Pre-Study Highlighted GSK COURSE NOTES

GENERAL SHIP
KNOWLEDGE
bluewater crew training
Antibes, Palma, Fort Lauderdale

Intentionally Blank
OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

Course Notes 2 v. May 2021
OFFICER OF THE WATCH GENERAL SHIP
KNOWLEDGE
STUDENT STUDY GUIDE AND COURSE NOTES
These notes form part of a programme of study leading to command

qualifications of large commercially and privately operated yachts, in
accordance with the UK Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) syllabus for
Officer of the Watch (Yachts).
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior consent
of the publisher.
This publication is a training aid - under no circumstances should it be used

as legal advice or justification for any action. Readers must base any
decisions for action upon current UK and International legislation and
regulations. The publishers disclaim any liability for any loss or damage
caused by any errors or omissions.
© Copyright. Bluewater Yachting (Antibes, France; Ft. Lauderdale, FL). 2021
Purpose of this Book
This book is intended to assist those studying for the five-day General Ship
Knowledge course and exam, a module in the Certificate of Competency for
the Command of large commercial yachts issued under the Commercial Code
for large yachts.
Students should read through the entire book once and then focus on each
chapter, reading it again carefully. Then turn to the Sample Questions and
attempt to answer them for each topic. You should first attempt to write out
an answer without looking at the book. Spend about twenty to twenty-five
minutes per question at most, (you won’t have any longer in the exam!)
After this return to the chapter and see if you missed anything. Note any
items that you missed and move on to another topic. Return to the question
at a later time and see if you can improve on the first attempt. Note any
questions raised in your mind and bring with you for class discussion.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Overview 5
MCA Syllabus 8
Module 1: Basic Ship Construction 17

1.1 Brief History of Shipbuilding 19
1.2 Ship Construction Terminology 25
1.3 Stresses 33
1.4 Methods of Yacht Construction 47
1.5 Plans Normally Carried on Board 73
1.6 Causes and Prevention of Corrosion 81
1.7 Classification Societies 95
1.8 Load Lines, Reserve Buoyancy & Methods of Damage Control 103
1.9 Bilge Pumping Systems 113
Module 2: Stability 119

2.1 Basic Principles of Hydrostatics and Related Terms 120
2.2 The Archimedes Principle and the Law of Flotation 129
2.3 Initial Stability 143
2.4 Suspended Weights 169
2.5 Free Surface Effect 171
2.6 Stability Data 175
Module 3: Meteorology 181

3.1 Global wind Distribution 182
3.2 Causes of Local Winds 205
3.3 Water Vapor in the Atmosphere 209
3.4 Air Masses, Fronts and Depressions 217
3.5 Meteorological Instruments 231
3.6 Sources of Weather Information 239
Module 4: Seamanship 255

4.1 Responsibilities in Relation to a Pilot 257
4.2 Preparing for Sea 261
4.3 SOLAS and MARPOL Conventions 265
4.4 Code of Safe Working Practices 279

COURSE OVERVIEW
GENERAL SHIP KNOWLEDGE
This course is divided into four sections: Basic Seamanship, Meteorology,

Stability and Construction. The course covers introduction to ship
construction, stresses and corrosion, transverse stability, reserve buoyancy
and damage control, meteorology and seamanship, watch keeping,
preparation for sea and maintenance. STCW A-II/1 – 2.
Prerequisite: Yacht master Coastal Theory and Practical
Duration: The course must take place over 5 days or 30 hours of formal
instruction.
Required Resources: Bluewater Yachting Course Notes
This course covers a wide range of subject material and some pre-course
reading is highly recommended. Reeds 'Superyacht Manual' provides a good
source of introductory reading.
Attendance Policy: Students are required to attend all scheduled classes

and participate in all required activities. Students missing any class time
must make arrangements with the instructor to make up the lost
instructional time. A student missing more than 10% (3 hours) of instruction
during the course will be not be permitted to examine and will be required to
re-sit the course at their own expense for the full cost of tuition.
Assessment: Assessment is by a written 2½ hour examination of 7

questions. The pass mark is 60%.
Certification: MCA OOW General Ship Knowledge. Expiration/Renewal

every three years.

