7
20.2.5 Condition of Perpendicularity of a Line and a Plane
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition for a given line and a given plane to be perpendicular.
Suppose that we are given a line and a plane, then
la
The line is perpendicular to the plane

⇔ The line is parallel to normal to the plane
⇔ Direction ratios of the line and normal to the plane are proportional.
C
Condition of Perpendicularity of a Line and a Plane: A line and a plane are perpendicular if and
only if direction ratios of the line and normal to the plane are proportional.
Example 20 Show that the plane ⃗r ·(î+2ĵ −5k̂) = 13 and the line ⃗r = (î+2ĵ +3k̂)+λ(4î+8ĵ −20k̂)
are perpendicular to each other.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (î + 2ĵ − 5k̂) = 13.
Then, direction ratios of normal to given plane are 1, 2, −5.
Equation of given line is ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(4î + 8ĵ − 20k̂).
Then, direction ratios of given line are 4, 8, −20, i.e., 1, 2, −5.
Thus, direction ratios of given line and normal to given plane are proportional.
Hence, given line and given plane are perpendicular to each other.
Example 21 Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 5, 2) and perpendicular to the
x − 16 y z+5
given line = = .
2 3 2
x − 16 y z+5
2 3 2
Then, direction ratios of given line are 2, 3, 2.
Thus, direction ratios of required plane which is perpendicular to given line are 2k, 3k, 2k, i.e., 2, 3, 2.
Also, the required plane passes through the point (1, 5, 2).
Let a = 2, b = 3, c = 2 and x1 = 1, y1 = 5, z1 = 2.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ 2x + 3y + 2z = (2)(1) + (3)(5) + (2)(2)
in
⇒ 2x + 3y + 2z = 21.
Example 22 A line passes through the point with position vector 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂ and is perpendicular to
the plane ⃗r · (3î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) = 7. Find the equation of the line in Cartesian and vector forms.
e.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (3î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) = 7.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are 3, 4, −5.
Thus, direction ratios of the required line which is perpendicular to given plane are 3k, 4k, −5k,
i.e., 3, 4, −5.
Also, the required line passes through the point having position vector 2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂, i.e., through the
yd
point (2, −3, 4).
x−2 y+3 z−4
Hence, Cartesian equation of the required line is = =
3 4 −5
and vector equation of the required line is ⃗r = (2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂) + λ(3î + 4ĵ − 5k̂).
20.2.6 Condition of Parallelism of a Line and a Plane
rif
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition for a given and a given plane to be parallel. Consider a
line with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and a plane with direction ratios of its normal as a2 , b2 , c2 .
Then, the line is parallel to the plane ⇔ The line is perpendicular to normal to the plane
⇔ a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.
la
Condition of Parallelism of a Line and a Plane: A line with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 is parallel
to a plane with direction ratios of its normal as a2 , b2 , c2 if and only if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.
y−3 z−2
C
x+3
Example 23 Show that the plane ⃗r · (8î − 13ĵ + 15k̂) = 13 and line = = are
2 7 5
parallel to each other.
Then, direction ratios of normal to given plane are a1 = 8, b1 = −13, c1 = 15.
x+3 y−3 z−2
Equation of given line is = = .
2 7 5
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (8)(2) + (−13)(7) + (15)(5) = 0.
Hence, the given plane and the given line are parallel to each other.
x−5
Example 24 Show that the plane x − 5y − 2z = 1 contains the line = y = 2 − z.
3
Solution: Equation of given plane is x − 5y − 2z = 1.
Then, direction ratios of normal to given plane are a1 = 1, b1 = −5, c1 = −2.
x−5 x−5 y−0 z−2
Equation of given line is = y = 2 − z, i.e., = = .
3 3 1 −1
Then, direction ratios of given line are a2 = 3, b2 = 1, c2 = −1 and (5, 0, 2) is a point on the given line.
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (1)(3) + (−5)(1) + (−2)(−1) = 0.
Thus, the given line is parallel to the given plane and (5, 0, 2) is a point on given plane.
Hence, the given plane contains the given line.
x−1 y+4 z−7
Example 25 If the line = = is parallel to the plane 3x − 2y + cz = 14, then find
2 1 2
the value of c.
in
Solution: Equation of given plane is 3x − 2y + cz = 14.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are a1 = 3, b1 = −2, c1 = c.
x−1 y+4 z−7
2 1 2
e.
Given that the line is parallel to the plane, then
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (3)(2) + (−2)(1) + (c)(2) = 0 ⇒ 4 + 2c = 0
⇒ c = −2.
yd
Example 26 If 4x + 4y − cz = 0 is the equation of the plane passing through the origin that contains
x+5 y z−7
the line = = , then find the value of c.
2 3 4
Solution: Equation of given plane is 4x + 4y − cz = 0.
Then, direction ratios of normal to given plane are a1 = 4, b1 = 4, c1 = −c.
x+5 y z−7
rif
2 3 4
Then direction ratios of given line are a2 = 2, b2 = 3, c2 = 4.
Given that the plane contains the line, i.e., the line and the plane are parallel to each other, then
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (4)(2) + (4)(3) + (−c)(4) = 0 ⇒ 20 − 4c = 0
la
⇒ c = 5.
Example 27 Let P (3, 2, 6) be a point in the space and Q be a point on the line having vector equation
−−→
⃗r = î − ĵ + 2k̂ + µ(−3î + ĵ + 5k̂), then find the value of µ for which the vector P Q is parallel to the
plane x − 4y + 3z = 1.
C
Solution: Equation of given plane is x − 4y + 3z = 1.

Equation of given line is ⃗r = î − ĵ + 2k̂ + µ(−3î + ĵ + 5k̂) = (1 − 3µ)î + (−1 + µ)ĵ + (2 + 5µ)k̂.
Given a point P (3, 2, 6) in space and a point Q on given line.
Then, the position vector of Q = (1 − 3µ)î + (−1 + µ)ĵ + (2 + 5µ)k̂, for some µ.
−−→
Then, P Q = Position vector of Q − Position vector of P
= [(1 − 3µ)î + (µ − 1)ĵ + (5µ + 2)k̂] − (3î + 2ĵ + 6k̂)
= (−2 − 3µ)î + (−3 + µ)ĵ + (−4 + 5µ)k̂.
−−→
Direction ratios of P Q are a2 = −2 − 3µ, b2 = −3 + µ, c2 = −4 + 5µ.
−−→
Given that P Q is parallel to the plane, then
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (1)(−2 − 3µ) + (−4)(−3 + µ) + (3)(−4 + 5µ) = 0
⇒ −2 + 8µ = 0
1
⇒ µ= .
4
Example 28 Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (3, 0, −1) and parallel to the
x−3 y−1 z
lines = = and ⃗r = (−î + 4ĵ − 2k̂) + λ(2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂).
1 2 3
x−3 y−1 z
Solution: Equations of given lines are = = and ⃗r = (−î + 4ĵ − 2k̂) + λ(2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂).
1 2 3
in
Then, direction ratios of the given lines are 1, 2, 3 and 2, −3, 4 respectively.
Given that the required plane is parallel to the given lines, then
1a + 2b + 3c = 0 ...(1)
e.
and 2a − 3b + 4c = 0 ...(2)
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = .
8+9 4−6 −3 − 4 17 2 −7
yd
Thus, direction ratios of required plane are a = 17, b = 2, c = −7.
Given that the required plane passes through the point (3, 0, −1). Let x1 = 3, y1 = 0, z1 = −1.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ 17x + 2y − 7z = (17)(3) + (2)(0) + (−7)(−1)
⇒ 17x + 2y − 7z = 58.
rif
x−1 y+1 z−3
Example 29 Find the equation of the plane which contains the line = = and is
2 −1 4
perpendicular to the plane x + 2y + z = 12.
x−1 y+1 z−3
2 −1 4
la
Then, direction ratios of the given line are 2, −1, 4 and a point on the given line is (1, −1, 3).
Equation of given plane is x + 2y + z = 12.
Then, direction ratios of the normal to the given plane are 1, 2, 1.
C
Given that the required plane contains the given line and is perpendicular to the given plane, then
2a − 1b + 4c = 0. ...(1)
and 1a + 2b + 1c = 0. ...(2)
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = .
−1 − 8 2−4 4+1 −9 2 5
Thus, direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a = −9, b = 2, c = 5.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ −9x + 2y + 5z = (−9)(1) + (2)(−1) + (5)(3)
⇒ −9x + 2y + 5z = 4.
Example 30 Find the equation of a plane which passes through the point (3, 2, 0) and contains the line
x−3 y−6 z−4
= = .
1 5 4
x−3 y−6 z−4
1 5 4
Then, direction ratios of given line are 1, 5, 4 and a point on the given line is (3, 6, 4).
Given that the required plane contains the given line, then
1a + 5b + 4c = 0. ...(1)
Given that the required plane passes through the point (3, 2, 0). Let x1 = 3, y1 = 2, z1 = 0.
in
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ax + by + cz = 3a + 2b. ...(2)
Also, the required plane passes through the point (3, 6, 4), then
3a + 6b + 4c = 3a + 2b ⇒ 0a + 4b + 4c = 0. ...(3)
e.
a −b c a b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = ⇒ = = .
20 − 16 4−0 4−0 4 −4 4 1 −1 1
Thus, direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a = 1, b = −1, c = 1.
Hence, from (2), we get the equation of the required plane as x − y + z = 1.
yd
Example 31 (Exemplar) Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the points (2, 1, −1)
and (−1, 3, 4) and perpendicular to the plane x−2y +4z = 10. Also, show that the plane thus obtained
contains the line ⃗r = −î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ + λ(3î − 2ĵ − 5k̂).
Solution: Given equation of plane is x − 2y + 4z = 10.
rif

1a − 2b + 4c = 0. ...(1)
la

ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ax + by + cz = 2a + b − c. ...(2)
Also, the required plane passes through the point (−1, 3, 4), then
−a + 3b + 4c = 2a + b − c ⇒ 3a − 2b − 5c = 0. ...(3)
C

a −b c
= =
10 + 8 −5 − 12 −2 + 6
a b c
⇒ = = .
18 17 4
Hence, from (2), we get the equation of the required plane as 18x + 17y + 4z = 49.
Now, direction ratios of the obtained plane are a1 = 18, b1 = 17, c1 = 4.
Equation of given line is ⃗r = −î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ + λ(3î − 2ĵ − 5k̂).
Then, direction ratios of given line are a2 = 3, b2 = −2, c2 = −5 and (−1, 3, 4) is a point on the given
line.
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (18)(3) + (17)(−2) + (4)(−5) = 0.

Thus, the given line is parallel to the given plane and (−1, 3, 4) is a point on given plane.
Hence, the obtained plane contains the given line.
Example 32 Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the points (3, 4, 2) and (7, 0, 6) and
perpendicular to the plane 2x − 5y − 15 = 0. Also, show that the plane thus obtained contains the line
⃗r = î + 3ĵ − 2k̂ + λ(î − ĵ + k̂).
Solution: Given equation of plane is 2x − 5y − 15 = 0.
in
2a − 5b + 0c = 0. ...(1)
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ax + by + cz = 3a + 4b + 2c. ...(2)
e.
7a + 0b + 6c = 3a + 4b + 2c ⇒ 4a − 4b + 4c = 0 ⇒ a − b + c = 0. ...(3)
a −b c a b c
yd
= = ⇒ = = .
−5 + 0 2−0 −2 + 5 −5 −2 3
Thus, direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a = −5, b = −2, c = 3.
Hence, from (2), we get the equation of the required plane as −5x − 2y + 3z = −17.
Now, direction ratios of the obtained plane are a1 = −5, b1 = −2, c1 = 3.
Equation of given line is ⃗r = î + 3ĵ − 2k̂ + λ(î − ĵ + k̂).
Then, direction ratios of given line are a2 = 1, b2 = −1, c2 = 1 and (1, 3, −2) is a point on the given
rif
line.
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (−5)(1) + (−2)(−1) + (3)(1) = 0.
Thus, the given line is parallel to the obtained plane and (1, 3, −2) is a point on obtained plane.
la
Example 33 Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (−1, 2, 0), (2, 2, −1) and
x−1 2y + 1 z+1
parallel to the line = = .
1 2 −1
1
y+
C
x−1 2y + 1 z+1 x−1 2 = z + 1.

Solution: Given equation of line is = = , i.e., =
1 2 −1 1 1 −1
1a + 1b − 1c = 0. ...(1)
Given that the required plane passes through the point (−1, 2, 0). Let x1 = −1, y1 = 2, z1 = 0.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ax + by + cz = −a + 2b. ...(2)
Also, the required plane passes through the point (2, 2, −1), then
2a + 2b − c = −a + 2b ⇒ 3a + 0b − c = 0. ...(3)
= = ⇒ = = ⇒ = = .
−1 + 0 −1 + 3 0−3 −1 −2 −3 1 2 3
Hence, from (2), we get the equation of the required plane as x + 2y + 3z = 3.
Example 34 Find direction ratios of the normal to the plane, which passes through the points (1, 0, 0)
π
and (0, 1, 0) and makes angle with the plane x + y = 3. Also, find the equation of the plane.
4
Solution: Given equation of plane is x + y = 3.
Then, direction ratios of normal to given plane are 1, 1, 0.
in
π
Given that the required plane makes angle with the given plane, then
4
π |(1)(a) + (1)(b) + (0)(c)|
cos = p √
4 (1)2 + (1)2 + (0)2 a2 + b2 + c2
e.
1 |a + b|
⇒ √ =√ √
2 2 a2 + b2 + c2
p
⇒ a2 + b2 + c2 = |a + b|
yd
⇒ a2 + b2 + c2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
⇒ c2 = 2ab. ...(1)
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ax + by + cz = a. ...(2)
rif
0a + 1b + 0c = a ⇒ b = a. ...(3)
From (1) and (2), we have
√
c2 = 2a2 ⇒ c = ± 2 a.
la
Putting values of b and c in (2), we get the equations of the required plane as
√ √
ax + ay ± 2 az = a ⇒ x + y ± 2 z = 1.
Example 35 Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the line passing through the point P (1, 2, 3)
C
and parallel to the planes ⃗r · (î − ĵ + 2k̂) = 5 and ⃗r · (3î + ĵ + k̂) = 6.

