INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Submitted by: Sonal Jha, Spoorthi S (1st Msc SLP)

DEFINITION
Research is the process of investigating scientific questions. Research is science
in action. Research is what scientists do in practicing science. Therefore,
research refers to those activities by which science achieves its goals.
According to various human subject protection guidelines, any systematic
investigation designed to develop or contribute to generalizable knowledge is
research.
This scientific method includes the recognition of a problem that can be
studied objectively, the collection of data through observation or experiment
and the drawing of conclusions based on the analysis of data that have been
gathered.
Research can be defined as a careful, systematic, patient study and
investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish
facts or principles.
Research can be defined as the search for knowledge or any systematic
investigation to establish facts. The primary purpose of which is discovering,
interpreting and the development of methods and systems for the
advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of
our world and the universe.

Definitions by the authors:

 Research refers to the process underlying the asking and answering of

questions as well as answers that can be abstracted from the
observation provided by such a process (Silvermann, 2001).
 Research is a systematic study of a problem or a question as a cyclical
process beginning with an unanswered question followed by a clear
statement of the problem, development of a hypothesis, data collection
 and finally interpretation of the information gathered in effort to reject
or accept hypothesis (Liske, 1986).
 Research is a procedure by which we attempt to find systematically and
with the support of demonstrable fact, the answer to a question or the
resolution of a problem (William, 1989).
 Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed
to gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret new facts and
relationships (Waltz & Bansell, 1981).
 Research is manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose
of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art (C.R.
Kothari, 2004).

PURPOSE OF RESEARCH:
There are three purposes of the research:-
1. Exploratory
2. Descriptive
3. Explanatory
❖ Exploratory - Exploratory research is conducted to explore a group of
questions. It is conducted to handle new problem areas which haven’t
been explored before. This exploratory process lays the foundation for
more conclusive research and data collection.
❖ Descriptive - Descriptive research focuses on expanding knowledge on
current issues through a process of data collection.
❖ Explanatory - Explanatory research or causal research is conducted to
understand the impact of certain changes in existing standard
procedures. Conducting experiments is the most popular form of casual
research.

NEED FOR RESEARCH

The field of communication disorders is both an academic discipline and a

clinical profession.
 As an academic discipline, communication disorders seek to study and
understand normal and disordered communication.
As a clinical profession, it is concerned with the methods of assessing,
planning, intervention and evaluation phases of clinical management various
disorders of speech, language and hearing (Polit & Hungler, 1991).

● Research is done to understand the complex and challenging

communication phenomena.
● Many topics in communication research demonstrate the complex multi
field nature of communication.
● Research practice increases professionalism, accountability to clients
and other professionals.
● Staff training and awareness about new procedures and technology
followed by improved client care are direct results of research.
● The SLPs are frequently asked by clients or other person, “Does this
treatment actually work?’’ This question is very difficult to answer
ethically and truthfully without controlled research to substantiate an
affirmative response.
● To fulfil the requirements and needs of clinical practice (Siegel, 1993).
● A well-recognised reason for doing research is to explain events and
effects. An event is scientifically explained when its cause or causes are
experimentally demonstrated.
For example, when a researcher shows that a certain treatment procedure can
produce language in a client previously without language skills, one
understands how language behaviours can be modified. The influence of other
potential variables is ruled out or controlled.
A valid explanation makes it possible to control diseases, disorders, and
undesirable social and personal conditions. For example, High Risk Register
helps us to identify pre-natal, perinatal factors or family history contributing to
a possible communication disorder.
● Another reason to do research is to solve practical problems.
For example, researching a better way to treat stuttering with low possibility of
relapse occurrence or researching the positives of using technology in reducing
stuttering.
This is crucial for clinical sciences because this type of research includes
research done to evaluate treatment procedures.
● Research done to explain events can lead to additional research that
may solve practical problems.
For example, an experimentally based explanation of language disorders
should also suggest ways of treating or preventing them.
In a similar way, research done to solve practical problems can eventually lead
to an explanation of certain phenomena.
For Example, successful treatment of language disorders through certain
environmental manipulations may suggest that certain variables facilitate
language acquisition. The absence of those variables may contribute to
language disorders.
● Research helps in developing new instruments of observation and
measurement to observe events that were never directly observed
before.
For example, the laryngeal behaviours during stuttering were a matter of
speculation for a long time, but the behaviours themselves were not directly
observed until the fiberscope and cineradiography were developed and used.
● Research may be done to demonstrate the effects of newly discovered
variables. A new variable that may produce new effects is often
discovered accidentally.
For example, Lee (1950, 1951) accidentally found that a speaker’s speech
becomes disturbed when a delay is introduced in the auditory feedback of
one's speech.
● It should also be clear that research done for any other reason will also
satisfy scientist’s curiosity.
● Research helps to build a lasting and more solid reputation of the
profession of Audiology and SLP and also better visibility and advocacy
of the profession.
 ● Research helps a profession to make significant progress when its
concepts are scientific and its methods are evaluated objectively.
● If the field of speech and hearing is to be respected and supported by
state and central agencies that set standards and policies for health care
delivery, the profession must demonstrate accountability. Government
policies give high preference to applied Research. For example:- POCD.
● An Academic publishes the results of his research not only to advance
knowledge but also to advance his standing in the academic community.
● Research is essential to develop tests and resource materials with
respect to Indian culture.
● Research is also essential for the introduction of specialised courses to
have more focus on varied areas.