COURSE SCHEDULE
DAY HOUR LECTURE CONTENT / MODULE

Introduction and Course Administration
1 1
Pre-study Quiz
2 Met - Global Wind Distribution
Met - Pressure systems + wind

3
- Local Winds
4 Construction - Construction Terminology
5 Stability - Basic Principles
- Archimedes Principle
6 Stability – Load Line (incl. Construction Load Line)
- Calculations
7 Review of Coursework and Homework Assignment
2 1 Review Homework + Morning quiz
2 Stability - Initial Stability
3 Stability - Equilibriums
4 Met - Water Vapour, Clouds and Fog
5 Met - Air Masses, Fronts and Depressions
6 Met Instruments + Information
Met DVD
7
Review of Coursework and Homework Assignment

COURSE SCHEDULE
2 Construction – Stresses, Construction Members
3 Construction – Construction Materials, Plans
4 Construction – Corrosion, IACS
5 Stability - List, Suspended Weights, Loll, FSE, Stability Data
6 Met - How to measure wind on a synoptic chart
7 Review of Coursework and Homework Assignment
2 Construction – Bilge systems
3 Seamanship - SOLAS & MARPOL Pilotage - safety responsibilities
Seamanship - COSWP – Brief overview, Enclosed Space Entry

4
Review & Homework
5-7 Mock Exam
5 1 Review Homework
2-3 Course Review
4-7 OOW GSK Examination
Two fifteen-minute breaks and a one-hour lunch break will be built into
each day.

MCA SYLLABUS (amended June 2017)
Module 1 - SHIP CONSTRUCTION

Topic 1: Ship Construction Terminology
a) Can define and illustrate the following terms:
 forward perpendicular,
 after perpendicular,
 length between perpendiculars,
 length overall,
 amidships,
 beam, depth, draught,
 freeboard,
 camber, sheer, flare,
 ℄ (Centre line)
 transverse cross section
b) States that gross tonnage (GT) is a measure of the internal volume
of the ship and net tonnage is obtained by making deductions from
Gross Tonnage.
c) Can explain the difference between measurement tonnage and
displacement
Topic 2: Longitudinal, Transverse and Local Stresses due to Static

and Dynamic Loading
a) Can describe the causes of longitudinal stresses with reference to
hogging and sagging.
b) Can outline the effects of dynamic stresses with reference to wave
action and loading.
c) Can describe how local stresses arise due to panting, pounding,
vibration.
d) Can describe the hull stresses caused by a sailing boat’s mast and
rigging and the stresses and loads present in the rig.
e) Can describe how local stress is caused by discontinuities at hull
openings and local loading.
Topic 3: Methods of Yacht Construction

a) Can state that the bottom, side shell and upper deck structure are
important strength members.
b) Can describe the methods of construction employed to resist the
stresses in 2a to 2d with reference to transverse, longitudinal and
combined systems of framing.

c) Can describe the methods of maintaining continuity of strength
described in Topic 2(e).
d) Can draw the mid-section of sail and motor yachts and identify and
describe the function of the following components:
i. centre girder,
ii. side girders,
iii. stringers,
iv. transverse bulkheads,
v. transverse frames,
vi. beams,
vii. beam knees,
viii. floors,
ix. pillars,
x. coamings
xi. insert plates
e) Can state the advantages and disadvantages of the following
materials when used in yacht construction:
i. wood,
ii. steel,
iii. aluminium alloy,
iv. Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) and other composite
systems
Topic 4: Plans normally carried on board

a) Can list the information contained in a General Arrangement Plan.
b) Can list the information contained in a Fire Plan.
c) Can list the information contained in a Life Saving Appliance Plan.
d) Can recognize the correct symbols used for the following bilge
system components:
i. Bilge pump
ii. Strum box
iii. Mud box
iv. Screw down non-return valve
v. Screw down valve
vi. Manifold
vii. Overboard discharge
viii. Oily Water separator
Topic 5: The cause and prevention of corrosion

a) Can outline the process of chemical corrosion (e.g. acids and alkalis).
b) Can describe the principle of oxidisation of a steel plate.