Solution: Equations of given planes are ⃗r · (î − ĵ + 2k̂) = 5 and ⃗r · (3î + ĵ + k̂) = 6.
Then, direction ratios of normals to the given planes are 1, −1, 2 and 3, 1, 1 respectively.
Let a, b, c be direction ratios of the required line.
Given that required line is parallel to the given planes.
Then, 1a − 1b + 2c = 0 ...(1)
and 3a + 1b + 1c = 0 ...(2)
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = .
−1 − 2 1−6 1+3 −3 5 4
Also, given that required line passes through the point (1, 2, 3).
x−1 y−2 z−3
Hence, Cartesian equation of required line is = =
−3 5 4
and vector equation of required line is ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(−3î + 5ĵ + 4k̂).
Exercise 20.2
(i) The anglebetweenthe planes having vector equations ⃗r · (2î − 3ĵ + k̂) = 1 and ⃗r · (î − ĵ) = 4
5
is cos−1 − √ .
58
in
(ii) The angle the line ⃗r = 5î− ĵ−4k̂+λ(2î− ĵ+ k̂) and the plane ⃗r ·(3î−4ĵ− k̂)+5 = 0
between
5
is sin−1 √ .
2 91
e.
(iii) The line ⃗r = 2î − 3ĵ − k̂ + λ(î − ĵ + 2k̂) lies in the plane ⃗r · (3î + ĵ − k̂) + 2 = 0.
(i) The angle between the two planes 2x + y − 2z = 5 and 3x − 6y − 2z = 7 is .
(ii) The equation of the plane passing through (0, −1, 0) and parallel to the plane 2y − z = 5 is
.
yd
3. Find the angle between the two planes 7x + 5y + 6z + 30 = 0 and 3x − y − 10z + 4 = 0.
4. Find the angle between the two planes 4x + 8y + z − 8 = 0 and y + z − 4 = 0.
5. Find the angle between the planes ⃗r · (2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = 5 and ⃗r · (3î − 3ĵ + 5k̂) = 3.
* 6. Find the cosine of the angle between the planes x + 2y − 2z + 6 = 0 and 2x + 2y + z + 8 = 0.
7. Find the angle between the two planes having direction cosines of their normals as 1, 0, 0 and
rif
1 2 3
√ ,√ ,√ .
14 14 14
8. In the following cases, determine whether the given planes are parallel or perpendicular:
(i) 2x + y + 3z − 2 = 0 and x − 2y + 5 = 0.
la
(ii) 2x − 2y + 4z + 5 = 0 and 3x − 3y + 6z − 1 = 0.
9. Show that the given two planes ⃗r · (3î + 2ĵ − k̂) = −4 and ⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = 2 are perpendicular.
* 10. Find the equation of plane through the point (1, 2, 3) and perpendicular to the planes x+y+2z = 3
and 3x + 2y + z = 4.
C
* 11. A plane passes through the point (4, 2, 4) and is perpendicular to the planes 2x + 5y + 4z + 1 = 0
and 4x + 7y + 6z + 2 = 0. Find the equation of the plane.
* 12. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 1, −1) and perpendicular to the planes
x + 2y + 3z − 7 = 0 and 2x − 3y + 4z = 0.
13. Find the equation of plane passing through the point (−1, 3, 2) and perpendicular to each of the
planes x + 2y + 3z = 5 and 3x + 3y + z = 0. [NCERT]
x−2 y−3 z−4
* 14. Find the angle θ between the line = = and the plane 2x − 2y + z − 5 = 0.
3 5 4
* 15. Find the equation of the plane that contains the point A(2, 1, −1) and is perpendicular to the line
of intersection of the planes 2x + y − z = 3 and x + 2y + z = 2. Also find the angle between the
plane thus obtained and the y-axis.
16. Show that the planes 3x − 2y − z + 1 = 0 and 15x − 10y − 5z + 4 = 0 are parallel.
x+1 y z−3
17. Find the angle between the line and the plane = = and 10x + 2y − 11z = 3
2 3 6
respectively. [NCERT]
x−2 y+1 z−2
18. Find the angle between a line and a plane = = and x − y + z − 5 = 0
3 4 2
respectively.
x−2 2y − 5 3−z
19. Find the angle between a line and a plane = = and x + 2y + 2z − 5 = 0
3 4 −6
respectively.
x−2 y−3 z−4
20. Find the sine of the angle between the line = = and plane 2x − 2y + z = 5.
3 4 5
[Exemplar]
in
x−3 y+1 z+3
21. Show that plane ⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = 5 is perpendicular to line = = and is parallel
4 −4 4
to the line ⃗r = (2î − 5ĵ + k̂) + λ(3î + 2ĵ − k̂).
22. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 2, 1) and perpendicular to the line
e.
joining the points (1, 4, 2) and (2, 3, 5).
23. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 5, 2) and perpendicular to the given
line ⃗r = (î − ĵ + 9k̂) + λ(2î + 3ĵ + 2k̂).
24. Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the plane which passes through the point (5, 2, −4) and
perpendicular to the line with direction ratios 2, 3, −1. [NCERT]
yd
25. O is the origin and A is (a, b, c). Find the direction cosines of the line OA and the equation of
plane through A at right angle to OA. [Exemplar]
26. If the line drawn from the point (−2, −1, −3) meets a plane at right angle at the point (1, −3, 3),
find the equation of the plane. [Exemplar]
27. Find the equation of a plane which bisects the line segment joining the points A(2, 3, 4) and
rif
B(4, 5, 8) at right angles. [Exemplar]
* 28. Write the Cartesian equation of a plane, bisecting the line segment joining the points A(2, 3, 5)
and B(4, 5, 7) at right angles.
* 29. Show that the plane whose vector equation is ⃗r · (î + 2ĵ − k̂) = 6 contains the line whose vector
equation is ⃗r = (4î + ĵ) + λ(2î + ĵ + 4k̂).
la
* 30. Find the equation of plane passing through the points (2, 2, 1) and (9, 3, 6) and perpendicular to
the plane 2x + 6y + 6z = 1. Also, show that the plane thus obtained contains the line having
equation ⃗r = 4î + 3ĵ + 3k̂ + λ(7î + ĵ + 5k̂).
31. Find the equation of plane passing through the point (−1, 3, 2) and parallel to each of the lines
C
x−7 y−1 z x−1 y+1 z−4

= = and = = .
1 2 3 3 3 1
32. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (3, 4, 1) and (0, 1, 0) and parallel to the
x+3 y−3 z−2
line = = .
2 7 5
33. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point (1, 7, −7) and containing the line having
x+1 y−3 z+2
equation = = .
−3 2 1
34. Find the equation of plane passing through the point (1, 1, 1) and perpendicular to the plane having
equation x + 2y + 3z = 17 and parallel to the line ⃗r = (3î − 11ĵ) + λ(2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂).
* 35. Find the vector equation of line passing through the point (1, 2, 3) and perpendicular to the plane
⃗r · (î + 2ĵ − 5k̂) + 9 = 0. [NCERT]
36. Find the equation of line passing through the point (−1, 7, 2) and perpendicular to the plane whose
equation is 3x − y + 4z = 11.
* 37. Find the equation of the line passing through the point (3, 0, 1) and parallel to the planes x+2y = 0
and 3y − z = 0. [Exemplar]
38. Find the equation of the line which passes through the point (1, −3, 0) and parallel to the planes
⃗r · (î + 2ĵ) = 7 and 3y − z = 5.
39. The acute angle between the planes 2x − y + z = 1 and x + y + 2z = 5 is
(a) 45◦ (b) 90◦ (c) 60◦ (d) 30◦
40. The planes 2x − y + 4z = 5 and 5x − 2.5y + 10z = 6 [NCERT]
in
(a) are parallel (b) intersect on y-axis

5
(c) are perpendicular (d) pass through 0, 0,
4
* 41. The two planes x − 2y + 4z = 10 and 18x + 17y + kz = 50 are perpendicular, if k is equal to
e.
(a) −4 (b) 4 (c) 2 (d) −2
* 42. The vector equation of the line passing through the point (−1, 5, 4) and perpendicular to the plane
z = 0 is
(a) ⃗r = −î + 5ĵ + 4k̂ + λ(î + ĵ) (b) ⃗r = −î + 5ĵ + (4 + λ)k̂
yd
(c) ⃗r = î − 5ĵ − 4k̂ + λk̂ (d) ⃗r = λk̂
x−2 y−3 z−4
43. The line = = is parallel to the plane
3 4 5
(a) 2x + 3y + 4z = 0 (b) 3x + 4y − 5z = 7
(c) 2x + y − 2z = 0 (d) x − y + z = 2
rif
Answers 20.2
1. (i) False (ii) False (iii) True
4
(i) cos−1
la
2. (ii) 2y − z + 2 = 0
21
2 π 15
3. cos−1 4. 5. cos−1 √
5 4 731
4 1
6. 7. cos−1 √ 8. (i) Perpendicular (ii) Parallel
C
9 14
10. −3x + 5y − z = 4 11. x + 2y − 3z = −4 12. 17x + 2y − 7z = 26
1
13. 7x − 8y + 3z + 25 = 0 14. 0◦ 15. x − y + z = 0, sin−1 √
3
8 1 19
17. sin−1 18. sin−1 √ 19. sin−1
21 87 21
√
2
20. 22. x − y + 3z − 2 = 0 23. 2x + 3y + 2z − 21 = 0
10
24. ⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ − k̂) = 20, 2x + 3y − z = 20
a b c
25. √ ,√ ,√ ; ax + by + cz = a2 + b2 + c2
a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2 a2 + b2 + c2
26. 3x − 2y + 6z − 27 = 0 27. x + y + 2z = 19 28. x + y + z − 13 = 0
30. 3x + 4y − 5z = 9 31. 7x − 8y + 3z = −25 32. 8x − 13y + 15z + 13 = 0
33. x + y + z − 1 = 0 34. 17x + 2y − 7z = 12
x+1 y−7 z−2
35. ⃗r = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + λ(î + 2ĵ − 5k̂) 36. = =
3 −1 4
x−3 y−0 z−1 x−1 y+3 z
37. = = 38. = = 39. (c)
−2 1 3 −2 1 3
40. (a) 41. (b) 42. (b)
43. (c)
in
20.3 Point of Intersection of a Line and a Plane
In this section, we shall first discuss the problems related to finding the point of intersection of a line and
a plane. We have the following working rule.
Step I Write the equation of the given plane in the Cartesian form.
e.
Step II Write the given equation of line.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 b1 c1
⃗r = (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) + λ(a1 î + b1 ĵ + c1 k̂)
yd
= (a1 λ + x1 )î + (b1 λ + y1 )ĵ + (c1 λ + z1 )k̂.
The general point on given line is (a1 λ + x1 , b1 λ + y1 , c1 λ + z1 ).
Step III Put the coordinates of the point (a1 λ + x1 , b1 λ + y1 , c1 λ + z1 ) in the equation of plane to
compute λ.
Step IV Substitute the value of λ in the general coordinates of the point to get the required point of
rif
intersection of given line and plane.
Example 1 Find the points of intersection of the line ⃗r = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ + λ(3î + 4ĵ + 2k̂) and the plane
la
⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = 5.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = 5.
Then, equation of given plane in Cartesian form is x − y + z = 5. ...(1)
Equation of given line is
C
⃗r = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ + λ(3î + 4ĵ + 2k̂) = (3λ + 2)î + (4λ − 1)ĵ + (2λ + 2)k̂.
Then, general point on given line is (3λ + 2, 4λ − 1, 2λ + 2). ...(2)
If given line and given plane intersect, then the above point lies on the given plane (1) and we have
(3λ + 2) − (4λ − 1) + (2λ + 2) = 5 ⇒ λ = 0.
x−2 y+1 z−2
Example 2 Find the coordinates of the point where the line = = intersects the
3 4 2
plane x − y + z − 5 = 0.
Solution: Equation of given plane is x − y + z − 5 = 0. ...(1)
x−2 y+1 z−2
3 4 2
x−2 y+1 z−2

Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 3λ + 2, y = 4λ − 1, z = 2λ + 2.
3 4 2
(3λ + 2) − (4λ − 1) + (2λ + 2) − 5 = 0 ⇒ λ = 0.
x−1 y+4 z+4
Example 3 Find the coordinates of the point where the line = = cuts the
3 7 2
xy-plane.
Solution: Equation of xy-plane is z = 0. ...(1)
in
x−1 y+4 z+4
3 7 2
x−1 y+4 z+4
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 3λ + 1, y = 7λ − 4, z = 2λ − 4.
3 7 2
Then, general point on given line is (3λ + 1, 7λ − 4, 2λ − 4). ...(2)
e.
2λ − 4 = 0 ⇒ λ = 2.
Example 4 Find the distance of the point P (−2, −4, 7) from the point of intersection Q of the line
yd
⃗r = (3î − 2ĵ + 6k̂) + λ(2î − ĵ + 2k̂) and the plane ⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = 6. Also write the vector equation
of the line P Q.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = 6.
Then, equation of given plane in Cartesian form is x − y + z = 6. ...(1)
rif
⃗r = (3î − 2ĵ + 6k̂) + λ(2î − ĵ + 2k̂) = (2λ + 3)î + (−λ − 2)ĵ + (2λ + 6)k̂.
Then, general point on given line is (2λ + 3, −λ − 2, 2λ + 6). ...(2)
(2λ + 3) − (−λ − 2) + (2λ + 6) = 6 ⇒ 5λ = −5 ⇒ λ = −1.
la
Putting λ = −1 in (2), we get the required point of intersection as Q(1, −1, 4).
p
Hence, distance between Q(1, −1, 4) and P (−2, −4, 7) = (−2 − 1)2 + (−4 + 1)2 + (7 − 4)2
√ √
= 9 + 9 + 9 = 3 3 units.
C
Now, direction ratios of line through P Q are 1 + 2, −1 + 4, 4 − 7, i.e., 3, 3, −3, i.e., 1, 1, −1.
Hence, vector equation of the line through P Q is ⃗r = (−2î − 4ĵ + 7k̂) + λ(î + ĵ − k̂).
Example 5 Find the coordinates of the point where the line through the points (3, −4, −5) and
(2, −3, 1) crosses the plane 3x + 2y + z + 14 = 0.
Solution: Equation of given plane is 3x + 2y + z + 14 = 0. ...(1)
Given a line which passes through the points (3, −4, −5) and (2, −3, 1).
Then, direction ratios of given line are 2 − 3, −3 + 4, 1 + 5, i.e. −1, 1, 6.
x−3 y+4 z+5
Thus, equation of given line is = = .
−1 1 6
x−3 y+4 z+5
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = −λ + 3, y = λ − 4, z = 6λ − 5.
−1 1 6
Then, general point on given line is (−λ + 3, λ − 4, 6λ − 5). ...(2)
3(−λ + 3) + 2(λ − 4) + (6λ − 5) + 14 = 0 ⇒ 5λ + 10 = 0
⇒ λ = −2.
Putting λ = −2 in (2), we get the required point of intersection as (5, −6, −17).
Example 6 Find the distance of the point P (3, 4, 4) from the point, where the line joining the points
A(3, −4, −5) and B(2, −3, 1) intersects the plane 2x + y + z = 7.
Solution: Given equation of plane is 2x + y + z = 7. ...(1)
Given a line which passes through the points A(3, −4, −5) and B(2, −3, 1).
Then, direction ratios of the line are 2 − 3, −3 + 4, 1 + 5, i.e., −1, 1, 6.
in
x−3 y+4 z+5
−1 1 6
x−3 y+4 z+5
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = −λ + 3, y = λ − 4, z = 6λ − 5.
−1 1 6
e.
2(−λ + 3) + (λ − 4) + (6λ − 5) = 7 ⇒ 5λ = 10 ⇒ λ = 2.
yd
p
Hence, distance between P (3, 4, 4) and (1, −2, 7) = (1 − 3)2 + (−2 − 4)2 + (7 − 4)2
√
= 4 + 36 + 9
= 7 units.
Example 7 Find the coordinates of the point where the line joining the points (1, −2, 3) and (2, −1, 5)
cuts the plane x − 2y + 3z = 19. Hence, find the distance of this point from the point (5, 4, 1).
rif
Solution: Given equation of plane is x − 2y + 3z = 19. ...(1)

Given a line which passes through the points (1, −2, 3) and (2, −1, 5).
Then, direction ratios of given line are 2 − 1, −1 + 2, 5 − 3, i.e., 1, 1, 2.
x−1 y+2 z−3
la

1 1 2
x−1 y+2 z−3
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = λ + 1, y = λ − 2, z = 2λ + 3.
1 1 2
Then, general point on given line is (λ + 1, λ − 2, 2λ + 3). ...(2)
C
(λ + 1) − 2(λ − 2) + 3(2λ + 3) = 19 ⇒ 5λ + 14 = 19 ⇒ λ = 1.
p
Hence, distance between (5, 4, 1) and (2, −1, 5) = (2 − 5)2 + (−1 − 4)2 + (5 − 1)2
√
= 9 + 25 + 16
√ √
= 50 = 5 2 units.
Example 8 (NCERT) Find the coordinates of the point where the line through the points A(3, 4, 1)
and B(5, 1, 6) crosses the xz-plane. Also find the angle which this line makes with the xz-plane.
Solution: Equation of xz-plane is y = 0. ...(1)
Given a line which passes through the points A(3, 4, 1) and B(5, 1, 6).
Then, direction ratios of given line are 5 − 3, 1 − 4, 6 − 1, i.e., 2, −3, 5.

x−3 y−4 z−1
2 −3 5
x−3 y−4 z−1
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ + 3, y = −3λ + 4, z = 5λ + 1.
2 −3 5
Then, general point on given line is (2λ + 3, −3λ + 4, 5λ + 1). ...(2)
4
0(2λ + 3) + (−3λ + 4) + 0(5λ + 1) = 0 ⇒ −3λ + 4 = 0 ⇒ λ= .
3
4 17 23
Putting λ = in (2), we get the required point of intersection as , 0, .
3 3 3
in
Now, direction ratios of the given line are a1 = 2, b1 = −3, c1 = 5.
Also, direction ratios of normal to xz-plane are a2 = 0, b2 = 1, c2 = 0.
Let θ be the angle between given line and given plane.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
e.
Then, sin θ = p 2 p
a1 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
(2)(0) + (−3)(1) + (5)(0) 3
= p p =√ .
2 2 2 2
(2) + (−3) + (5) (0) + (1) + (0) 2 2 38

yd
3
Hence, α = sin−1 √ , which is the required angle.
38
Example 9 Find the vector equation of the plane passing through three points with position vectors
î + ĵ − 2k̂, 2î − ĵ + k̂ and î + 2ĵ + k̂. Also, find the coordinates of the point of intersection of this
plane and the line ⃗r = 3î − ĵ − k̂ + λ(2î − 2ĵ + k̂).
rif
Solution: Given three points with position vectors î + ĵ − 2k̂, 2î − ĵ + k̂ and î + 2ĵ + k̂.
Let x1 = 1, y1 = 1, z1 = −2; x2 = 2, y2 = −1, z2 = 1; x3 = 1, y3 = 2, z3 = 1.
Then, Cartesian equation of given plane is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
la
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−1 y−1 z+2
⇒ 1 −2 3 =0
0 1 3
C
⇒ (x − 1)(−6 − 3) − (y − 1)(3 − 0) + (z + 2)(1 − 0) = 0