Broadly we can classify the research into qualitative and quantitative research:

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research is more concerned with a deep understanding of a

phenomenon through narrative description, which typically is obtained under
less structured conditions. Qualitative research is more concerned with the
process than the outcome of the process. The result of such research is
presented not in statistical formats but in analytical narratives that describe
the project (Goodwin, 2008).
For example, in analysing the effect of stuttering on a person’s social life, not
only the frequency of disfluencies and avoidance of social interactions are
measured but also the person’s feelings, communication attitudes, perceptions
etc, are described.

The 4 types of qualitative research are:

1. Observational research 3. Narrative Research
2. Interview research 4. Case Study research
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

In Quantitative studies, results are presented as quantities or numbers. Data

will be collected in the form of numbers. Thus, Quantitative research is the
formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are used as
evidence to test hypotheses, refine theories, and advance knowledge,
technique, and practice (Grove, Burns, & Gray, 2013).
For example, the effect of language therapy on language development, effects
of the Lidcombe program and parent-child interaction on stuttering reduction
in preschool children etc.
The three kinds of quantitative research are:
1. Experimental Research
2. Descriptive Research
3. Combined Experimental and Descriptive Research
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
An experiment is an observation under the controlled condition (Chapin,
1974).
Why do we do an experiment?
฀ To test the theory
฀ To determine the relationship between two or more variables
฀ To extend the range of study of the variable
฀ To increase the reliability of reported findings.
Experimental research is a type of quantitative research where the
independent variable is controlled to measure its effect on the dependent
variables (Shearer, 1982).
For example, effects of white noise on frequency of stuttering (Sharon
Fineberg Garber & Richard R. Martin, 1974).
 ฀ Experiments are conducted in a controlled environment under
controlled conditions so as to account for any alternative influences on
the measured behaviour (Drew, hardman, & Hart, 1996).
฀ Experimental research is used to examine possible cause-and-effect-
relationships by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or
more conditions and comparing the results to one or more control
groups (Isaac & Michael, 1987).
฀ When well done, experimental research remains the strongest and most
reliable technique available for determining cause-effect relationships
among variables (Underwood & Shaughnessy, 1975).
฀ This type of research is also known as cause-and-effect method, the
pretest-posttest control group design, and the laboratory method
(Leedy, 1989).
฀ Experiments have been carried out to examine the effects of treatment
on the behaviour of persons with speech or hearing disorders. For
example, ‘what effect does DAF have on speech behaviour?’
฀ Experimental research has two varieties:
A. Basic research – is often theoretical, and the problems addressed might
not have immediate practical implications.
B. Applied research - is practical, designed to solve immediate problems.