c) Can describe the process of galvanic corrosion between dissimilar
metals by explaining the electro-chemical cell.
d) Can identify areas prone to galvanic corrosion
e) Can describe the methods of joining and attaching dissimilar metals
and fittings.
f) Can describe the function of a paint system in the prevention of
corrosion and the importance of its proper maintenance.
g) Can state the principle of cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes
and impressed current systems.
Topic 6: The functions of classification societies

a) Can state the role of the Classification Society.
b) Can state that IACS is the International Association of Classification
Societies.
c) Can state that each IACS member uses “class notation symbols” to
denote a ship constructed under special survey in compliance with
the society’s rules.
Topic 7: Load lines, Reserve Buoyancy, and methods of damage

control
a) Can define the terms:
i. freeboard deck,
ii. superstructure deck,
iii. superstructure,
iv. assigned freeboard,
v. weathertight
vi. watertight
b) Can state the purpose of the Load Line.
c) Can define fresh water allowance FWA as the difference between
draft in Salt and fresh water.
d) Can state that the FWA = W / (4x TPC salt water).
e) Can state that the Fresh Water Mark is 1/48 of the Summer Draught
above the summer mark.
f) Can outline the importance of reserve buoyancy and the necessity
for maintaining its integrity.
g) Can state the items which affect the watertight integrity of the ship
with reference to:
i. hatchways and coamings,
ii. doorways, side scuttles, skylights, windows,
iii. ventilators and exhausts,
iv. air pipes

h) Can describe the routine maintenance to ensure the efficiency of
closing arrangements for the items listed in 7g.
i) Can state the importance of non-return valves on tank vent and
sounding pipes, especially when fitted low down on a vessel.
j) Can describe the importance of water freeing arrangements to the
watertight integrity of the vessel, i.e., scuppers and freeing ports
Topic 8: Bilge-pumping systems
a) Can draw a bilge pumping diagram to include the following
components:
i. Bilge pump,
ii. strum box,
iii. mud box,
iv. screw down non-return valve,
v. screw down valve,
vi. manifold,
vii. oily water separator
viii. overboard discharge
b) Can describe the purpose of each of the components in Topic 8a.
Module 2 - STABILITY
Topic 9: Basic principles of hydrostatics and related terms
a) Can define density and relative density of a substance.
b) Can state a marine hydrometer is used to measure Relative Density
of dock water.
c) Can state the Law of Flotation and Archimedes Principle.
d) Can define the terms:
i. light displacement,
ii. load displacement,
iii. deadweight,
iv. buoyancy
v. reserve buoyancy
vi. TPC
vii. KM
e) Can state that Displacement (∆) is equal to the Underwater Volume
x relative density of the liquid displaced. ∆ = V x RD
f) Can calculate the displacement of a box shaped vessel for a given
draught in liquid of a given relative density.
g) Can extract the displacement, TPC and KM for a given mean draught
using a hydrostatic table.
h) Can calculate the displacement, change in draught and GM from
tabulated hydrostatic data.

Topic 10: Initial Stability
a) Can define the terms:
i. centre of gravity,
ii. centre of buoyancy,
iii. transverse metacentre,
iv. metacentric height,
v. righting lever
vi. righting moment
b) Can draw a diagram for a vessel in stable equilibrium, heeled to a
small angle to show:
i. The positions and forces through the centre of gravity and
centre of buoyancy.
ii. show the development of righting and capsizing moments.
iii. Describe the creation of the righting lever and the transverse
metacentre.
c) Can state that righting moment (RM) = GZ x displacement.
𝑅𝑀 = Δ ×𝐺𝑍 𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑛𝑒/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠
d) Can state that metacentric height (GM) can be used as an
assessment of initial stability.
e) Can describe the motion of stiff and tender vessels and state the
advantages and disadvantages of both.
f) Can identify, using diagrams, the difference between stable, neutral,
and unstable equilibrium.
g) Can describe the effect on GM due to adding, removing, and
transferring weights including fuel and water.
h) Can state the effect on GM of a suspended weight.
i) Can state that the effect of free surface can be considered as a
reduction in GM or a rise in KG and this change is known as the Free
Surface Correction.
j) Can describe the importance of draining swimming pools.
Section 3 – METEOROLOGY
Topic 11: Global wind distribution
a) Can draw a diagram showing the general global pressure
distribution.
b) Can describe, with the aid of a sketch, the general circulation of wind
over the earth’s surface.
c) Can describe the modifying effect of large landmasses on the general
pattern of global circulation of winds.
d) Can state and describe the practical use of Buys Ballot’s Law.
e) Can define the ITCZ.