⇒ −9(x − 1) − 3(y − 1) + (z + 2) = 0
⇒ −9x − 3y + z = −14 ...(1)
and vector equation of given plane is ⃗r · (−9î − 3ĵ + k̂) = −14.
Given equation of line is
⃗r = 3î − ĵ − k̂ + λ(2î − 2ĵ + k̂) = (2λ + 3)î + (−2λ − 1)ĵ + (λ − 1)k̂.
Then, general point on given line is (2λ + 3, −2λ − 1, λ − 1). ...(2)
−9(2λ + 3) − 3(−2λ − 1) + (λ − 1) = −14 ⇒ −11λ = 11 ⇒ λ = −1.
Putting λ = −1 in (2), we get the required point of intersection as (1, 1, −2).
Example 10 Find the equation of the line passing through (2, −1, 2) and (5, 3, 4) and of the plane
passing through (2, 0, 3), (1, 1, 5) and (3, 2, 4). Also, find their point of intersection.
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points (2, 0, 3), (1, 1, 5) and (3, 2, 4).
Let x1 = 2, y1 = 0, z1 = 3; x2 = 1, y2 = 1, z2 = 5; x3 = 3, y3 = 2, z3 = 4.
Then, equation of given plane is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−2 y−0 z−3
⇒ −1 1 2 =0
in
1 2 1
⇒ (x − 2)(1 − 4) − y(−1 − 2) + (z − 3)(−2 − 1) = 0
⇒ −3(x − 2) + 3y − 3(z − 3) = 0
⇒ (x − 2) − y + (z − 3) = 0
e.
⇒ x − y + z = 5. ...(1)
Given a line passing through the points (2, −1, 2) and (5, 3, 4).
Then, direction ratios of given line are 5 − 2, 3 + 1, 4 − 2, i.e., 3, 4, 2.
x−2 y+1 z−2
yd
3 4 2
x−2 y+1 z−2
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 3λ + 2, y = 4λ − 1, z = 2λ + 2.
3 4 2
(3λ + 2) − (4λ − 1) + (2λ + 2) = 5 ⇒ λ = 0.
rif
Example 11 Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the plane passing through the points (2, 5, −3),
(−2, −3, 5) and (5, 3, −3). Also, find the point of intersection of this plane with the line passing
through the points (3, 1, 5) and (−1, −3, −1).
la
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points (2, 5, −3), (−2, −3, 5) and (5, 3, −3).
Let x1 = 2, y1 = 5, z1 = −3; x2 = −2, y2 = −3, z2 = 5; x3 = 5, y3 = 3, z3 = −3.
Then, Cartesian equation of given plane is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
C
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−2 y−5 z+3
⇒ −4 −8 8 =0
3 −2 0
⇒ (x − 2)(0 + 16) − (y − 5)(0 − 24) + (z + 3)(8 + 24) = 0
⇒ 16(x − 2) + 24(y − 5) + 32(z + 3) = 0
⇒ 2(x − 2) + 3(y − 5) + 4(z + 3) = 0
⇒ 2x + 3y + 4z = 7 ...(1)
and vector equation of given plane is ⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) = 7.
Given a line passing through the points (3, 1, 5) and (−1, −3, −1).
Then, direction ratios of given line are −1 − 3, −3 − 1, −1 − 5, i.e., −4, −4, −6, i.e., 2, 2, 3.
x−3 y−1 z−5
2 2 3
x−3 y−1 z−5
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ + 3, y = 2λ + 1, z = 3λ + 5.
2 2 3
Then, general point on given line is (2λ + 3, 2λ + 1, 3λ + 5). ...(2)
2(2λ + 3) + 3(2λ + 1) + 4(3λ + 5) = 7
⇒ 22λ = −22
⇒ λ = −1.
in
Putting λ = −1 in (2), we get the required point of intersection as (1, −1, 2).
Example 12 Find the coordinates of the point where the line through the points A(3, 4, 1) and
B(5, 1, 6) crosses the plane determined by the points P (2, 1, 2), Q(3, 1, 0) and R(4, −2, 1).
e.
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points P (2, 1, 2), Q(3, 1, 0) and R(4, −2, 1).
Let x1 = 2, y1 = 1, z1 = 2; x2 = 3, y2 = 1, z2 = 0; x3 = 4, y3 = −2, z3 = 1.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
yd
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−2 y−1 z−2
⇒ 1 0 −2 = 0
2 −3 −1
⇒ (x − 2)(0 − 6) − (y − 1)(−1 + 4) + (z − 2)(−3 − 0) = 0
rif
⇒ −6(x − 2) − 3(y − 1) − 3(z − 2) = 0
⇒ 2(x − 2) + (y − 1) + (z − 2) = 0
⇒ 2x + y + z = 7. ...(1)
Given a line passing through the points A(3, 4, 1) and B(5, 1, 6).
la
Then, direction ratios of given line are 5 − 3, 1 − 4, 6 − 1, i.e., 2, −3, 5.

x−3 y−4 z−1
2 −3 5
x−3 y−4 z−1
C
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ + 3, y = −3λ + 4, z = 5λ + 1.
2 −3 5
Then, general point on given line is (2λ + 3, −3λ + 4, 5λ + 1). ...(2)
2
2(2λ + 3) + (−3λ + 4) + (5λ + 1) = 7 ⇒ 6λ = −4 ⇒ λ=− .
3
2 5 7
Putting λ = − in (2), we get the required point of intersection as , 6, − .
3 3 3
Example 13 Find the coordinates of the point where the line through the points (3, −4, −5) and
(2, −3, 1), crosses the plane determined by the points (1, 2, 3), (4, 2, −3) and (0, 4, 3).
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points (1, 2, 3), (4, 2, −3) and (0, 4, 3).
Let x1 = 1, y1 = 2, z1 = 3; x2 = 4, y2 = 2, z2 = −3; x3 = 0, y3 = 4, z3 = 3.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−1 y−2 z−3
⇒ 3 0 −6 = 0
−1 2 0
⇒ (x − 1)[0 + 12] − (y − 2)[0 − 6] + (z − 3)[6 − 0] = 0
⇒ 12(x − 1) + 6(y − 2) + 6(z − 3) = 0
⇒ 2(x − 1) + (y − 2) + (z − 3) = 0
in
⇒ 2x + y + z = 7. ...(1)
Given a line passing through the points (3, −4, −5) and (2, −3, 1).
Then, direction ratios of given line are 2 − 3, −3 + 4, 1 + 5, i.e., −1, 1, 6.
x−3 y+4 z+5
e.
−1 1 6
x−3 y+4 z+5
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = −λ + 3, y = λ − 4, z = 6λ − 5.
−1 1 6
yd
2(−λ + 3) + (λ − 4) + (6λ − 5) = 7 ⇒ 5λ = 10 ⇒ λ = 2.
Example 14 Find the coordinates of the point P where the line through A(3, −4, −5) and B(2, −3, 1)
crosses the plane passing through three points L(2, 2, 1), M (3, 0, 1) and N (4, −1, 0). Also, find the
ratio in which P divides the line segment AB.
rif
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points L(2, 2, 1), M (3, 0, 1) and N (4, −1, 0).
Let x1 = 2, y1 = 2, z1 = 1; x2 = 3, y2 = 0, z2 = 1; x3 = 4, y3 = −1, z3 = 0.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
la
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−2 y−2 z−1
⇒ 1 −2 0 =0
C
2 −3 −1
⇒ (x − 2)[2 − 0] − (y − 2)[−1 − 0] + (z − 1)[−3 + 4] = 0
⇒ 2(x − 2) + (y − 2) + (z − 1) = 0
⇒ 2x + y + z = 7
Also, given that a line passes through the points A(3, −4, −5) and B(2, −3, 1).
Let the point P divides the line segment joining the points A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B(x2 , y2 , z2 ) in the ratio
m : n = k : 1.
Then, the coordinates of point P are given by

, ,
m+n m+n m+n

(k)(2) + (1)(3) (k)(−3) + (1)(−4) (k)(1) + (1)(−5)
i.e., , ,
k+1 k+1 k+1

2k + 3 −3k − 4 k − 5
i.e., , , .
k+1 k+1 k+1
Since, point P lies on the plane, then

2k + 3 −3k − 4 k−5
2 + + =7
k+1 k+1 k+1
⇒ 4k + 6 − 3k − 4 + k − 5 = 7k + 7
⇒ k = −2
Hence, the coordinates of point P are (1, −2, 7) and it divides the line segment AB externally in the
ratio 2 : 1.
Example 15 Find the coordinates of the point where the line ⃗r = (−î − 2ĵ − 3k̂) + λ(3î + 4ĵ + 3k̂)
in
4
meets the plane which is perpendicular to the vector ⃗n = î + ĵ + 3k̂ and at a distance of √ from
11
origin.
4
Solution: Given a plane at a distance of √ from the origin and its normal vector is î + ĵ + 3k̂.
e.
11
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are 1, 1, 3.
Also, direction cosines of normal to the plane are given by
1 1 3 1 1 3
p ,p ,p , i.e., √ , √ , √ .
yd
2 2
(1) + (1) + (3) 2 2 2
(1) + (1) + (3) 2 2 2
(1) + (1) + (3) 2 11 11 11
1 1 3 4
Let l = √ , m = √ , n = √ and p = √ .
11 11 11 11
Hence, equation of given plane in normal form is
x y 3z 4
lx + my + nz = p ⇒ √ +√ +√ =√
11 11 11 11
rif
⇒ x + y + 3z = 4. ...(1)
⃗r = (−î − 2ĵ − 3k̂) + λ(3î + 4ĵ + 3k̂) = (3λ − 1)î + (4λ − 2)ĵ + (3λ − 3)k̂.
Then, general point on given line is (3λ − 1, 4λ − 2, 3λ − 3). ...(2)
la
(3λ − 1) + (4λ − 2) + 3(3λ − 3) = 4 ⇒ 16λ = 16 ⇒ λ = 1.
20.3.1 Foot of Perpendicular and Image Point
C
In this subsection, we shall discuss the method of finding the perpendicular distance of a line from a
point. We have the following working rule.
Step I Write the given equation of line.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a b c
⃗r = (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) + λ(aî + bĵ + ck̂)
= (aλ + x1 )î + (bλ + y1 )ĵ + (cλ + z1 )k̂).
The general point on the line is (aλ + x1 , bλ + y1 , cλ + z1 ).
Step II Let R(aλ + x1 , bλ + y1 , cλ + z1 ) be the foot of perpendicular drawn from the given point
P on the given line.
Step III We write the direction ratios of P R and the given line.
Step IV P R is perpendicular to given line, so by using the condition of perpendicularity, we can
compute λ.
Step V The coordinates of point R can be obtained and length of perpendicular P R can be
computed using distance formula.
We can also find the image of the given point in the given line using the above method.
Image of a Point in a Plane: Given a plane and a point P not lying in the plane. Then, a point
Q is said to be the image of P in the given plane if P Q is perpendicular to the given plane and the
in
mid-point R of P Q lies on the given plane. (See Figure 20.3)
e.
R
Q
yd
Figure 20.3
Example 16 (Exemplar) Find the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular from the point (2, 3, 7) to
the plane 3x − y − z = 7. Also, find the length of the perpendicular.
Solution: Equation of given plane is 3x − y − z = 7. ...(1)
rif
Then, direction ratios of line normal to given plane are 3, −1, −1.
x−2 y−3 z−7
Thus, equation of line through (2, 3, 7) and perpendicular to given plane is = = .
3 −1 −1
x−2 y−3 z−7
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 3λ + 2, y = −λ + 3, z = −λ + 7.
3 −1 −1
la
Then, general point on obtained line is (3λ + 2, −λ + 3, −λ + 7). ...(2)

If obtained line and given plane intersect, then the above point lies on the given plane (1) and we have
3(3λ + 2) − (−λ + 3) − (−λ + 7) = 7 ⇒ 11λ = 11 ⇒ λ = 1.
Putting λ = 1 in (2), we get the point of intersection of obtained line and given plane as (5, 2, 6).
C
Hence, the required foot of perpendicular is (5, 2, 6).

Also, required length of perpendicular = Distance between (2, 3, 7) and (5, 2, 6)
p √
= (5 − 2)2 + (2 − 3)2 + (6 − 7)2 = 11 units.
Example 17 Find the coordinates of the foot of perpendicular and perpendicular distance from the
point P (4, 3, 2) to the plane x + 2y + 3z = 2. Also, find the image of P in the plane.
Solution: Equation of given plane is x + 2y + 3z = 2. ...(1)
Then, direction ratios of line normal to given plane are 1, 2, 3.
x−4 y−3 z−2
1 2 3
x−4 y−3 z−2
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = λ + 4, y = 2λ + 3, z = 3λ + 2.
1 2 3
Then, general point on obtained line is (λ + 4, 2λ + 3, 3λ + 2). ...(2)

(λ + 4) + 2(2λ + 3) + 3(3λ + 2) = 2 ⇒ 14λ = −14 ⇒ λ = −1.
Putting λ = −1 in (2), we get the point of intersection of obtained line and given plane as (3, 1, −1).
Hence, the required foot of perpendicular is R(3, 1, −1).
Also, required length of perpendicular = Distance between (4, 3, 2) and (3, 1, −1)
p
= (3 − 4)2 + (1 − 3)2 + (−1 − 2)2
√
= 14 units.
Let Q(x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the image of the point P (4, 3, 2) in given plane.
in

4 + x0 3 + y0 2 + z0
2 2 2
4 + x0 3 + y0 2 + z0
Then, = 3, = 1, = −1 ⇒ x0 = 2, y0 = −1, z0 = −4.
2 2 2
e.
Hence, the required image point is Q(2, −1, −4).
Example 18 Find the position vector of the foot of perpendicular and the perpendicular distance from
the point P with position vector 2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ to the plane ⃗r · (2î + ĵ + 3k̂) − 26 = 0. Also, find image
of P in the plane.
yd
Solution: Given equation of plane is ⃗r · (2î + ĵ + 3k̂) − 26 = 0.
Equation of given plane in Cartesian form is 2x + y + 3z − 26 = 0. ...(1)
Then, direction ratios of line normal to given plane are 2, 1, 3.
x−2 y−3 z−4
2 1 3
x−2 y−3 z−4
rif
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ + 2, y = λ + 3, z = 3λ + 4.
2 1 3
Then, general point on obtained line is (2λ + 2, λ + 3, 3λ + 4). ...(2)
1
2(2λ + 2) + (λ + 3) + 3(3λ + 4) − 26 = 0 ⇒ 14λ = 7 ⇒ λ= .
la
2
1 7 11
Putting λ = in (2), we get the point of intersection of obtained line and given plane as 3, , .
2 2 2

7 11 7 11
Hence, the required foot of perpendicular is R 3, , with position vector 3î + ĵ + k̂.
2 2 2 2
C

7 11
Also, required length of perpendicular = Distance between P (2, 3, 4) and R 3, ,
2 2
s 2 2 r
2
7 11 7
= (3 − 2) + −3 + −4 = units.
2 2 2
Let Q(x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the image of the point P (2, 3, 4) in given plane.

2 + x0 3 + y0 4 + z0
2 2 2
2 + x0 3 + y0 7 4 + z0 11
Then, = 3, = , = ⇒ x0 = 4, y0 = 4, z0 = 7.
2 2 2 2 2
Hence, the required image point is Q(4, 4, 7).
Example 19 Find the image of the point (−1, 3, 4) in the plane x − 2y = 0.
Solution: Given equation of plane is x − 2y = 0. ...(1)
Then, direction ratios of line normal to given plane are 1, −2, 0.
x+1 y−3 z−4
Thus, equation of line through (−1, 3, 4) and perpendicular to given plane is = = .
1 −2 0
x+1 y−3 z−4
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = λ − 1, y = −2λ + 3, z = 4.
1 −2 0
Then, general point on obtained line is (λ − 1, −2λ + 3, 4). ...(2)
7
(λ − 1) − 2(−2λ + 3) = 0 ⇒ 5λ = 7 ⇒ λ= .
in
5

7 2 1
Putting λ = in (2), we get the point of intersection of obtained line and given plane as R , ,4 .
5 5 5
Let Q(x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the image of the point P (−1, 3, 4) in given plane.