The three characteristics of experimental research (Polit & Hungler, 1991):-

1. Manipulation – the experimenter does something to at least some of
the subjects in the study.
In an experiment, the investigator manipulates an independent variable to
(a) Produce a dependent variable (effect).
(b) Increase the magnitude of dependent variable
(c) Decrease the magnitude of dependent variable or
(d) Eliminate the dependent variable.
2. Control – the experimenter introduces one or more controls over the
experimental situation, including the use of a control group.
3. Randomisation – the experimenter assigns subjects to a control or
experimental group on a random basis.
PROCEDURES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Isaac and Michael (1987) have outlined the steps in experimental research.
1. Survey the literature relating to the problem.
2. Identify and define the problem.
3. Formulate a problem hypothesis, deducing the consequences and
defining basic terms and variables.
4. Construct an experimental plan:
 Identify all nonexperimental variables that might contaminate the
experiment, and determine how to control them.
 Select a research design.
 Select a sample of subjects to represent a given population, assign
subjects to groups, and assign experimental treatments to groups.
 Select or construct and validate instruments to measure the outcome of
the experiment.
 Outline procedures for collecting the data, and possibly conduct a pilot
or ‘’trial run’’ test to perfect the instruments or design.
 State the statistical or null hypothesis.
5. Conduct the experiments.
6. Reduce the raw data in a manner that will produce the best appraisal of
the effect which is presumed to exist.
7. Apply an appropriate test of significance to determine the confidence
one can place on the results of the study.

Merits and demerits of experimental research

Merits:
฀ It is the most appropriate method for testing hypotheses of cause-and-
effect relationships between variables. Clinically and educationally, it is
the only method to firmly establish the effects of treatment and
teaching methods.
฀ Vital feature is the experiment and control of the main variables, which
other types of research do not involve. This makes it the most powerful
research. (Hegde, 2003)
 ฀ Many other types of research can suggest possibilities of causal
relations, but only the experimental approach can confirm it.
฀ It offers greater corroboration than any other type of research in that if
the independent variable is manipulated in a certain way, then certain
consequences in the dependent variable may be expected to ensure.

Demerits:
฀ There are many situations in which experimental research cannot be
conducted because of ethical or practical considerations (Polit &
Hungler, 1991).
฀ Criticised as mechanistic and artificial (Validity is questionable in
specially created and fully controlled experimental situations) (Ingle &
Gadlin, 1975).
฀ The effects of independent variables manipulated in human experiments
are very weak (Kerlinger, 1986). Many times, controlled experiments
manage to demonstrate only small changes in the dependent variables,
whereas the same variables in real-life situations may produce very large
effects.
For example, expansion of children’s utterances in a laboratory study may
result in small increases in language complexity, but the same variable in
real life may produce larger effects.
฀ Another disadvantage is the Hawthorne effect: the modification of
behaviour by the subject in response to their knowledge that they are
being observed.

TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Plutchik (1983) outlines a classification of types of experiments based on

the number of independent variables studied and number of manipulated
values of the independent variables.
1. Bivalent experiments
2. Multivalent experiments
3. Parametric experiments
Bivalent Experiments

In a bivalent experiment, the experimenter studies the effects of two values of

one independent variable on the dependent variable (Plutchik, 1983). This type
of experiment is called bivalent (two values) because the independent variable
is manipulated by the experimenter in a manner that allows for only two
values of the independent variable to be presented to the subjects.
Examples:
● Effect of treatment versus no treatment on the articulation performance
in children with speech sound disorder.
● Effect of binaural versus monoaural stimulation on speech perception.
● Effect of delayed versus normal feedback on speech rate.
● Effect of fluency reinforcement versus no reinforcement on stuttering.
● Effect of presence versus absence of masking noise on stuttering
behaviour.
● Effect of vented versus unvented ear molds on speech discrimination in
noise.
Merits:
✔ Bivalent experiments are valuable in examining the effects of categorical
independent variables.
✔ It is easy to interpret and analyse.

Demerits:
✔ Bivalent experiments are limited in scope because they do not always
encompass as much of the potential range of values of the continuous
independent variable as may be possible.

