GENERAL CHEMISTRY II

FINALS REVIEWER

Matter
• Pure Substance Some Properties of Solutions
➢ Element
➢ Compound • Particles are evenly distributed.
• Mixture – two or more elements combined • Components do not chemically react with
physically in variable proportions. each other.
➢ Heterogenous – composition varies from • Aqueous solutions are transparent.
one position to another. • Components do not separate when standing
▪ Suspension – particles settled (left undisturbed)
down after some time. • Concentrations can be change.
▪ Colloids – dispersed phase
➢ Homogenous – also called as solution,
uniform in composition. Types of Solution (based on amount of solvent)
▪ Solute – dissolved substance
• Concentrated – lots of solute in small amount
▪ Solvent – dissolving medium
of solvent, creates dark solutions.
▪ Aqueous solutions – solution in
which water is the solvent. • Dilute – small solute in large amount of
solvent, create light solutions.
Various Types of Solutions
Types Components of Solutions
of Solution (Solute in Solvent) Examples of Solution
SOLID Solid in Solid Carbon in iron (steel)
Copper and zinc (brass)
Liquid in Solid Amalgam (Mercury in gold)
Gas in Solid Oxygen in solid water
LIQUID Solid in Liquid Syrup (sugar in water)
Brine (salt in water)
Liquid in Liquid Alcoholic beverages (ethanol in water)
Gas in Liquid Oxygen in water or CO2 in water (soft drinks)
GAS Solid in Gas Solid particulates being released into the air
Liquid in Gas Water vapor in gas
Gas in Gas Oxygen in air

Classification of Solutions
• Unsaturated – more solute dissolves
• Saturated – no more solute dissolves
• Supersaturated – unstable, crystal forms.

SOLUBILITY – maximum amount of solute dissolve in each amount of solvent at specific temperature.
Type of Solute – amount of solute that dissolves in a given amount of solvent at room temperature.
Solute Solubility (g solute/100 g H2O) Solubility Term

Less than 0.1 insoluble

0.1 - 1 Slightly Soluble

1 - 10 Soluble

Greater than 10 Very Soluble

Soluble/Insoluble – a solid solute can (not) dissolve in any solvent

Miscible/Immiscible – a liquid can (not) dissolve in another liquid.

Formation of Solution depends on the following Dissolutions in three steps

interactions.
• Separation of solvent molecules
• Solute-solute • Separation of solute molecules
• Solute-solvent • Combination of solute solvent.
• Solvent-solvent

Factors Affecting Solubility

• Nature of Solute and solvent – like dissolves in like
• Temperature – changing the temperature can increase the soluble property of a solute.
• Pressure – when the partial pressure of gas increases, the chance of its solubility is also increased.

Stoichiometry – a section of chemistry that involves
using relationships between reactants and/or
products in a chemical reaction to determine desired
quantitative data.
TITRATION – process in determining quantitative
amount of substance in a solution.
Standard Solution – Solution of known
concentration, added to another of unknown
concentration until the reaction of the two solution is
complete.
Indicator a weak acid or base that reacts with an acid
or base to show an equivalence point in a titration
Equivalence Point – endpoint , or sharp change in
color of the indicator

Colligative property – any property of a substance that depends on, or varies according to, the number of particles
(molecules or atoms) present but does not depend on the nature of the particles.
Boiling-point elevation – boiling point of a liquid (a
solvent) will be higher when another compound is
added, meaning that a solution has a higher boiling
point than a pure solvent. This happens whenever a
non-volatile solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure
solvent, such as water.
Freezing point of the solution is lower than the pure
solvent because freezing involves a transition from
the disordered state to the ordered state done by
removing heat from the system.

Molal Boiling-Point Elevation constants of some Molal Freezing Point Depression constants of
liquids some liquids
Solvent Freezing Point 0C Kf (
Solvent Boiling Point 0C Kb (
Water 0 1.86
Water 100 0.52
Ethanol -117.3 1.99

Ethanol 78.4 Acetic

1.22Acid 16.6 3.90

Acetic Acid 117.9 2.93

Osmotic Pressure – if a solution is placed on one side of a membrane and pure solvent is placed on the other
side …there is a NET flow of solvent to the solution side.

Terms:
In Physics Heat is the thermal energy in transit.
Energy is the capability to do work. Chemical reactions involve breaking chemical bonds
between reactant molecules (particles) and forming
Work is the process of expending energy. new bonds between atoms in product particles
In Chemistry (molecules)

Energy pertains to the flow of chemical reaction.

Two Types of Energy:

1. Potential Energy – energy at rest, it is the energy 2. Kinetic Energy – energy in motion. Whenever a
associated with an object because of its position or body starts to move it gains kinetic energy.
structure.
Example: A speeding bullet, a walking person
Example: Chemical energy, the energy stored in
chemical bonds,

Electromagnetic radiation like light all have kinetic energy. Another example of kinetic Thermal energy the
energy associated with the constant, random bouncing of atoms or molecules.
Transfer of Energy
Thermochemistry – quantitative study of the relation between heat and chemical reactions
Thermodynamics – study of laws associated with the relation between heat and chemical reactions
“Thermes = heat” “dynamic = force/motion/changes”
Enthalpy – the total energy content of a
thermodynamic system
- Heat absorbed or given of by the system at
constant pressure (system open to the atm)
Entropy – measure of the disorder of the system or
energy unavailable to do work.
- degree of randomness
Thermodynamics 4 Laws
Zeroth Law
- When two thermodynamic systems are in
thermal equilibrium with a third
thermodynamic system, all three systems are
in thermal equilibrium with each other.
- It predicts whether the heat will transfer
between objects or not. This is true regardless
of how the objects interact.
First Law of Thermodynamics
- The internal energy of a system is the
difference between energy it absorbs from
State Functions – the degree of change depends only
on the initial and final state of the system regardless
of how the condition was achieved.
Example: temperature, pressure, density, volume,
Gibb's energy free, enthalpy, internal energy, and
entropy
Path Function- properties or quantities whose
values depend on the transition of a system from the
initial state to the final state
Example: Heat and work
surrounding and the work done by the system
on the surrounding.
- governs the flow of energy.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Heat cannot flow from a colder location to a hotter
area spontaneously.
Third Law of Thermodynamics
As a system approach absolute zero, all processes
cease, and the entropy of the system becomes
minimum.