−1 + x0 3 + y0 4 + z0
e.
2 2 2
−1 + x0 2 3 + y0 1 4 + z0 9 13
Then, = , = , =4 ⇒ x0 = , y0 = − , z0 = 4.
2 5 2 5 2 5 5
9 13
Hence, the required image point is Q ,− ,4 .
yd
5 5
Example 20 (Exemplar) Find the image P ′ of the point P having position vector î + 3ĵ + 4k̂ in the
plane ⃗r · (2î − ĵ + k̂) + 3 = 0. Hence find the length of P P ′ .
Solution: Given equation of plane is ⃗r · (2î − ĵ + k̂) + 3 = 0.
Equation of given plane in Cartesian form is 2x − y + z + 3 = 0. ...(1)
rif
Then, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are 2, −1, 1.
Thus, equation of line through the point P having position vector î + 3ĵ + 4k̂, i.e., the point P (1, 3, 4)
x−1 y−3 z−4
and perpendicular to given plane is = = .
2 −1 1
la
x−1 y−3 z−4

Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ + 1, y = −λ + 3, z = λ + 4.
2 −1 1
Then, general point on obtained line is (2λ + 1, −λ + 3, λ + 4). ...(2)
2(2λ + 1) − (−λ + 3) + (λ + 4) + 3 = 0 ⇒ 6λ = −6 ⇒ λ = −1.
C
Putting λ = −1 in (2), we get the point of intersection of obtained line and given plane as R(−1, 4, 3).
Let P ′ (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be the image of the point P (1, 3, 4) in given plane.

1 + x0 3 + y0 4 + z0
Also, the coordinates of mid-point of P P ′ are R , , .
2 2 2
1 + x0 3 + y0 4 + z0
Then, = −1, = 4, =3 ⇒ x0 = −3, y0 = 5, z0 = 2.
2 2 2
Hence, the required image point is P ′ (−3, 5, 2).
p √
Also, required length of P P ′ = (−3 − 1)2 + (5 − 3)2 + (2 − 4)2 = 24 units.
Example 21 (Exemplar) Find the distance of the point (3, 4, 5) from the plane x+y+z = 2 measured
parallel to the line 2x = y = z.
Solution: Given equation of plane is x + y + z = 2. ...(1)

Given equation of line is
(3, 4, 5)
x−0 y−0 z−0
2x = y = z ⇒ = = . Line
1 1 1
2
1 (1, 0, 1)
Direction ratios of given line are , 1, 1, i.e., 1, 2, 2.
2 Plane
Then, direction ratios of line parallel to given line are
k, 2k, 2k, i.e., 1, 2, 2.
x−3 y−4 z−5
Thus, equation of line passing through (3, 4, 5) and parallel to given line is = = .
1 2 2
in
x−3 y−4 z−5
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = λ + 3, y = 2λ + 4, z = 2λ + 5.
1 2 2
Then, general point on obtained line is (λ + 3, 2λ + 4, 2λ + 5). ...(2)
e.
(λ + 3) + (2λ + 4) + (2λ + 5) = 2 ⇒ 5λ = −10 ⇒ λ = −2.
Putting λ = −2 in (2), we get the point of intersection of obtained line and given plane as (1, 0, 1).
Hence, required distance = Distance between (3, 4, 5) and (1, 0, 1)
q
2 2 2
= (1 − 3) + (0 − 4) + (1 − 5)
yd
= 6 units.
Example 22 Find the distance of the point (1, −2, 3) from the plane x − y + z = 5 measured parallel
to the line whose direction cosines are proportional to 2, 3, −6.
Solution: Given equation of plane is x − y + z = 5. ...(1)
Given a line whose direction cosines are proportional
rif
to 2, 3, −6. (1, −2, 3)
Then, direction ratios of given line are 2, 3, −6. Line
Thus, direction ratios of line parallel to given line are
2k, 3k, −6k, i.e., 2, 3, −6. 9 11 15

Thus, equation of line passing through (1, −2, 3) and 7, − 7 , 7
la
x−1 y+2 z−3 Plane

parallel to given line is = = .
2 3 −6
x−1 y+2 z−3
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ + 1, y = 3λ − 2, z = −6λ + 3.
2 3 −6
C
Then, general point on obtained line is (2λ + 1, 3λ − 2, −6λ + 3). ...(2)

1
(2λ + 1) − (3λ − 2) + (−6λ + 3) = 5 ⇒ −7λ = −1 ⇒ λ= .
7
1 9 11 15
Putting λ = in (3), we get the point of intersection of obtained line and given plane as ,− , .
7 7 7 7

9 11 15
Hence, required distance = Distance between (1, −2, 3) and ,− ,
7 7 7
s 2 2 2
9 11 15
= −1 + − +2 + −3
7 7 7
= 1 unit.
x+2 2y + 3 3z + 4
Example 23 Find the distance of the point (−2, 3, −4) from the line = =
3 4 5
measured parallel to the plane 4x + 12y − 3z + 1 = 0.
x+2 2y + 3 3z + 4
Solution: Given equation of line is = = .
3 4 5
x+2 2y + 3 3z + 4 3 5λ 4
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 3λ − 2, y = 2λ − , z = − .
3 4 5 2 3 3
3 5λ 4
Then, general point on given line is 3λ − 2, 2λ − , − . Line
2 3 3
Let the line drawn parallel to given plane and P R
passing through P (−2, 3, −4) intersects the given
in
line at point R.
Then, the coordinates of R are

3 5λ 4 Plane
R 3λ − 2, 2λ − , − . ...(1)
2 3 3
e.
3 5λ 4 9 5λ 8
Direction ratios of P R are 3λ − 2 + 2, 2λ − − 3, − + 4, i.e., 3λ, 2λ − , + .
2 3 3 2 3 3
9 5λ 8
Let a1 = 3λ, b1 = 2λ − , c1 = + .
2 3 3
Also, given equation of plane is 4x + 12y − 3z + 1 = 0.
yd
Then, direction ratios of normal to given plane are a2 = −4, b2 = −12, c2 = 3.
Now, line P R is parallel to given plane, then

9 5λ 8
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (3λ)(−4) + 2λ − (−12) + + (3) = 0
2 3 3
⇒ −12λ − 24λ + 54 + 5λ + 8 = 0
⇒ −31λ + 62 = 0
rif
⇒ λ = 2.

5
Putting λ = 2 in (1), we get the coordinates of point R as 4, , 2 .
2
s 2
la

5 17
Hence, required distance = P R = (4 + 2)2 + − 3 + (2 + 4)2 = units.
2 2
Example 24 Find the distance of point −2î + 3ĵ − 4k̂ from the line ⃗r = î + 2ĵ − k̂ + λ(î + 3ĵ − 9k̂)
measured parallel to the plane x − y + 2z − 3 = 0.
C

⃗r = î + 2ĵ − k̂ + λ(î + 3ĵ − 9k̂) = (λ + 1)î + (3λ + 2)ĵ + (−9λ − 1)k̂.
Then, general point on given line is (λ + 1, 3λ + 2, −9λ − 1). Line
Given point is −2î + 3ĵ − 4k̂, i.e, P (−2, 3, −4). P R
Let the line drawn parallel to given plane and
passing through P (−2, 3, −4) intersects the given
line at point R.
Then, the coordinates of R are Plane
R(λ + 1, 3λ + 2, −9λ − 1). ...(1)
Direction ratios of P R are λ + 1 + 2, 3λ + 2 − 3, −9λ − 1 + 4, i.e., λ + 3, 3λ − 1, −9λ + 3.
Let a1 = λ + 3, b1 = 3λ − 1, c1 = −9λ + 3.
Also, given equation of plane is x − y + 2z − 3 = 0.
Now, line P R is parallel to given plane, then
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (λ + 3)(1) + (3λ − 1)(−1) + (−9λ + 3)(2) = 0
⇒ −20λ + 10 = 0
1
⇒ λ= .
2
1 3 7 11
Putting λ = in (1), we get the coordinates of point R as , ,− .
2 2 2 2
in
s 2 2 2 √
3 7 11 59
Hence, required distance = P R = +2 + −3 + − +4 = units.
2 2 2 2
Exercise 20.3
e.
(i) The foot of perpendicular from the point (1, 2, 3) on the xz-plane is (1, 0, 3).
(ii) The foot of perpendicular from the point (0, −2, −3) on the xy-plane is (0, −2, 3).
yd
(i) The reflection of the point (α, β, γ) in the xy-plane is .
(ii) The reflection of the point (2, 1, 4) in the yz-plane is .
x+2 y−5 z+1
* 3. Find the coordinates of the point where the line = = cuts the yz-plane.
1 3 5
* 4. Find the distance of the point (2, 12, 5) from the point of intersection of the line
rif
⃗r = 2î − 4ĵ + 2k̂ + λ(3î + 4ĵ + 2k̂) and the plane ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + k̂) = 0.
* 5. Find the distance of the point (−1, −5, −10) from the point of intersection of the line
x−2 y+1 z−2
= = and the plane x − y + z = 5.
3 4 12
* 6. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through the points A(3, 4, 1) and B(5, 1, 6) crosses
la
the xy-plane.
* 7. Find the distance of the point (−1, −5, −10) from the point of intersection of the line
⃗r = 2î − ĵ + 2k̂ + λ(3î + 4ĵ + 2k̂) and the plane ⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = 5. [Exemplar]
C
* 8. Find the distance of the point P (−1, −5, −10) from the point of intersection of the line joining
the points A(2, −1, 2) and B(5, 3, 4) with the plane x − y + z = 5.
* 9. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (−1, 1, −8) and (5, −2, 10) crosses the
zx-plane.
* 10. Find the foot of perpendicular from the point P (7, 14, 5) to the plane 2x + 4y − z = 2.
* 11. Find the length and the foot of perpendicular drawn from the point P (7, 14, 5) to the plane
2x + 4y − z = 2. Also, find the image of point P in the plane.
* 12. Find the image of a point having position vector 3î − 2ĵ + k̂ in the plane ⃗r · (3î − ĵ + 4k̂) = 2.
13. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (3, 4, 1) and (5, 1, 6) crosses the yz-plane.
* 14. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (3, −4, −5) and (2, −3, 1) crosses the
plane 2x + y + z = 7. [NCERT]
* 15. Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular Q drawn from P (3, 2, 1) to the plane
2x − y + z + 1 = 0. Also, find the distance P Q and the image of the point P treating this plane
as a mirror.
* 16. Find the coordinates of the foot Q of the perpendicular drawn from the point P (1, 3, 4) to the plane
2x − y + z + 3 = 0. Find the distance P Q and the image of P treating the plane as a mirror.
17. Find the coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane having
equation 2x − 3y + 4z − 6 = 0. [NCERT]

3
18. Find the length and the foot of perpendicular drawn from the point 1, , 2 to the plane having
2
equation 2x − 2y + 4z + 5 = 0. [Exemplar]
in
19. Find the image of the point (1, 2, 3) in the plane x + 2y + 4z − 38 = 0.
20. Find the foot of perpendicular from the point (2, 3, 7) to the plane 3x − y − z = 7. Also, find the
length of the perpendicular and the image point of (2, 3, 7) in the plane.
21. Find the distance of the point (2, 3, 4) from the plane 3x + 2y + 2z + 5 = 0 measured parallel to
e.
x+3 y−2 z
the line = = .
3 6 2
22. The coordinates of the foot of the perpendicular drawn from (−2, 8, 7) on the xz-plane are
yd
(a) (−2, −8, 7) (b) (2, 8, −7)
(c) (−2, 0, 7) (d) (0, 8, 0)
23. The image of the point (2, −1, 4) in the yz-plane is
(a) (0, −1, 4) (b) (−2, −1, 4)
(c) (2, 1, −4) (d) (2, 0, 4)
rif
24. The image of the point (2, −1, 5) in the plane ⃗r · î = 0 is
(a) (−2, −1, 5) (b) (2, 1, −5)
(c) (−2, 1, −5) (d) (2, 0, 0)
la
Answers 20.3
2. (i) (α, β, −γ) (ii) (−2, 1, 4)
C

13 23
3. (0, 11, 9) 4. 13 units 5. 13 units 6. , ,0
5 5
7. 13 units 8. 13 units 9. (1, 0, −2) 10. (1, 2, 8)
√

17 13
11. 189 units, (1, 2, 8), (−5, −10, 11) 12. (0, −1, −3) 13. 0, , −
2 2
√
14. (1, −2, 7) 15. (1, 3, 0), 6 units, (−1, 4, −1)
√ √

12 18 24 5
16. (−1, 4, 3), 6 units, (−3, 5, 2) 17. ,− , 18. 6 units, 0, , 0
29 29 29 2
√
19. (3, 6, 11) 20. (5, 2, 6), 11 units, (8, 1, 5) 21. 7 units
22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (a)
20.4 Distance between a Point and a Plane

In this section, we shall derive an expression for the distance of a plane from a point. We shall also
compute the distance of a plane from a parallel line and from a parallel plane.
Consider a plane whose equation is ax + by + cz + d = 0. A ⃗n
Then, direction ratios of normal to the plane are a, b, c.
Let A(x1 , y1 , z1 ) be any point in the space.
Let B be the foot of perpendicular drawn from A to the B
given plane, as shown in Figure 20.4.
Then, AB is perpendicular to the plane.
Figure 20.4
Direction ratios of AB are ka, kb, kc, i.e., a, b, c.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
in
Thus, equation of AB is = = .
a b c
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = x1 + aλ, y = y1 + bλ, z = z1 + cλ.
a b c
Then, general point on line AB are (x1 + aλ, y1 + bλ, z1 + cλ).
e.
The point B lies on the line AB, so the coordinates of B are B(x1 + aλ, y1 + bλ, z1 + cλ), for some λ.
Now, B lies on the given plane, we have
a(x1 + aλ) + b(y1 + bλ) + c(z1 + cλ) + d = 0
⇒ ax1 + by1 + cz1 + λ(a2 + b2 + c2 ) + d = 0
yd
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
⇒ λ=− .
a2 + b2 + c2
p
Hence, AB = (x1 + aλ − x1 )2 + (y1 + bλ − y1 )2 + (z1 + cλ − z1 )2
p
= a2 λ2 + b2 λ2 + c2 λ2
p |ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|
= |λ| a2 + b2 + c2 = √
rif
.
a2 + b2 + c2
Distance of a Point from a Plane: Distance of a point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) from a plane ax+by +cz +d = 0
is given by
|ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d|
la
D= √ .
a2 + b2 + c2
Remark 20.4 (i) If the equation of plane is given in vector form, then one can convert the equation
to Cartesian form before finding the distance.
C
(ii) The distance between two parallel planes can be obtained by taking any point P on one of the
given planes and finding the perpendicular distance of P from the other plane.
(iii) The distance between a line and a parallel plane can be obtained by taking any point P on the
given line and finding the perpendicular distance of P from the given plane.

Example 1 (NCERT) Find the distance of the point (2, 3, −5) from the plane x + 2y − 2z = 9.
Solution: Equation of given plane is x + 2y − 2z = 9, i.e., 1x + 2y − 2z − 9 = 0.
|1(2) + 2(3) − 2(−5) − 9|
Hence, distance of the point (2, 3, −5) from given plane = p
(1)2 + (2)2 + (−2)2
= 3 units.
Example 2 Find the distance of a point (2, 5, −3) from the plane ⃗r · (6î − 3ĵ + 2k̂) = 4.
Then, Cartesian equation of given plane is 6x − 3y + 2z − 4 = 0.
|6(2) − 3(5) + 2(−3) − 4| 13
Hence, distance of the point (2, 5, −3) from given plane = p = units.
(6)2 + (−3)2 + (2)2 7
Example 3 Find the distance between the two parallel planes having equations 2x + y + 2z = 8 and
4x + 2y + 4z + 5 = 0.
Solution: Equation of first plane is 2x + y + 2z = 8.
Putting x = 0 and y = 0 in above equation, we get z = 4.
Thus, (0, 0, 4) is a point on first plane.
in
Equation of second plane is 4x + 2y + 4z + 5 = 0.
Hence, distance between the given planes = Distance of the point (0, 0, 4) from second plane
|4(0) + 2(0) + 4(4) + 5| 7
= p = units.
(4)2 + (2)2 + (4)2 2
e.
Example 4 Find the distance between the parallel planes having equations ⃗r · (2î − ĵ − 2k̂) = 6 and
⃗r · (6î − 3ĵ − 6k̂) = 27.
Solution: Equation of first plane is ⃗r · (2î − ĵ − 2k̂) = 6.
yd
Then, Cartesian equation of first plane is 2x − y − 2z = 6.
Putting x = 0 and y = 0 in above equation, we get z = −3.
Thus, (0, 0, −3) is a point on first plane.
Given equation of second plane is ⃗r · (6î − 3ĵ − 6k̂) = 27.
Then, Cartesian equation of second plane is 6x − 3y − 6z − 27 = 0.
Hence, distance between the given planes = Distance of the point (0, 0, −3) from second plane
rif
|6(0) − 3(0) − 6(−3) − 27|
= p = 1 unit.
(6)2 + (−3)2 + (−6)2
Example 5 (Exemplar) Show that the points (î − ĵ + 3k̂) and 3(î + ĵ + k̂) are equidistant from the
plane having equation ⃗r · (5î + 2ĵ − 7k̂) + 9 = 0 and lie on opposite side of it.
la
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (5î + 2ĵ − 7k̂) + 9 = 0.