f) Can describe the conditions associated with:
i. the ITCZ,
ii. Trade Winds
iii. Subtropical Anti Cyclones
Topic 12: The causes of Local Winds

a) Can describe, with the aid of a diagram, the formation of land and
sea breezes.
b) Can describe katabatic winds and the associated dangers.
c) Can describe how local effects may modify winds caused by pressure
systems and the effects on sea conditions.
Topic 13: The effects of water vapor in the atmosphere

a) Can define dew point and relative humidity.
b) Can describe the formation of cloud.
c) Can describe the formation of:
i. Advection fog
ii. Frontal fog
iii. Radiation fog
Topic 14: The practical use and care of common meteorological

instruments
a) Can describe the operation and use of the aneroid barometer.
b) Can outline the function of the barograph and its practical use in
forecasting the weather.
c) Can describe the use of wet and dry bulb thermometers (Masons
Hygrometers).
d) Can demonstrate how the information obtained from a hygrometer
can be used for predicting advection fog as described in the
Mariner’s Handbook (NP 100).
Topic 15. Frontal Depressions

a) Can describe the formation of a frontal depression as in NP100.
b) Can describe, with the aid of a diagram, a frontal depression showing
isobars, wind direction and associated fronts as in NP100.
c) Can describe, with the aid of a diagram, a warm front, cold front and
occluded front and the associated weather as in NP100.

Topic 16: The sources of weather information available to ships
a) Can list the published sources of information, including:
i. The Mariner’s Handbook,
ii. Admiralty List of Radio Signals Vol.3, NP 283 (1 & 2),
iii. Routing charts,
iv. Admiralty Sailing Directions
v. Ocean Passages of the World
b) Can list the sources of broadcast weather information, including:
i. weather facsimile,
ii. satellite pictures,
iii. text messages,
iv. NAVTEX
v. the internet
c) Can describe a surface analysis chart and a forecast chart and
identify the synoptic features.
d) Can determine from a surface analysis chart the strength and
direction of the wind.
Section 4 - SEAMANSHIP
Topic 17: The responsibilities of the Officer of the Watch in relation
to boarding a pilot.
a) Can state the duties of the OOW when embarking and disembarking
a pilot as stated in the Bridge Procedures Guide (as amended) and
COSWP.
Topic 18: The precautions to be taken in preparing a vessel for sea

a) Can describe the importance of the completion of pre-sailing
checklists.
b) Can describe the importance of maintaining watertight integrity
including the fitting of storm shutters.
c) Can describe the requirement to secure heavy or bulky items such as
tenders, jet-skies and helicopters.
d) Can state the importance of maintaining access to emergency
equipment at all times.

Topic 19: SOLAS and MARPOL
a) Can list and name the MARPOL annexes applicable to Large yachts.
Annex 1,4,5 & 6)
b) Can state the requirements for the prevention of pollution by oil
under MARPOL for large yachts with regard to:
i. Carriage of Oily Water Separator.
ii. Limitations for discharge outside Special Areas
iii. Limitations for discharge inside Special Areas
c) Can state that MARPOL annex 1 requires the carriage of:
i. International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate
ii. Oil Record Book
iii. Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP)
d) Can outline the requirements for the prevention of pollution by
Sewage under MARPOL including:
i. requirements for discharge of untreated sewage
ii. requirements for discharge of treated sewage
e) Can state that MARPOL annex 4 requires the carriage of:
i. International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate
f) Can state that the MARPOL requirements for the prevention of
pollution by garbage apply to large Yachts and include the:
i. Garbage Record Book
ii. Garbage management plan.
g) Can list the items of garbage that may be discharged overboard
under MARPOL Annex V Garbage Placard.
i. Outside Special Areas
ii. Inside Special areas.
h) Can state that the MARPOL requirements for the prevention of air
pollution apply to large Yachts and include:
 International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate
 Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) record book
i) Can define Emission Control Area (ECA) and Environmentally
Sensitive Sea Areas (ESSA)
j) Can state that yachts over 500GT must comply with the relevant
chapters of SOLAS and yachts under 500GT comply with the Large
Yacht Code (as amended).