Multivalent Experiments

In a multivalent experiment, the experimenter studies the effects of several

values of the independent variable on the dependent variable. This type of
experiment is called multivalent (many values) because the independent
variable is manipulated in a manner that allows for at least three (and usually
more) values of the independent variable to be presented to the subjects
(Plutchik, 1983).
Examples:
● Word recognition scores vary as a function of the intensity at which
words are presented to the listener.
● The effect of masking noise varied from quite to 10, 50 and 90dB above
threshold on frequency of stuttering.
● Effects of DAF in stuttering.
● Effects of Food Consistency on Tongue Pressure during Swallowing.
Merits:
✔ The multivalent experiment gives a broader picture of the relationship
between the independent and dependent variables than the bivalent
experiment does because the experimenter samples the range of
possible values of independent variables more completely.
✔ Because a bivalent experiment examines only two values of the
independent variable, its resultant graph cannot reveal the shape of a
curvilinear function. A multivalent experiment must be performed to
reveal a curvilinear function.
Demerits:
✔ More time, effort and cost required.
✔ More complex statistics and interpretation involved.
Parametric Experiments

In a parametric experiment, the experimenter studies the simultaneous effects

of more than one independent variable on a dependent variable (Plutchik,
1983).

It is called a parametric because the second independent variable is referred to

as the parameter.

The main effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable can
be examined at the same time that the main effect of another independent
variable on the dependent variable is studied (main effect). In addition, the
interaction of the two independent variables in causing changes in the
dependent variable can also be determined (interaction effect).

Examples:
● Studebaker, Taylor and Sherbecoe (1994) examined the simultaneous
Effects of Signal-to-Noise Ratio (IV) and Type of Noise Spectrum
(parameter) on Speech Recognition Performance (DV) of Adults with
Normal Hearing.
● Erber (1971) - Simultaneous effects of distance (IV) and syllabic pattern
of words (parameter) on visual recognition of speech through lip reading
by deaf children (DV).
● Effects of background noise level (IV) and reverberation (parameter) of
the room on communication of Hearing Impaired (DV).
● Butler and her colleagues (2009) examined the Effect of Subject Age (IV)
and Sex (parameter) on the Time Between the Onset of Upper
Pharyngeal Pressure and Upper Esophageal Sphincter Relaxation while
Swallowing (DV).
 ● The therapeutic effect of neurologic music therapy (IV) and speech
language therapy (parameter) in post-stroke aphasic patients (DV).

Merits:
✔ Parametric experiments can be more economical and efficient than
bivalent or multivalent because they examine the effects of more
independent variables in a single experiment.
 ✔ Improve efficiency of studies by studying two main effects in the same
experiment rather than by conducting two separate experiments for
each independent variable.
✔ The communication behaviors that we study are multivariate in nature,
and it is rare to encounter a single independent variable that can
account for the entire causation of change in any dependent variable.
Eg. In trying to explain the communication between a speaker and a HI
listener, it would be significant to consider numerous variables that has an
impact on intelligibility of the speaker’s message: acoustical characteristics of
the speaker’s talk, the background noise level, distance between talker and
listener, reverberation of the room, type and severity of the listener’s hearing
loss, amplification properties of the listener’s hearing aid (e.g., gain,
distortion), listener’s familiarity with the speaker, context and so on.

Demerits:
✔ Parametric experiments may employ more than one parameter. A study
can have up to three or four or five independent variables. However, a
greater number of independent variables may make the study
cumbersome and difficult to analyse and interpret.

To summarise:

Bivalent Multivalent Parametric

The experimenter The experimenter The experimenter
studies the effects of studies the effects of studies the
two values of one several values of the simultaneous effects of
independent variable on independent variable on more than one
the dependent variable the dependent variable independent variable on
dependent variable
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1. M, N. Hegde & Anthony P. Salvatore (2021). Clinical Research in
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Publishing, Inc.
2. Orlikoff, N., Schiavetti, N., & Metz E. D. (2015). Evaluating research in
communication disorders. (7th Ed). New Jersey; Pearson Education, Inc.
3. Portney, L. G. & Watkins, M. P. (2015). Foundations of Clinical research:
Applications to practice. (3rd Ed). Philadelphia; Davis Company, Inc..
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6. Hegde, M. N., & Brutten, G. J. (1977). Reinforcing fluency in stutterers: An

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8. Lim, K. B., Kim, Y. K., Lee, H. J., Yoo, J., Hwang, J. Y., Kim, J. A., Kim, S. K.
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https://doi.org/10.5535/arm.2013.37.4.556

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