Then, Cartesian equation of given plane is 5x + 2y − 7z + 9 = 0.
Given points are (î − ĵ + 3k̂) and 3(î + ĵ + k̂), i.e., (1, −1, 3) and (3, 3, 3) respectively.
Both (1, −1, 3) and (3, 3, 3) do not lie on given plane, as they do not satify the equation of plane.
C
Also, the mid-point of line segment joining (1, −1, 3) and (3, 3, 3) is (2, 1, 3), which lies on given plane.
Hence, the given points are equidistant from the given plane and lie on opposite side of it.
Example 6 (NCERT) If the two points (1, 1, p) and (−3, 0, 1) are equidistant from the plane
⃗r · (3î + 4ĵ − 12k̂) + 13 = 0, then find the value of p.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (3î + 4ĵ − 12k̂) + 13 = 0.
Then, Cartesian equation of given plane is 3x + 4y − 12z + 13 = 0.
|3(1) + 4(1) − 12(p) + 13| |20 − 12p|
Now, distance of the point (1, 1, p) from given plane = p =
2 2
(3) + (4) + (−12) 2 13
|3(−3) + 4(0) − 12(1) + 13| 8
and distance of the point (−3, 0, 1) from given plane = p = .
(3)2 + (4)2 + (−12)2 13
Given that the two points are equidistant from given plane, then
|20 − 12p| 8
= ⇒ |20 − 12p| = 8 ⇒ 20 − 12p = ± 8
13 13
7
⇒ p = 1, .
3
Example 7 If product of distances of the point (1, 1, 1) from origin and plane ⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = −p be
8, then find the value of p.
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (î − ĵ + k̂) = −p.
Then, Cartesian equation of given plane is x − y + z = −p, i.e., 1x − 1y + 1z + p = 0.
|1(1) − 1(1) + 1(1) + p| |1 + p|
in
Now, distance of the point (1, 1, 1) from given plane = p = √
(1)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2 3
p √
and distance of the point (1, 1, 1) from origin (0, 0, 0) = (0 − 1)2 + (0 − 1)2 + (0 − 1)2 = 3.
Given that product of these distances is 8, then
e.
|1 + p| √
√ × 3=8 ⇒ |1 + p| = 8 ⇒ 1+p=±8
3
⇒ p = 7, −9.
Example 8 Find the vector equation of the plane determined by the points A(3, −1, 2), B(5, 2, 4) and
yd
C(−1, −1, 6). Hence, find the distance of the plane, thus obtained, from the origin.
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points A(3, −1, 2), B(5, 2, 4) and C(−1, −1, 6).
Let x1 = 3, y1 = −1, z1 = 2; x2 = 5, y2 = 2, z2 = 4; x3 = −1, y3 = −1, z3 = 6.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
rif
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−3 y+1 z−2
⇒ 2 3 2 =0
−4 0 4
la
⇒ (x − 3)(12 − 0) − (y + 1)(8 + 8) + (z − 2)(0 + 12) = 0

⇒ 12(x − 3) − 16(y + 1) + 12(z − 2) = 0
⇒ 3(x − 3) − 4(y + 1) + 3(z − 2) = 0
⇒ 3x − 4y + 3z − 19 = 0.
C
Then, vector equation of the required plane is ⃗r · (3î − 4ĵ + 3k̂) − 19 = 0.

|3(0) − 4(0) + 3(0) − 19| 19
Hence, distance of the point (0, 0, 0) from required plane = p = √ units.
2 2
(3) + (−4) + (3) 2 34
Example 9 Find the equations of the planes which are parallel to the plane ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + 2k̂) = 31 and
are at a unit distance from the point (1, 2, 3).
Solution: Equation of given plane is ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + 2k̂) = 31.
Then, Cartesian equation of the given plane is x − 2y + 2z = 31, i.e., x − 2y + 2z − 31 = 0.
Thus, equation of a plane parallel to given plane is x − 2y + 2z + K = 0, for some constant K. ...(1)
|1(1) − 2(2) + 2(3) + K| |3 + K|
Now, distance of the point (1, 2, 3) from required plane = p = .
2 2
(1) + (−2) + (2) 2 3
Given that the required plane is a unit distance from the point (1, 2, 3), then
|3 + K|
=1 ⇒ |3 + K| = 3 ⇒ 3+K =±3
3
⇒ K = 0, −6.
Hence, from (1), the equations of required plane are x − 2y + 2z = 0 and x − 2y + 2z − 6 = 0.
Example 10 Find the equation of the planes parallel to the plane 2x − 4y + 4z = 7 and which are at
a distance of 5 units from the point (3, −1, 2).
Solution: Equation of given plane is 2x − 4y + 4z = 7, i.e., 2x − 4y + 4z − 7 = 0.
Thus, equation of a plane parallel to given plane is 2x − 4y + 4z + K = 0, for some constant K. ...(1)
|2(3) − 4(−1) + 4(2) + K|
in
Now, distance of the point (3, −1, 2) from required plane = p
(2)2 + (−4)2 + (4)2
|18 + K|
= .
6
Given that the required plane is a distance of 5 units from the point (3, −1, 2), then
e.
|18 + K|
=5 ⇒ |18 + K| = 30 ⇒ 18 + K = ± 30
6
⇒ K = 12, −48.
Hence, from (1), equations of required planes are 2x − 4y + 4z + 12 = 0 and 2x − 4y + 4z − 48 = 0.
yd
Example 11 Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the plane passing through the points having
position vectors î + ĵ − 2k̂, 2î − ĵ + k̂ and î + 2ĵ + k̂. Write the equation of a plane passing through
a point (2, 3, 7) and parallel to the plane obtained above. Hence, find the distance between the two
parallel planes.
Solution: Given a plane passing through three points with position vectors î + ĵ − 2k̂, 2î − ĵ + k̂ and
rif
î + 2ĵ + k̂, i.e., through the points (1, 1, −2), (2, −1, 1) and (1, 2, 1).
Let x1 = 1, y1 = 1, z1 = −2; x2 = 2, y2 = −1, z2 = 1; x3 = 1, y3 = 2, z3 = 1.
Then, Cartesian equation of first required plane is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
la
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
x−1 y−1 z+2
⇒ 1 −2 3 =0
C
0 1 3
⇒ (x − 1)(−6 − 3) − (y − 1)(3 − 0) + (z + 2)(1 − 0) = 0
⇒ −9(x − 1) − 3(y − 1) + (z + 2) = 0
⇒ −9x − 3y + z + 14 = 0
⇒ 9x + 3y − z − 14 = 0
and vector equation of the first required plane is ⃗r · (9î + 3ĵ − k̂) = 14.
Now, equation of a plane parallel to first required plane is 9x + 3y − z + K = 0, for some constant K.
Also, given that the second required plane passes through the point (2, 3, 7), then
9(2) + 3(3) − 7 + K = 0 ⇒ K = −20.
Thus, equation of second required plane is 9x + 3y − z − 20 = 0.
Hence, distance between the required planes = Distance of the point (2, 3, 7) from first plane
|9(2) + 3(3) − 1(7) − 14|
= p
(9)2 + (3)2 + (−1)2
6
= √ units.
91
Example 12 (NCERT) Find the equation of a plane passing through the point P (6, 5, 9) and parallel
to the plane determined by the points A(3, −1, 2), B(5, 2, 4) and C(−1, −1, 6). Also, find the distance
of this plane from the point A.
Solution: Given a plane passing through the points A(3, −1, 2), B(5, 2, 4) and C(−1, −1, 6).
Let x1 = 3, y1 = −1, z1 = 2; x2 = 5, y2 = 2, z2 = 4; x3 = −1, y3 = −1, z3 = 6.
in
Then, equation of first required plane is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
e.
x−3 y+1 z−2
⇒ 2 3 2 =0
−4 0 4
⇒ (x − 3)(12 − 0) − (y + 1)(8 + 8) + (z − 2)(0 + 12) = 0
yd
⇒ 12(x − 3) − 16(y + 1) + 12(z − 2) = 0
⇒ 3(x − 3) − 4(y + 1) + 3(z − 2) = 0
⇒ 3x − 4y + 3z − 19 = 0.
Now, equation of a plane parallel to first required plane is 3x − 4y + 3z + K = 0, for some constant K.
Also, given that the second required plane passes through the point (6, 5, 9), then
3(6) − 4(5) + 3(9) + K = 0 ⇒ K = −25.
rif
Thus, equation of second required plane is 3x − 4y + 3z − 25 = 0.

|3(3) − 4(−1) + 3(2) − 25|
Hence, distance of the point A(3, −1, 2) from second plane = p
(3)2 + (−4)2 + (3)2
6
la
= √ units.
34
Example 13 Find the equation of the plane that contains the point (1, −1, 2) and is perpendicular to
both the planes 2x + 3y − 2z = 5 and x + 2y − 3z = 8. Hence find the distance of point P (−2, 5, 5)
from the plane obtained above.
C
Solution: Equations of given planes are 2x + 3y − 2z = 5 and x + 2y − 3z = 8.

Then, direction ratios of normals to the planes are 2, 3, −2 and 1, 2, −3 respectively.
Given that the required plane is perpendicular to the given planes, then
2a + 3b − 2c = 0 ...(1)
and 1a + 2b − 3c = 0 ...(2)
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = .
−9 + 4 −6 + 2 4−3 −5 4 1
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ −5x + 4y + z = (−5)(1) + (4)(−1) + (1)(2)
⇒ −5x + 4y + z + 7 = 0.
| − 5(−2) + 4(5) + 1(5) + 7|
Hence, distance of the point P (−2, 5, 5) from required plane = p
(−5)2 + (4)2 + (1)2
√
= 42 units.
x−1 y−4 z−4
Example 14 Find the equation of the plane through the line = = and parallel to
3 2 −2
x+1 1−y z+2
the line = = . Hence, find the shortest distance between the lines.
in
2 4 1
x−1 y−4 z−4 x+1 y−1 z+2
Solution: Equations of given lines are = = and = = .
3 2 −2 2 −4 1
Then, direction ratios of the lines are 3, 2, −2 and 2, −4, 1 respectively.
Let direction ratios of the required plane which is parallel to both the given lines be a, b, c.
e.
Then, 3a + 2b − 2c = 0 ...(1)
and 2a − 4b + 1c = 0 ...(2)
yd
= = ⇒ = = . ⇒ = = .
2−8 3+4 −12 − 4 −6 −7 −16 6 7 16
Given that the required plane passes through the first line and (1, 4, 4) is a point on the first line.
Thus, the required plane passes through the point (1, 4, 4). Let x1 = 1, y1 = 4, z1 = 4.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1
rif
⇒ 6x + 7y + 16z = (6)(1) + (7)(4) + (16)(4)

⇒ 6x + 7y + 16z − 98 = 0.
Also, (−1, 1, −2) is a point on the second line.
Hence, shortest distance between given lines = Distance of the point (−1, 1, −2) from required plane
la
|6(−1) + 7(1) + 16(−2) − 98| 129

= p =√ units.
2 2
(6) + (7) + (16) 2 341
Example 15 Find the equation of the plane passing through the points (1, 0, −2), (3, −1, 0) and
C
perpendicular to the plane 2x − y + z = 8. Also find the distance of the plane thus obtained from
the origin.
Solution: Let direction ratios of normal to the required plane be a, b, c.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ax + by + cz = a(1) + b(0) + c(−2)
⇒ ax + by + cz = a − 2c. ...(1)
Also, the required plane passes through the point (3, −1, 0), then
3a − b = a − 2c ⇒ 2a − b + 2c = 0 ...(2)
Equation of given plane is 2x − y + z = 8.
Then, direction ratios of normal to the given plane are 2, −1, 1.
2a − b + c = 0 ...(3)
a −b c a b c
= = ⇒ = = .
−1 + 2 2−4 −2 + 2 1 2 0
Hence, from (1), we get the equation of the required plane as x + 2y = 1.
|1(0) + 2(0) − 1| 1
Hence, distance of the point (0, 0, 0) from required plane = p = √ unit.
2 2
(1) + (2) + (0) 2 5
Example 16 Find the vector equation of the plane that contains the line having equation ⃗r = (î + ĵ) +
in
λ(î + 2ĵ − k̂) and the point (−1, 3, −4). Also, find the length of the perpendicular drawn from the
point (2, 1, 4) to the plane thus obtained.
Solution: Equation of given line is ⃗r = (î + ĵ) + λ(î + 2ĵ − k̂).
e.
Then, direction ratios of given line are 1, 2, −1 and a point on the given line is (1, 1, 0).
Given that the required plane contains the given line, then
1a + 2b − 1c = 0. ...(1)
yd
Given that the required plane passes through the point (−1, 3, −4). Let x1 = −1, y1 = 3, z1 = −4.
ax + by + cz = ax1 + by1 + cz1 ⇒ ax + by + cz = −a + 3b − 4c. ...(2)
a + b = −a + 3b − 4c ⇒ 2a − 2b + 4c = 0 ⇒ a − b + 2c = 0. ...(3)
rif
= = ⇒ = = ⇒ = = .
4−1 2+1 −1 − 2 3 −3 −3 1 −1 −1
Thus, direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a = 1, b = −1, c = −1.
Hence, from (2), we get the Cartesian equation of the required plane as x − y − z = 0
la
and vector equation of the required plane is ⃗r · (î − ĵ − k̂) = 0.

|1(2) − 1(1) − 1(4)| √
Hence, distance of the point (2, 1, 4) from required plane = p = 3 units.
2 2
(1) + (−1) + (−1) 2
Example 17 (NCERT) Prove that if a plane has the intercepts a, b, c and is at a distance of p units
C
1 1 1 1
from the origin, then 2 + 2 + 2 = 2 .
a b c p
Solution: Equation of plane, having intercepts a, b, c on the coordinate axes, is

x y z 1 1 1
+ + =1 ⇒ x+ y+ z − 1 = 0.
a b c a b c
Given that the distance between the point (0, 0, 0) and given plane is p, then

1 1 1
(0) + (0) + (0) − 1
a b c 1
s =p ⇒ r =p
1
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
a b c a2 b2 c2
1
⇒ = p2
1 1 1
+ 2+ 2
a2 b c
1 1 1 1
⇒ 2
= 2 + 2 + 2.
p a b c
Example 18 A variable plane which remains at a constant distance 3p from the origin cuts the
coordinate axes at A, B, C. Show that the locus of the centroid of triangle ABC is
1 1 1 1
+ 2 + 2 = 2.
x2 y z p
Solution: Let the given plane meets the coordinate axes in A(u, 0, 0), B(0, v, 0) and C(0, 0, w).
in
Then, equation of plane is given by
x y z
+ + =1 ...(1)
u v w u v w
and the centroid of ∆ABC is , , .
3 3 3
e.
u v w
Let centroid of ∆ABC be (α, β, γ), then = α, = β, = γ, i.e., u = 3α, v = 3β, w = 3γ.
3 3 3
Putting values of u, v, w in (1), we get the equation of the required plane as
x y z x y z
+ + =1 ⇒ + + =3
3α 3β 3γ α β γ
yd

1 1 1
⇒ x+ y+ z − 3 = 0.
α β γ
Given that the distance between the point (0, 0, 0) and given plane is 3p, then