Topic 20: The Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant
Seafarers
a) Can outline the contents of the Code of Safe Working Practices for
Merchant Seafarers (2015 as amended).
b) Can describe the process of risk assessment.
c) Can state the purpose of a Permit to Work.
d) Can outline the process for the correct completion of a Permit to
Work
e) Can state the precautions to be observed when using lifting
equipment.
f) Can describe the precautions to be observed when engaged in
mooring.
g) Can describe the dangers involved and state the precautions
necessary to prevent injury to personnel when moving around the
ship with special regard to safe means of access.
h) Can describe the precautions necessary for clearing away and letting
go the anchor.
i) Can state the dangers of excessive loads on the mooring ropes and
the dangers involved should a rope part.
j) Can describe the correct procedure for securing to a mooring buoy.
k) Can state the precautions to be observed when passing and
connecting a towline to another vessel or tug.
l) Can state the precautions to be observed if involved in a dangerous
or enclosed space entry.
International Code of Signals and the Morse Code will be examined in MCA
oral exam.

MODULE 1: BASIC SHIP CONSTRUCTION
Upon completion of this module, the student should be able to:

1. Define and illustrate the following terms: forward perpendicular,
after perpendicular, length between perpendiculars, length overall,
amidships, beam, depth, draught, freeboard, camber, sheer, flare, ℄
(Centre line), transverse cross section.
2. State that gross tonnage (GT) is a measure of the internal volume of
the ship and net tonnage is obtained by making deductions from
Gross Tonnage.
3. Explain the difference between measurement tonnage and
displacement.
4. Describe the causes of longitudinal stresses with reference to
hogging and sagging.
5. Outline the effects of dynamic stresses with reference to wave action
and loading.
6. Describe how local stresses arise due to panting, pounding,
vibration.
7. Describe the hull stresses caused by a sailing boat’s mast and
rigging and the stresses and loads present in the rig.
8. Describe how local stress is caused by discontinuities at hull
openings and local loading.
9. State that the bottom, side shell and upper deck structure are
10. Describe the methods of construction employed to resist the stresses
in 4 – 7 with reference to transverse, longitudinal and combined
systems of framing.
11. Describe the methods of maintaining continuity of strength described
in 8.
12. Draw the mid-section of sail and motor yachts and identify and
describe the function of the components.
13. State the advantages and disadvantages of wood, steel, aluminium
alloy, Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) and other composite systems
used in yacht construction.
14. List the information contained in a General Arrangement Plan.
15. List the information contained in a Fire Plan.
16. List the information contained in a Life Saving Appliance Plan.
17. Recognize the correct symbols used for the bilge system
components.
18. Outline the process of chemical corrosion (e.g. acids and alkalis).
19. Describe the principle of oxidisation of a steel plate.
20. Describe the process of galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals
by explaining the electro-chemical cell.
21. Identify areas prone to galvanic corrosion and describe the methods
of joining and attaching dissimilar metals and fittings.
22. Describe the function of a paint system in the prevention of corrosion
and the importance of its proper maintenance.
23. State the principle of cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes and
impressed current systems.
24. State the role of the Classification Society.
25. State that IACS is the International Association of Classification
Societies.
26. State that each IACS member uses “class notation symbols” to
denote a ship constructed under special survey in compliance with
the society’s rules.
27. Define the terms: freeboard deck, superstructure deck,
superstructure, assigned freeboard, weathertight, watertight
28. State the purpose of the Load Line.
29. Define fresh water allowance FWA as the difference between draft in
Salt and fresh water).
30. State that the FWA = W / (4x TPC salt water).
31. State that the Fresh Water Mark is 1/48 of the Summer Draught
above the summer mark.
32. Outline the importance of reserve buoyancy and the necessity for
maintaining its integrity.
33. State the items which affect the watertight integrity of the ship with
reference to: hatchways and coamings, doorways, side scuttles,
skylights, windows, ventilators and exhausts, air pipes.
34. Describe the routine maintenance to ensure the efficiency of closing
arrangements.
35. State the importance of non-return valves on tank vent and
sounding pipes, especially when fitted low down on a vessel.
36. Describe the importance of water freeing arrangements to the
37. Draw a bilge pumping diagram and describe the purpose of the
following components: Bilge pump, strum box, mud box, screw down
non-return valve, screw down valve, manifold, oily water separator,
overboard discharge.

1.1 BRIEF HISTORY OF SHIPBUILDING
Shipbuilding has evolved over thousands of years. The methods and

materials have changed, but many of the terms used have origins in long
discarded materials and methods of working. Shipbuilding evolved in fits
and starts, with long periods of stagnation and little obvious change, to
periods of enormous change. Until the advent of relatively cheap iron and
later steel, wood was the standard material. Once iron and steel ousted
wood as the material of choice, there was a period of rapid development in
shipbuilding, which saw the transition from sail power to steam power at
sea and from hand power to steam power and mechanization in the
shipbuilding industry. Not much change was evident until around the
nineteen seventies or eighties, when computers became cheap, capable,
and more reliable. Computers have allowed for much more automation of
processes in shipyards and have made possible significant advances in
naval architecture.
Even though the process of building a ship has changed, many of the
original terms remain in use today. Some understanding of how these
terms came into being will assist in making sense of them.
The first advance from the simple expedient of hollowing out a log
involved shaping and attaching several logs or pieces of wood together.
The first method was to use some form of rope and to tie the various parts
together. The next development used wooden pegs or tree nails (wooden
nails or “trennels”). Oak, and elm were the timbers of choice for hulls and
spruce was used for spars. For millennia vessels were built for trade and
war, powered by men on oars and then by sail. There was little significant
advance in the design of ships until around 1500 when they became faster
and more seaworthy. The old “castle at sea” warship gave way to a much
handier vessel armed with relatively heavy guns and able to fight at longer
ranges.
Iron slowly crept into shipbuilding, initially being confined to areas of

local stress. Iron chain plates, eyebolts and reinforcing bands on masts
were among the first uses at sea. Warship development remained static
until the advent of steam at the beginning of the 1800s. Sailing warships,
especially those intended to fight in the line of battle were not required to
be fast but had to be stable gun platforms. Merchant ships discovered the
need for speed and hull design, particularly in North America, evolved into
a much finer and faster form. Sailing rigs too underwent change, both to

economize in manpower and in the quest for greater speed. As iron became
cheaper and as suitable timber became scarcer, more iron fittings were
used. Development followed many courses. There were ships with iron
frames and wooden planking, ships with wooden frames and iron plating.
The real impetus came from war. The battle between the CSS
Virginia and the USS Monitor (1862) showed the clear need for armour.
Thus, the first large scale application of iron in shipbuilding was not for
structural reasons, but for protection. Early ironclads were simply
traditional wooden hulls with iron plates added, externally, as armour.
Steam power, as a means of propulsion, became viable around the same
time, although sails continued to be fitted as a back-up for many years.
Many of the larger sailing ships were provided with steam auxiliary or
“donkey” engines for hauling on the larger ropes and for powering the
windlass. This, and modifications to sailing rigs, enabled reductions in the
crews and thus lower costs.
Methods of Shipbuilding through the Ages
One problem associated with wooden hulls is the lack of longitudinal

strength. As ships grew longer, this became a serious problem. Iron plates
were added to the wooden keel to add strength. The next logical step was
to make the whole keel out of iron. From there, it was a simple step to a
complete iron framework, of keel, frames, and beams.
Building a wooden ship could take several years, especially if the

time required for seasoning the timber was considered. The first step was
to lay the keel on an inclined slip or building way. The stern frame was
then erected, and the frames were added, working from the stern frame
forward. This is why frames are numbered from aft to forward. Any frames
abaft the stern frame are prefixed with a zero and numbered from the
stern frame to aft. The bow or “stem post” was erected and an inner keel
or “keelson” was added. The planking was attached to the frames, each
strake (longitudinal board) was lettered from the keel upwards, and each
plank was numbered from aft to forward. The strake next to the keel is the
garboard strake and the uppermost strake is the sheer strake.