1 1 1
(0) + (0) + (0) − 3
α β γ 3
= 3p ⇒ = 3p
rif
s r
1
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
α β γ α2 β2 γ2
9
⇒ = 9p2
1 1 1
+ 2+ 2
la
α2 β γ
1 1 1 1
⇒ + 2 + 2 = 2.
α2 β γ p
1 1 1 1
Hence, the locus of the centroid of ∆ABC is 2
+ 2 + 2 = 2.
C
x y z p
Exercise 20.4
1
(i) The distance between the planes 2x + 2y − z + 2 = 0 and 4x + 4y − 2z + 5 = 0 is .
4
x+3 y−5 z−7
(ii) The distance between the line = = and the plane x − y + 3z = 2 is
√ 2 −1 −1
11 units.
(i) The distance between parallel planes 2x + y − 2z − 6 = 0 and 4x + 2y − 4z = 0 is
units.
(ii) The distance between the point (0, 3, 0) and the plane 2x + y + 2z = 5 is
units.
* 3. What is the distance between the planes 3x + 4y − 7 = 0 and 6x + 8y + 6 = 0? [Exemplar]
* 4. Find the distance between the parallel planes −2x − 3y + z = 4 and −6x − 9y + 3z = 11.
* 5. Find the distance between the planes 2x − y + 2z = 5 and 5x − 2.5y + 5z = 20.
* 6. Find the distance between the planes ⃗r · (2î − 3ĵ + 6k̂) − 4 = 0 and ⃗r · (6î − 9ĵ + 18k̂) + 30 = 0.
* 7. Find the distance between the point (7, 2, 4) and the plane determined by the points A(2, 5, −3),
B(−2, −3, 5) and C(5, 3, −3).
* 8. Find the equation of the plane determined by the points A(3, −1, 2), B(5, 2, 4) and C(−1, −1, 6)
and hence find the distance between the plane and the point P (6, 5, 9).
in
9. Find the distance of the plane 2x − 3y + 4z − 6 = 0 from the origin. [NCERT]
10. Write the distance of the following plane from the origin: 2x − y + 2z + 1 = 0.
11. Find the length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin to the plane 2x − 3y + 6z + 21 = 0.
12. Find the distance of the point (7, 14, 5) from the plane ⃗r · (2î + 4ĵ − k̂) = 2.
e.
13. Find the distance of the point (2, 5, −3) from the plane ⃗r · (6î − 3ĵ + 2k̂) = 4. [NCERT]
14. Find the distance of the point with position vector (2î + ĵ − k̂) from the plane ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + 4k̂) = 9.
[Exemplar]
15. Find the distance between the parallel planes 2x − 3y + 6z = 5 and 6x − 9y + 18z + 20 = 0.
yd
x−2 y+2 z−3
16. Show that the line = = is parallel to the plane x + 5y + z − 5 = 0. Also, find
1 −1 4
the distance between them.
x−4 y−1 z
17. Show that the plane x + 2y − z = 6 contains the line = = .
4 1 6
18. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (3, −4, −5) and (2, −3, 1) crosses the
rif
plane determined by points A(1, 2, 3), B(2, 2, 1) and C(−1, 3, 6).
* 19. Find the coordinates of the point where the line through (3, −4, −5) and (2, −3, 1) crosses the
plane passing through three points (2, 2, 1), (3, 0, 1) and (4, −1, 0). [Exemplar]
la
20. Distance between the planes 2x + 3y + 4z = 4 and 4x + 6y + 8z = 12 is

2
(a) 4 units (b) 8 units (c) √ units (d) 2 units
29
* 21. The distance of the point (2, 3, 4) from the plane ⃗r · (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂) = −11 is
C
15
(a) 0 unit (b) 1 unit (c) 2 units (d) units
7
Answers 20.4
2. 2
(i) 2 (ii)
3
1
3. 2 units 4. √ unit 5. 1 unit 6. 2 units
126
√ 6 6
7. 29 units 8. 3x − 4y + 3z − 19 = 0, √ units 9. √ units
34 29
1 √ 13
10. unit 11. 3 units 12. 3 21 units 13. units
3 7
13 5 10
14. √ units 15. units 16. √ units 18. (1, −2, 7)
21 3 3 3

17 34 5
19. , ,− 20. (c) 21. (b)
9 9 9
20.5 Equation of Plane through Given Lines
In this section, we shall find the equation of planes in the following two situations:
(i) Equation of plane passing through two given coplanar lines.
(ii) Equation of plane passing through the line of intersection of two given planes.
in
Let us consider these situations one by one.
20.5.1 Equation of Plane Passing through Coplanar Lines
In this subsection, we shall discuss the condition whether the given two lines are coplanar or not. In case,
they are coplanar we shall compute the equation of plane passing through them.
e.
Coplanar Lines: Two lines lying in a plane are called coplanar lines.
We know that any two lines in a three-dimensional space are either parallel, or intersecting or skew lines.
Also, skew lines are not coplanar.
Thus, only parallel or intersecting lines are coplanar.
yd
In the previous chapter, we discussed the following conditions for two lines to intersect:
(i) The lines ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 and ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 intersect if (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = 0.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
(ii) The lines = = and = = intersect if
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 = 0.
rif
a2 b2 c2
For given two non-parallel lines to be coplanar, we require them to be intersecting, thus above conditions
are also the required conditions for the two non-parallel lines to be coplanar.
Let us now find the equation of plane passing through the given two coplanar lines.
Let ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 and ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 be two coplanar lines, then the plane containing these lines passes
la
through ⃗a1 and ⃗a2 and has normal vector ⃗b1 × ⃗b2 .
⃗r · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = ⃗a1 · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) or ⃗r · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = ⃗a2 · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ).
C
⇒ (⃗r − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = 0 or (⃗r − ⃗a2 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = 0.

Let ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂, ⃗a1 = x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂, ⃗a2 = x2 î + y2 ĵ + z2 k̂, ⃗b1 = p1 î + q1 ĵ + r1 k̂ and
⃗b2 = p2 î + q2 ĵ + r2 k̂.
Then, ⃗r − ⃗a1 = (xî + y ĵ + z k̂) − (x1 î + y1 ĵ + z1 k̂) = (x − x1 )î + (y − y1 )ĵ + (z − z1 )k̂
î ĵ k̂
and ⃗b1 × ⃗b2 = p1 q1 r1 = î(q1 r2 − q2 r1 ) − ĵ(p1 r2 − p2 r1 ) + k̂(p1 q2 − p2 q1 ).
p2 q2 r2
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Thus, (⃗r − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = p1 q1 r1 .
p2 q2 r2

x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
p1 q1 r1 = 0.
p2 q2 r2
Conditions for Lines to be Coplanar:

(i) The lines ⃗r = ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 and ⃗r = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 are coplanar if (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = 0
and the equation of plane containing these lines is ⃗r · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = ⃗a1 · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ).
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
(ii) The lines = = and = = are coplanar if
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
in
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2
and the equation of plane containing these lines is
e.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2

yd
Example 1 Show that the lines ⃗r = î + ĵ + k̂ + λ(î − ĵ + k̂) and ⃗r = 4ĵ + 2k̂ + µ(2î − ĵ + 3k̂) are
coplanar. Also, find the equation of the plane containing these lines.
⃗r = î + ĵ + k̂ + λ(î − ĵ + k̂) and ⃗r = 4ĵ + 2k̂ + µ(2î − ĵ + 3k̂)
= ⃗a1 + λ⃗b1 = ⃗a2 + µ⃗b2 ,
rif
where ⃗a1 = î + ĵ + k̂, ⃗b1 = î − ĵ + k̂, ⃗a2 = 0î + 4ĵ + 2k̂, ⃗b2 = 2î − ĵ + 3k̂.
Then, ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 = (0î + 4ĵ + 2k̂) − (î + ĵ + k̂) = −î + 3ĵ + k̂,
î ĵ k̂
la
⃗b1 × ⃗b2 = 1 −1 1 = î(−3 + 1) − ĵ(3 − 2) + k̂(−1 + 2) = −2î − ĵ + k̂.

2 −1 3
Now, (⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = (−î + 3ĵ + k̂) · (−2î − ĵ + k̂) = 2 − 3 + 1 = 0.
Thus, the given lines are coplanar.
C
Hence, equation of plane containing these lines is

⃗r · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) = ⃗a1 · (⃗b1 × ⃗b2 ) ⇒ ⃗r · (−2î − ĵ + k̂) = (î + ĵ + k̂) · (−2î − ĵ + k̂)
⇒ ⃗r · (−2î − ĵ + k̂) = −2.
Example 2 Show that the lines ⃗r = ⃗a + λ⃗b and ⃗r = ⃗b + µ⃗a are coplanar and the plane containing them
is given by ⃗r · (⃗a × ⃗b) = 0.
Solution: Equations of given lines are ⃗r = ⃗a + λ⃗b and ⃗r = ⃗b + µ⃗a.
Now, (⃗b − ⃗a) · (⃗b × ⃗a) = ⃗b · (⃗b × ⃗a) − ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗a) = 0 − 0 = 0.
Thus, the given lines are coplanar. Hence, equation of plane containing these lines is
⃗r · (⃗b × ⃗a) = ⃗a · (⃗b × ⃗a) ⇒ ⃗r · (⃗b × ⃗a) = 0.
Example 3 Show that the lines
5−x y−7 z+3 x−8 2y − 8 z−5
= = and = =
−4 4 −5 7 2 3
are coplanar.
5−x y−7 z+3 x−8 2y − 8 z−5
= = and = =
−4 4 −5 7 2 3
x−5 y−7 z+3 x−8 y−4 z−5
⇒ = = and = =
4 4 −5 7 1 3
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
in
= = and = = ,
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
where x1 = 5, y1 = 7, z1 = −3; x2 = 8, y2 = 4, z2 = 5;
a1 = 4, b1 = 4, c1 = −5; a2 = 7, b2 = 1, c2 = 3.
e.
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 3 −3 8
Now, a1 b1 c1 = 4 4 −5
a2 b2 c2 7 1 3
= 3(12 + 5) + 3(12 + 35) + 8(4 − 28) = 0.
yd
Hence, the given lines are coplanar.
x−a+d y−a z−a−d
Example 4 (NCERT) Show that the lines having equations = = and
α−δ α α+δ
x−b+c y−b z−b−c
= = are coplanar.
β−γ β β+γ
rif
x−a+d y−a z−a−d x−b+c y−b z−b−c

= = and = =
α−δ α α+δ β−γ β β+γ
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = ,
la
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
where x1 = a − d, y1 = a, z1 = a + d; x2 = b − c, y2 = b, z2 = b + c;
a1 = α − δ, b1 = α, c1 = α + δ; a2 = β − γ, b2 = β, c2 = β + γ.
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 b−c−a+d b−a b+c−a−d
C
Now, a1 b1 c1 = α−δ α α+δ

a2 b2 c2 β−γ β β+γ
2b − 2a b−a b+c−a−d
On applying
= 2α α α+δ
C1 → C1 + C3
2β β β+γ
b−a b−a b+c−a−d
On taking common
=2 α α α+δ
2 from C1
β β β+γ
= 0. [∵ C1 and C2 are identical]
Hence, given lines are coplanar.
x+3 y−1 5−z

Example 5 Find the value of k for which the lines having equations = = and
k−5 1 −2k − 1
x+2 2−y z
= = are perpendicular to each other. Hence find the equation of the plane containing
−1 −k 5
the above lines.
x+3 y−1 5−z x+3 y−1 z−5
= = ⇒ = = .
k−5 1 −2k − 1 k−5 1 2k + 1
Then, direction ratios of first line are a1 = k − 5, b1 = 1, c1 = 2k + 1.
x+2 2−y z x+2 y−2 z
⇒
in
= = = = .
−1 −k 5 −1 k 5
Then, direction ratios of second line are a2 = −1, b2 = k, c2 = 5.
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (k − 5)(−1) + (1)(k) + (2k + 1)(5) = 0
e.
⇒ 10k + 10 = 0
⇒ k = −1.
Thus, equations of given lines are
x+3 y−1 z−5 x+2 y−2 z
= = and = =
yd
−6 1 −1 −1 −1 5
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = ,
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
where x1 = −3, y1 = 1, z1 = 5; x2 = −2, y2 = 2, z2 = 0;
a1 = −6, b1 = 1, c1 = −1; a2 = −1, b2 = −1, c2 = 5.
rif
The given lines are coplanar, hence equation of plane containing these lines is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2
la
x+3 y−1 z−5

⇒ −6 1 −1 = 0
−1 −1 5
⇒ (x + 3)(5 − 1) − (y − 1)(−30 − 1) + (z − 5)(6 + 1) = 0
C
⇒ 4(x + 3) + 31(y − 1) + 7(z − 5) = 0

⇒ 4x + 31y + 7z = 54.
x−2 y−2 z−3
Example 6 Show that the given two lines having Cartesian equations = = and
1 3 1
x−2 y−3 z−4
= = intersect. Also, find the coordinates of the point of intersection. Find the
1 4 2
equation of the plane containing the two lines.
x−2 y−2 z−3
=
Solution: Equation of first line is= .
1 3 1
x−2 y−2 z−3
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = λ + 2, y = 3λ + 2, z = λ + 3.
1 3 1
Then, general point on first line is (λ + 2, 3λ + 2, λ + 3). ...(1)
x−2 y−3 z−4
1 4 2
x−2 y−3 z−4
Let = = =µ ⇒ x = µ + 2, y = 4µ + 3, z = 2µ + 4.
1 4 2
Then, general point on second line is (µ + 2, 4µ + 3, 2µ + 4).
If given lines intersect, then (λ + 2, 3λ + 2, λ + 3) = (µ + 2, 4µ + 3, 2µ + 4) for some λ and µ.
λ+2=µ+2 ⇒ λ−µ=0 ...(2)
3λ + 2 = 4µ + 3 ⇒ 3λ − 4µ = 1 ...(3)
λ + 3 = 2µ + 4 ⇒ λ − 2µ = 1 ...(4)
in
From (2) and (3), we get λ = −1, µ = −1.
Also, λ = −1, µ = −1 satisfy (4). Thus, the given lines intersect each other.
Putting λ = −1 in (1), we get the required point of intersection as (1, −1, 2).
Now, equations of given lines are
e.
x−2 y−2 z−3 x−2 y−3 z−4
= = and = =
1 3 1 1 4 2
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = ,
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
yd
where x1 = 2, y1 = 2, z1 = 3; x2 = 2, y2 = 3, z2 = 4;
a1 = 1, b1 = 3, c1 = 1; a2 = 1, b2 = 4, c2 = 2.
The given lines are intersecting and thus coplanar.
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
rif
a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2
x−2 y−2 z−3
⇒ 1 3 1 =0
1 4 2
la
⇒ (x − 2)(6 − 4) − (y − 2)(2 − 1) + (z − 3)(4 − 3) = 0

⇒ 2(x − 2) − (y − 2) + (z − 3) = 0
⇒ 2x − y + z = 5.
C
x−1 y+1 z−1 x−3 y−k z

Example 7 If the lines = = and = = intersect, then find the
2 3 4 1 2 1
value of k and hence find the equation of the plane containing these lines.
x−1 y+1 z−1
2 3 4
x−1 y+1 z−1
Let = = =λ ⇒ x = 2λ + 1, y = 3λ − 1, z = 4λ + 1.
2 3 4
Then, general point on first line is (2λ + 1, 3λ − 1, 4λ + 1). ...(1)
x−3 y−k z
1 2 1
x−3 y−k z
Let = = =µ ⇒ x = µ + 3, y = 2µ + k, z = µ.
1 2 1
Then, general point on second line is (µ + 3, 2µ + k, µ).

If given lines intersect, then (2λ + 1, 3λ − 1, 4λ + 1) = (µ + 3, 2µ + k, µ) for some λ and µ.
2λ + 1 = µ + 3 ⇒ 2λ − µ = 2 ...(2)
3λ − 1 = 2µ + k ⇒ 3λ − 2µ − 1 = k ...(3)
4λ + 1 = µ ⇒ 4λ − µ = −1 ...(4)
3
From (2) and (4), we get λ = − , µ = −5.
2
3 9
Putting λ = − , µ = −5 in (3), we get k = .
2 2
Now, equations of given lines are
in
9
x−1 y+1 z−1 x−3 y− z
= = and = 2 =
2 3 4 1 2 1
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = ,
e.
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
9
where x1 = 1, y1 = −1, z1 = 1; x2 = 3, y2 = , z2 = 0;
2
a1 = 2, b1 = 3, c1 = 4; a2 = 1, b2 = 2, c2 = 1.
The given lines are intersecting and thus coplanar.
yd
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2
x−1 y+1 z−1
rif
⇒ 2 3 4 =0
1 2 1
⇒ (x − 1)(3 − 8) − (y + 1)(2 − 4) + (z − 1)(4 − 3) = 0
⇒ −5(x − 1) + 2(y + 1) + z − 1 = 0
la
⇒ −5x + 2y + z + 6 = 0.
Example 8 Find the equation of the plane containing two parallel lines
x−1 y+1 z x y−2 z+1
= = and = = .
2 −1 3 4 −2 6
C
x−2 y−1 z−2

Also, find if the plane thus obtained contains the line = = or not.
3 1 5
x−1 y+1 z x y−2 z+1
= = and = =
2 −1 3 4 −2 6
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
= = and = = ,
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
where x1 = 1, y1 = −1, z1 = 0; x2 = 0, y2 = 2, z2 = −1;
a1 = 2, b1 = −1, c1 = 3; a2 = 4, b2 = −2, c2 = 6.
Given that the lines are parallel and thus coplanar.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2
x−1 y+1 z−0
⇒ −1 3 −1 = 0
3 1 5
⇒ (x − 1)(15 + 1) − (y + 1)(−5 + 3) + z(−1 − 9) = 0
⇒ 16(x − 1) + 2(y + 1) − 10z = 0
⇒ 16x + 2y − 10z = 14
in
⇒ 8x + y − 5z = 7. ...(2)
Now, direction ratios of the normal to the plane are a1 = 8, b1 = 1 and c1 = −5.
x−2 y−1 z−2
Equation of third line is = = .
3 1 5
e.
Then, direction ratios of third line are a2 = 3, b2 = 1, c2 = 5 and (2, 1, 2) is a point on third line.
Now, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (8)(3) + (1)(1) + (−5)(5) = 24 + 1 − 25 = 0.
Thus, the given third line is parallel to obtained plane and (2, 1, 2) is a point on obtained plane.
Hence, the obtained plane contains the given third line.
yd
20.5.2 Equation of Plane through the Line of Intersection of Two Planes
Two planes always intersect in a straight line. In this subsection, we shall discuss the equation of a plane
passing through the line of intersection of two planes.
Consider two planes whose Cartesian equations are
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0.
rif
For λ ∈ R, consider the equation
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + λ(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0, ...(1)
⇒ (a1 + λa2 )x + (b1 + λb2 )y + (c1 + λc2 )z + (d1 + λd2 ) = 0,
which is a first degree equation in x, y, z and hence represents a plane.
la
Let (α, β, γ) be any point on the line of intersection of given planes, then
a1 α + b1 β + c1 γ + d1 = 0 and a2 α + b2 β + c2 γ + d2 = 0.
Now, (a1 α + b1 β + c1 γ + d1 ) + λ(a2 α + b2 β + c2 γ + d2 ) = 0.
Thus, (α, β, γ) lies on the plane (1).
C
Hence, the line of intersection of given planes lies on the plane (1).
Conclusion: Equation of plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes having
equations a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 is
(a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 ) + λ(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 ) = 0,
where λ is a real number.
Remark 20.5 If vector equations of planes are given, then we convert them to Cartesian equations.

Example 9 Find the equation of the plane through the intersection of the planes x + y + z + 1 = 0
and 2x − 3y + 5z − 2 = 0 and the point (−1, 2, 1).
Solution: Equations of given planes are x + y + z + 1 = 0 and 2x − 3y + 5z − 2 = 0.

The equation of required plane passing through the line of intersection of given planes is
(x + y + z + 1) + λ(2x − 3y + 5z − 2) = 0
⇒ (1 + 2λ)x + (1 − 3λ)y + (1 + 5λ)z + 1 − 2λ = 0. ...(1)
Also, the required plane passes through the point (−1, 2, 1).
Then, (1 + 2λ)(−1) + (1 − 3λ)(2) + (1 + 5λ)(1) + 1 − 2λ = 0
⇒ 3 − 5λ = 0
3
⇒ λ= .
5
3
in
Putting λ = in (1), we get the equation of the required plane as
5
11x 4y 1
− + 4z − = 0 ⇒ 11x − 4y + 20z − 1 = 0.
5 5 5
Example 10 Find the vector and Cartesian equations of the plane passing through the intersection of
e.
the planes ⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = 6 and ⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) = −5 and the point (1, 1, 1).
Solution: Equations of given planes are ⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = 6 and ⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) = −5.
Then, Cartesian equations of given planes are x + y + z − 6 = 0 and 2x + 3y + 4z + 5 = 0.
yd
(x + y + z − 6) + λ(2x + 3y + 4z + 5) = 0
⇒ (1 + 2λ)x + (1 + 3λ)y + (1 + 4λ)z − 6 + 5λ = 0. ...(1)
Also, the required plane passes through the point (1, 1, 1).
Then, (1 + 2λ)(1) + (1 + 3λ)(1) + (1 + 4λ)(1) − 6 + 5λ = 0
⇒ −3 + 14λ = 0
rif
3
⇒ λ= .
14
3
Putting λ = in (1), we get the Cartesain equation of the required plane as
14
20x 23y 26z 69
la
+ + − =0 ⇒ 20x + 23y + 26z − 69 = 0

14 14 14 14
and the vector equation of the required plane is ⃗r · (20î + 23ĵ + 26k̂) − 69 = 0.
Example 11 Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
x−1 y−3 5−z
C
2x + y − z = 3 and 5x − 3y + 4z + 9 = 0 and is parallel to the line = = .

2 4 −5
Solution: Equations of given planes are 2x + y − z − 3 = 0 and 5x − 3y + 4z + 9 = 0.
(2x + y − z − 3) + λ(5x − 3y + 4z + 9) = 0
⇒ (2 + 5λ)x + (1 − 3λ)y + (−1 + 4λ)z − 3 + 9λ = 0. ...(1)
Direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a1 = 2 + 5λ, b1 = 1 − 3λ, c1 = −1 + 4λ.
x−1 y−3 5−z x−1 y−3 z−5
= = ⇒ = = .
2 4 −5 2 4 5
Direction ratios of given line are a2 = 2, b2 = 4, c2 = 5.
Given that the required plane is parallel to given line.
Then, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (2 + 5λ)(2) + (1 − 3λ)(4) + (−1 + 4λ)(5) = 0
⇒ 18λ + 3 = 0
1
⇒ λ=− .
6
1
Putting λ = − in (1), we get the equation of the required plane as
6
7x 9y 10z 27
+ − − =0 ⇒ 7x + 9y − 10z − 27 = 0.
6 6 6 6
Example 12 (NCERT) Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the
planes ⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = 1, ⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ − k̂) + 4 = 0 and parallel to x-axis. Hence, find the distance of
in
the plane from x-axis.
Solution: Equations of given planes are ⃗r · (î + ĵ + k̂) = 1 and ⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ − k̂) + 4 = 0.
Then, Cartesian equations of given planes are x + y + z − 1 = 0 and −2x − 3y + z − 4 = 0.
e.
(x + y + z − 1) + λ(−2x − 3y + z − 4) = 0
⇒ (1 − 2λ)x + (1 − 3λ)y + (1 + λ)z − 1 − 4λ = 0. ...(1)
Direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a1 = 1 − 2λ, b1 = 1 − 3λ, c1 = 1 + λ.
Also, direction ratios of x-axis are a2 = 1, b2 = 0, c2 = 0.
Given that the required plane is parallel to x-axis.
yd
Then, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (1 − 2λ)(1) + (1 − 3λ)(0) + (1 + λ)(0) = 0
⇒ 1 − 2λ = 0
1
⇒ λ= .
2
1
rif
Putting λ = in (1), we get the equation of the required plane as
2
y 3z
0x − + −3=0 ⇒ −y + 3z − 6 = 0.
2 2
Also, (0, 0, 0) is a point on x-axis.
Hence, distance of required plane from x-axis = Distance of the point (0, 0, 0) from required plane
la
| − 1(0) + 3(0) − 6|
=p
(0)2 + (−1)2 + (3)2
6
= √ units.
C
10
Example 13 Find the equation of plane through the line of intersection of the planes x + y + z = 1
and 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 which is perpendicular to the plane x − y + z = 0. Also find the distance of the
plane obtained above, from the origin.
Solution: Equations of given planes are x + y + z = 1 and 2x + 3y + 4z = 5.
(x + y + z − 1) + λ(2x + 3y + 4z − 5) = 0
⇒ (1 + 2λ)x + (1 + 3λ)y + (1 + 4λ)z − 1 − 5λ = 0. ...(1)
Direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a1 = 1 + 2λ, b1 = 1 + 3λ, c1 = 1 + 4λ.
Equation of given third plane is x − y + z = 0.
Direction ratios of normal to third plane are a2 = 1, b2 = −1, c2 = 1.
Given that the required plane is perpendicular to third plane.

Then, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (1 + 2λ)(1) + (1 + 3λ)(−1) + (1 + 4λ)(1) = 0
⇒ 3λ + 1 = 0
1
⇒ λ=− .
3
1
3
x z 2
+ 0y − + = 0 ⇒ x + 0y − z + 2 = 0.
3 3 3
|1(0) + 0(0) − 1(0) + 2| √
Hence, distance of the point (0, 0, 0) from required plane = p = 2 units.
in
(1)2 + (0)2 + (−1)2
Example 14 Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the two planes
⃗r · (2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂) = 1 and ⃗r · (î − ĵ) + 4 = 0 and perpendicular to the plane ⃗r · (2î − ĵ + k̂) + 8 = 0.
Hence find whether the plane thus obtained contains the line x − 1 = 2y − 4 = 3z − 12.
e.
Solution: Equations of given planes are ⃗r · (2î − 3ĵ + 4k̂) − 1 = 0 and ⃗r · (î − ĵ) + 4 = 0.
Then, Cartesian equations of given planes are 2x − 3y + 4z − 1 = 0 and x − y + 4 = 0.
(2x − 3y + 4z − 1) + λ(x − y + 4) = 0
yd
⇒ (2 + λ)x + (−3 − λ)y + 4z − 1 + 4λ = 0. ...(1)
Direction ratios of normal to the required plane are a1 = 2 + λ, b1 = −3 − λ, c1 = 4.
Equation of given third plane is ⃗r · (2î − ĵ + k̂) + 8 = 0.
Direction ratios of normal to the third plane are a2 = 2, b2 = −1, c2 = 1.
Given that the required plane is perpendicular to the third plane.
Then, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0 ⇒ (2 + λ)(2) + (−3 − λ)(−1) + (4)(1) = 0
rif
⇒ 3λ + 11 = 0
11
⇒ λ=− .
3
11
la
3
5x 2y 47
− + + 4z − =0 ⇒ −5x + 2y + 12z − 47 = 0.
3 3 3
Direction ratios of the normal to the obtained plane are a3 = −5, b3 = 2, c3 = 12.
x−1 y−2 z−4
C
Equation of given line is x − 1 = 2y − 4 = 3z − 12, i.e., = = .

1 1 1
2 3
1 1
Direction ratios of given line are a4 = 1, b4 = , c4 = and (1, 2, 4) is a point on the given line.
2 3
1 1
Now, a3 a4 + b3 b4 + c3 c4 = (−5)(1) + (2) + (12) = −5 + 1 + 4 = 0.
2 3
Thus, the given line is parallel to the obtained plane and (1, 2, 4) is a point on the obtained plane.
Example 15 Show that the line of intersection of the planes x + 2y + 3z = 8 and 2x + 3y + 4z = 11 is
x+1 y+1 z+1
coplanar with the line = = . Also, find the equation of the plane containing them.
1 2 3
Solution: Equations of given planes are x + 2y + 3z = 8 and 2x + 3y + 4z = 11.
(x + 2y + 3z − 8) + λ(2x + 3y + 4z − 11) = 0
(1 + 2λ)x + (2 + 3λ)y + (3 + 4λ)z − 8 − 11λ = 0. ...(1)
x+1 y+1 z+1
Equation of given line is = = , which lies on the required plane.
1 2 3
Now, (−1, −1, −1) is a point on the given line and hence on the required plane.
Then, (1 + 2λ)(−1) + (2 + 3λ)(−1) + (3 + 4λ)(−1) − 8 − 11λ = 0 ⇒ −14 − 20λ = 0
7
⇒ λ=− .
10
in
7
10
4x y 2z 3
− − + − =0 ⇒ 4x + y − 2z + 3 = 0.
10 10 10 10
Direction ratios of the normal to the obtained plane are a1 = 4, b1 = 1, c1 = −2.
e.
Direction ratios of given line are a2 = 1, b2 = 2, c2 = 3.
Then, a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = (4)(1) + (1)(2) + (−2)(3) = 4 + 2 − 6 = 0.
Thus, the given line is parallel to the obtained plane and (−1, −1, −1) is a point on the obtained plane.
yd
Example 16 Find the equation of planes passing through the intersection of the planes having vector
equations ⃗r · (2î + 6ĵ) + 12 = 0 and ⃗r · (3î − ĵ + 4k̂) = 0 and are at a unit distance from origin.
Solution: Equations of given planes are ⃗r · (2î + 6ĵ) + 12 = 0 and ⃗r · (3î − ĵ + 4k̂) = 0.
Then, Cartesian equations of given planes are x + 3y + 0z + 6 = 0 and 3x − y + 4z = 0.
rif
(x + 3y + 0z + 6) + λ(3x − y + 4z) = 0
⇒ (1 + 3λ)x + (3 − λ)y + 4λz + 6 = 0. ...(1)
|(1 + 3λ)(0) + (3 − λ)(0) + (4λ)(0) + 6|
Now, distance of the point (0, 0, 0) from required plane = p
(1 + 3λ)2 + (3 − λ)2 + (4λ)2
la
6
=√
1 + 9λ2 + 6λ + 9 + λ2 − 6λ + 16λ2
6
=√ .
26λ2 + 10
C
Given that the distance of the point (0, 0, 0) from required plane is 1, then
6 36
√ =1 ⇒ 2
=1 ⇒ λ2 = 1
2
26λ + 10 26λ + 10
⇒ λ = ± 1.
Putting λ = ±1 in (1), we get equations of the required planes as
4x + 2y + 4z + 6 = 0 and −2x + 4y − 4z + 6 = 0
⇒ 2x + y + 2z + 3 = 0 and x − 2y + 2z − 3 = 0.
Example 17 Find the equation of the planes which contains the line of intersection of the planes
⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + 3k̂) − 4 = 0 and ⃗r · (−2î + ĵ + k̂) + 5 = 0 and whose intercept on x-axis is equal to that
on y-axis.
Solution: Equations of given planes are ⃗r · (î − 2ĵ + 3k̂) − 4 = 0 and ⃗r · (−2î + ĵ + k̂) + 5 = 0.
Then, Cartesian equations of given planes are x − 2y + 3z − 4 = 0 and −2x + y + z + 5 = 0.
(x − 2y + 3z − 4) + λ(−2x + y + z + 5) = 0
⇒ (1 − 2λ)x + (−2 + λ)y + (3 + λ)z − 4 + 5λ = 0. ...(1)
For the intercept on x-axis, we put y = 0 and z = 0 in (1) to get
4 − 5λ
(1 − 2λ)x − 4 + 5λ = 0 ⇒ x= .
1 − 2λ
For the intercept on y-axis, we put x = 0 and z = 0 in (1) to get
4 − 5λ
(−2 + λ)y − 4 + 5λ = 0 ⇒ y= .
in
−2 + λ
Given that the required plane cuts off equal intercepts on x and y-axes, then
4 − 5λ 4 − 5λ
= ⇒ (4 − 5λ)(−2 + λ) = (4 − 5λ)(1 − 2λ)
1 − 2λ −2 + λ
e.
⇒ (4 − 5λ)[(−2 + λ) − (1 − 2λ)] = 0
⇒ (4 − 5λ)(−3 + 3λ) = 0
4
⇒ λ= , 1.
5
4
yd
Putting λ = , 1 in (1), we get equations of the required planes as
5
3x 6y 19z
− − + =0 and −x − y + 4z + 1 = 0
5 5 5
⇒ −3x − 6y + 19z = 0 and −x − y + 4z + 1 = 0.
Example 18 Find the equation of plane which contains the line of intersection of the two planes
rif
x + 2y + 3z − 4 = 0 and 2x + y − z + 5 = 0 and whose x-intercept is twice its z-intercept. Hence, write
the vector equation of a plane passing through the point (2, 3, −1) and parallel to the plane obtained
above.
Solution: Equations of given planes are x + 2y + 3z − 4 = 0 and 2x + y − z + 5 = 0.
la
(x + 2y + 3z − 4) + λ(2x + y − z + 5) = 0
⇒ (1 + 2λ)x + (2 + λ)y + (3 − λ)z − 4 + 5λ = 0. ...(1)
For the intercept on x-axis, we put y = 0 and z = 0 in (1) to get
4 − 5λ
C
(1 + 2λ)x − 4 + 5λ = 0 ⇒ x= .
1 + 2λ
For the intercept on z-axis, we put x = 0 and y = 0 in (1) to get
4 − 5λ
(3 − λ)z − 4 + 5λ = 0 ⇒ z= .
3−λ
Given that the required plane cuts off x-intercept twice as its z-intercept, then

4 − 5λ 4 − 5λ
=2 ⇒ (4 − 5λ)(3 − λ) = 2(4 − 5λ)(1 + 2λ)
1 + 2λ 3−λ
⇒ (4 − 5λ)[(3 − λ) − 2(1 + 2λ)] = 0
⇒ (4 − 5λ)(1 − 5λ) = 0
4 1
⇒ λ= , .
5 5
4 1
Putting λ = , in (1), we get equations of the required planes as
5 5
13x 14y 11z 7x 11y 14z
+ + =0 and + + −3=0
5 5 5 5 5 5
⇒ 13x + 14y + 11z = 0 and 7x + 11y + 14z − 15 = 0.
Now, equations of planes parallel to above planes are
13x + 14y + 11z + K1 = 0 and 7x + 11y + 14z + K2 = 0,
for some constants K1 and K2 .
Given that these parallel planes pass through the point (2, 3, −1), then
13(2) + 14(3) + 11(−1) + K1 = 0 and 7(2) + 11(3) + 14(−1) + K2 = 0
in
⇒ K1 = −57 and K2 = −33.
Hence, equations of required parallel planes are
13x + 14y + 11z − 57 = 0 and 7x + 11y + 14z − 33 = 0
⇒ ⃗r · (13î + 14ĵ + 11k̂) − 57 = 0 and ⃗r · (7î + 11ĵ + 14k̂) − 33 = 0.
e.
Exercise 20.5
(i) Coplanar lines are always parallel.
yd
(ii) Intersecting lines are always coplanar.
(iii) Skew lines are always coplanar.
(i) The lines ⃗r = ⃗a + λ⃗b and ⃗r = ⃗c + µd⃗ are coplanar if .
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
(ii) The condition for the lines = = and = = to
rif
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
be coplanar is .
* 3. Find the equation of the plane that contains the given lines ⃗r = (î + ĵ) + λ(î − ĵ + 2k̂) and
⃗r = (î + ĵ) + µ(î + 2ĵ − k̂).
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−2 y−4 z−5
la
* 4. Show that the lines = = and = = are coplanar.

2 3 4 4 6 8
x−1 y−2 z+4 x−3 y−3 z+5
5. Show that the lines = = and = = are coplanar. Also,
2 3 6 −2 1 8
find the plane containing these two lines.
C
x+3 y−1 z−5 x+1 y−2 z−5

6. Show that the lines = = ; = = are coplanar. Also, find
−3 1 5 −1 2 5
the equation of the plane containing the lines. [NCERT]
x−1 y−2 z−3 x−1 y−2 z−3
* 7. If the lines = = and = = are perpendicular, find the
−3 −2k 2 k 1 5
value of k and hence find the equation of plane containing these lines.
8. Find the equation of the plane containing the lines
⃗r = î + ĵ + λ(î + 2ĵ − k̂) and ⃗r = î + ĵ + µ(−î + ĵ − 2k̂).
Also, find the distance of this plane from the point (1, 1, 1). [Exemplar]
* 9. Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes 3x − y + 2z − 4 = 0,
x + y + z − 2 = 0 and the point (2, 2, 1). [NCERT]
* 10. Find the Cartesian equation of the plane passing through the intersection of planes x + 2y − 3 = 0
and 2x − y + z = 1 and the origin, i.e., (0, 0, 0). Also write the equation of the plane so obtained
in vector form.
* 11. Find the equation of the plane through the intersection of the planes ⃗r · (î + 3ĵ − k̂) = 9 and
⃗r · (2î − ĵ + k̂) = 3 and passing through the origin.
* 12. Find the Cartesian equation of the plane, passing through the line of intersection of the planes
⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ − 4k̂) + 5 = 0 and ⃗r · (î − 5ĵ + 7k̂) + 2 = 0 and intersecting y-axis at (0, 3, 0).
* 13. Find the equation of plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes x+2y +3z −4 = 0
and 3z − y = 0 and perpendicular to the plane 3x + 4y − 2z + 6 = 0.
* 14. Find the vector equation of the plane which contains the line of intersection of the planes
in
⃗r · (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) − 4 = 0 and ⃗r · (2î + ĵ − k̂) + 5 = 0 and which is perpendicular to the plane
⃗r · (5î + 3ĵ − 6k̂) + 8 = 0.
* 15. Find the vector equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the planes x + y + z = 1
and 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 which is perpendicular to the plane x − y + z = 0. Hence find whether the
e.
x+2 y−3 z
plane thus obtained contains the line = = or not.
5 4 5
16. Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes ⃗r · (2î + 2ĵ − 3k̂) = 7
and ⃗r · (2î + 5ĵ + 3k̂) = 9 and through the point (2, 1, 3). [NCERT]
yd
17. Find the vector equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes ⃗r·(î+ĵ+k̂) = 6,
⃗r · (2î + 3ĵ + 4k̂) = −5 and the point (1, 1, 1). [NCERT]
18. Find the equation of the plane which is perpendicular to the plane 5x + 3y + 6z + 8 = 0 and which
contains the line of intersection of the planes x + 2y + 3z − 4 = 0 and 2x + y − z + 5 = 0.
[Exemplar]
rif
19. Find the equation of the plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes 2x + y − z = 3
x−1 y−3 z−5
and 5x − 3y + 4z + 9 = 0 and parallel to the line = = .
2 4 5
* 20. Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes x + 3y + 6 = 0 and
3x − y − 4z = 0 and whose perpendicular distance from origin is unity. [Exemplar]
la
* 21. Find the equation of planes passing through the line of intersection of the planes ⃗r ·(î+3ĵ)+6 = 0
and ⃗r · (3î − ĵ + 4k̂) = 0 whose perpendicular distance from origin is unity.
22. Find the equation of the plane passing through the intersection of the planes ⃗r · (î + 3ĵ) − 6 = 0
C
and ⃗r · (3î − ĵ − 4k̂) = 0 whose perpendicular distance from origin is unity. [Exemplar]
* 23. Find the equation of the planes passing through the line of intersection of the planes having
equations x + 2y + 3z − 5 = 0 and 3x − 2y − z + 1 = 0 and cutting off equal intercepts
on the x and z-axes.
24. Find the equation of the plane through the line of intersection of the planes x + y + z = 1 and
2x + 3y + 4z = 5 and twice of its y-intercept is equal to three times its z-intercept.
25. A vector parallel to the line of intersection of the planes ⃗r ·(3î− ĵ + k̂) = 1 and ⃗r ·(î+4ĵ −2k̂) = 2
is
(a) −2î + 7ĵ + 13k̂ (b) 2î + 7ĵ − 13k̂
(c) −2î − 7ĵ + 13k̂ (d) 2î + 7ĵ + 13k̂
26. The plane 2x − (1 + λ)y + 3λz = 0 passes through the intersection of the planes
(a) 2x + 3z = 0 and y = 0 (b) 2x − y + 3z = 0 and y − 3z = 0
(c) 2x − y = 0 and y − 3z = 0 (d) none of these
Answers 20.5
1. (i) False (ii) True (iii) False
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
2. (i) (⃗c − ⃗a) · (⃗b × d)
⃗ =0 (ii) a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2
in
3. ⃗r · (−3î + 3ĵ + 3k̂) = 0 5. 18x − 28y + 8z + 70 = 0
6. x − 2y + z = 0 7. −22x + 19y + 5z = 31
1
8. −x + y + z = 0, √ unit 9. 7x − 5y + 4z − 8 = 0
3
e.
10. −5x + 5y − 3z = 0, ⃗r · (−5î + 5ĵ − 3k̂) = 0
11. −5x + 6y − 4z = 0 12. 40x − 31y + 46z + 93 = 0
13. 2x + 3y + 9z − 8 = 0 14. ⃗r · (33î + 45ĵ + 50k̂) − 41 = 0
15. x + 0y − z + 2 = 0, Yes 16. 38x + 68y + 3z = 153
yd
17. ⃗r · (20î + 23ĵ + 26k̂) = 69 18. 51x + 15y − 50z + 173 = 0
19. 7x + 9y − 10z − 27 = 0 20. 2x + y − 2z + 3 = 0 and x − 2y − 2z − 3 = 0
21. 2x + y + 2z + 3 and x − 2y + 2z − 3 = 0 22. 4x + 2y − 4z = 6 and −2x + 4y + 4z = 6
23. 8x − 4y − z = 0 and 5x + 2y + 5z − 9 = 0 24. x + 2y + 3z = 4
25. (a) 26. (c)
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Summary
1. A plane is a surface such that if any two distinct points A and B are taken on it, then the line
segment AB lies on the surface.
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2. The general equation of first degree in x, y and z given by ax + by + cz + d = 0 represents

the general equation of a plane.
3. If a, b, c be the direction ratios of a vector normal to the plane, then equation of the plane can
be expressed as ax + by + cz = d, where d is some non-negative real number. This equation
is called Cartesian equation of the plane.
C
4. If a, b, c be the direction ratios of a vector normal to the plane, then equation of the plane
can be expressed as ⃗r · (aî + bĵ + ck̂) = d, where d is some non-negative real number. This
equation is called vector equation of the plane. It is also called equation of plane in scalar
product form.
5. If l, m, n be the direction cosines of the vector normal to a plane and d0 be the distance of the
plane from the origin, then equation of the plane can be expressed in Cartesian form as
lx + my + nz = d0
and in vector form as
⃗r · (lî + mĵ + nk̂) = d0 .
These equations are called equations of plane in normal form. The coordinates of the foot of
perpendicular drawn from origin to the plane are (ld0 , md0 , nd0 ).
Three-Dimensional Geometry – II Jai Shri Ram20.71
6. The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between their normals.
7. If the direction ratios of normals to two planes are a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 , then the angle θ
between the planes is given by
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos θ = p p .
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
8. If the direction cosines of normals to two planes are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 , then the angle
θ between the planes is given by cos θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 |.
9. The angle between a line and a plane is defined as the complement of the angle between the
line and the normal to the plane.
10. If the direction ratios of a line and normal to a plane are a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 , respectively,
in
then the angle θ between the line and the plane is given by
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
sin θ = p p .
a21 + b21 + c21 a22 + b22 + c22
11. If the direction cosines of a line and normal to a plane are l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 ,
e.
respectively, then the angle θ between the line and the plane is
sin θ = |l1 l2 + m1 m2 + n1 n2 | .
12. The two planes with direction ratios of their normals as a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are parallel if
a1 b1 c1
and only if = = .
yd
a2 b2 c2
13. A line with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 is parallel to a plane with direction ratios of its normal
as a2 , b2 , c2 if and only if a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2 = 0.
14. The two planes with direction ratios of their normals as a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are
15. A line with direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 is perpendicular to a plane with direction ratios of its
rif
a1 b1 c1
normal as a2 , b2 , c2 if and only if = = .
a2 b2 c2
16. The equation of a plane parallel to the plane ax + by + cz = d is
ax + by + cz = K, where K is a real number.
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17. The distance between the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the plane ax + by + cz = d is
ax1 + by1 + cz1 − d
D= √ .
a2 + b2 + c2
18. Given a plane and a point P not lying in the plane. Then, a point Q is said to be the image of
C
P in the given plane if P Q is perpendicular to the given plane and the mid-point of P Q lies
on the given plane.
19. Equation of a plane passing through the point (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having direction ratios of its
normal as a, b, c is a(x − x1 ) + b(y − y1 ) + c(z − z1 ) = 0. This is called equation of plane
in one-point form.
20. Equation of a plane passing through three non-collinear points (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and
(x3 , y3 , z3 ) is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1 = 0.
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
This is called equation of plane in three-point form.
21. Equation of a plane passing through the line of intersection of the planes
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2
is (a1 x + b1 y + c1 z − d1 ) + k(a2 x + b2 y + c2 z − d2 ) = 0, where k is a real number.
22. The line L1 having direction ratios a1 , b1 , c1 and passing through (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the line L2
having direction ratios a2 , b2 , c2 and passing through (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are coplanar if
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2
and the equation of plane containing L1 and L2 is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
in
a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
x y z
23. Equation of plane, having intercepts a, b, c on the coordinate axes, is + + = 1. This is
a b c
called equation of plane in intercept form.
e.
❏❏❏
yd
rif
la
C

Unit - 2 Analytic Geometry

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Unit - 2 Analytic Geometry

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Chapter 18

with an arrow on them such as ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c, . . .

Figure 18.1 Figure 18.2 Figure 18.3

Figure 18.4 Figure 18.5 Figure 18.6

to any of these vectors.

(ii) We have the following standard directions as shown in Figure 18.7:

can do for other directions.

Figure 18.9 Figure 18.10

Let us consider the following examples.

Example 3 (NCERT) In the adjoining figure, which of the vectors are:

Solution: (i) ⃗a, ⃗c, d⃗ (ii) ⃗a, ⃗c (iii) ⃗b, ⃗c, d⃗

Example 5 Represent the following displacements graphically:

Solution: (i) North (ii) North

Multiple Choice Questions (Select one correct choice)

(v) West 30◦ O

18.2 Operations on Vectors

triangle law of vectors and parallelogram law of vectors.

18.2.2 Difference of Vectors

18.2.3 Scalar Multiplication of Vectors

Remark 18.3 (i) If k = 0, then k⃗a = 0⃗a = ⃗0.

18.2.4 Unit Vector of a Given Vector

Remark 18.4 We have the following standard notations:

18.2.5 Position Vector of a Point in Component Form

18.2.6 Vector Joining Two Points

= (x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂.

(iv) The difference of the vectors ⃗a and ⃗b is given by

(vi) The vectors ⃗a and ⃗b are equal (i.e., ⃗a = ⃗b), if a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 and a3 = b3 .

= (3î − 4ĵ + 7k̂) − (2î − 3ĵ + 5k̂) = î − ĵ + 2k̂.

Solution: Given ⃗a = Position vector of A(3, 2, 0) = 3î + 2ĵ + 0k̂,

⇒ 3î + 2ĵ − k̂ = Position vector of B − (4î + ĵ + k̂)

Example 12 (Exemplar) If |⃗a| = 4 and −3 ≤ λ ≤ 2, then find the range of |λ⃗a|.

Then, unit vector parallel to ⃗a is given by

Solution: Given points are P (1, 3, 0) and Q(4, 5, 6).

AC = AB + BC = (î + 2ĵ + 3k̂) + (2î + 4ĵ − 5k̂) = 3î + 6ĵ − 2k̂.

Remark 18.6 If l, m, n are direction cosines of a vector ⃗r, then

Then, the direction cosines of ⃗a are

vectors for ∆OP R, we get

By triangle law of vectors for ∆ORQ, we get

n(⃗r − ⃗a) = m(⃗b − ⃗r) ⇒ ⃗r = .

points P and Q are (2, 3, 4) and (4, 1, −2) respectively.

Hence, position vector of mid-point of P Q = =

Then, ⃗b = m⃗c + n⃗a

Also, R2 divides the line joining A and B internally in the ratio m : n = 2 : 1.

(i) internally. (ii) externally.

and 2⃗a − ⃗b in the ratio 1 : 2. [Exemplar]

and (ii) externally. [NCERT]

is denoted by ⃗a · ⃗b (read as ⃗a dot ⃗b) and is defined as

18.3.1 Some Important Properties and Observations

1. ⃗a · ⃗b is always a scalar. That is why, dot product is called scalar product.

Let us now consider the following examples.

Example 2 Find ⃗a · ⃗b, when

and ⃗b = Position vector of (6, −3, 2) = 6î − 3ĵ + 2k̂.

value of (⃗a + ⃗b) · ⃗c.

= (10î + 7ĵ − k̂) · (−î + 0ĵ + 5k̂)

Solution: Given |⃗a| = 2, |⃗b| = 3 and ⃗a · ⃗b = 4.

Then, |⃗a + ⃗b|2 + |⃗a − ⃗b|2 = (⃗a + ⃗b)2 + (⃗a − ⃗b)2

Hence, ⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂ = (⃗r · î) î + (⃗r · ĵ) ĵ + (⃗r · k̂) k̂.

Then, ⃗a · ⃗b = 0 ⇒ |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ = 0 ⇒ (0) |⃗b| cos θ = 0 ⇒ 0 = 0,

|⃗a · ⃗b| ≤ |⃗a| |⃗b|.

= |⃗a|2 + 2 |⃗a| |⃗b| cos θ + |⃗b|2

Hence, |⃗a + ⃗b| ≤ |⃗a| + |⃗b|.

Now, ⃗a · ⃗b = (2î + 3ĵ + 6k̂) · (3î − 6ĵ + 2k̂)

Solution: Given ⃗a = 3î + xĵ and ⃗b = 2î + ĵ + y k̂ are mutually perpendicular..