Figure 1.1 Wooden Boat Cross Section
Figure 1.2 Wooden Boat Forward Figure 1.3 Wooden Boat Aft

As wood gave way to iron and steel, methods had to change. They
did slowly and reluctantly, but the terminology remained rooted in the
wooden traditions. One term still in common use is “scantlings”. Originally,
this referred to the dimensions of prepared timber, but today the word is
used to denote strength, as in “scantlings are increased in the fore part of
the ship, because of panting and pounding”.
Building a steel ship followed the tried and tested wooden model. A
line of steel plates was laid on the slipway and the process followed that
used for wooden ships. The method of joining plates was by riveting.
Matching holes were punched in overlapping plates and white-hot rivets
were pushed through the holes and hammered to the required shape. As
the rivet cooled, it contracted and forced the plates together very tightly.
Joints were chiselled or caulked with a caulking hammer to ensure that
they were watertight. Riveting was labour intensive and relatively slow, but
the ships were strong and reasonably flexible.
Partly to simplify the stowage of cargo, the tops of the floors were
plated over, and the ship now had a double bottom. By making this
watertight, the ship had greater strength and could float on the tank top if
the outer plating was damaged. The double bottom space was useful for
tanks, particularly for water ballast and oil fuel. Today, because of the
costs of oil pollution and US regulations introduced after the Exxon Valdez
incident, many ships have internal fuel tanks and use double bottom tanks
only for water ballast.
The next major change in shipbuilding methods was the introduction

of welding. Like the transition from wood to iron and steel, this crept in
slowly. Initially, small fittings were welded and then it was common for
ships to have welded vertical joints or butts on the shell plating, but the
seams between the strakes were riveted. The plates were still riveted to
the frames. The wholesale adoption of welding arrived as a wartime
necessity during WWII. It could take two years to build a riveted ship, but
there was a desperate shortage of merchant ships. Welding saved time. It
involves heating pieces of metal almost to melting point and adding a
metal flux to join the pieces together. Welding is more economical in the
use of metal and produces a strong rigid structure. The original mass-
produced welded ships were a standard design for a riveted ship, but some
early ones broke in half at sea, because they were too rigid and lacked the
flexibility of their riveted sisters. Once the problems were discovered, a
simple redesign produced a solution. In the mid-nineteen-sixties, some

ships were part welded and part riveted, but the advent of the computer
would cause huge changes to shipbuilding.
The use of computers caused major changes in naval architecture

and allowed for automation of machinery in shipyards. The size of ships
increased. Labour costs and the inability to expand their facilities caused
many of the older yards (in Europe) to close and shipbuilding has become
an industry of the Far East. The surviving yards in the traditional ship
building countries tend to be specialized. They concentrate on warships,
passenger ships and yachts.
The opening of new yards paved the way for new methods. The
traditional method of launching a ship has given way to the ship being built
in a dock and floated out. This has a number of advantages. The act of
launching places a great strain on the ship and it is impossible to use a
plumb line or spirit level in an inclined slip. Today, few ships are built from
the keel up. Most are assembled as a series of sub-assemblies or modules.
The modules come from various facilities around the yard and can be
around 500 tonnes in weight. The sub-assembly sheds are often climate-
controlled to reduce corrosion during the assembly process. The building
dock is usually covered and climate controlled. Once the ship is built, she is
floated out of the building dock. Some yards add the superstructure after
floating out. There is no riveting and almost no hand welding today.
Machines controlled by computers carry out welding.

Intentionally Blank

1.2 SHIP CONSTRUCTION TERMINOLOGY
Figure 1.4 Terminology
Most conventional abbreviations are commonly understood, but it is good

practice to write the term in full and add the abbreviation in brackets the
first time the term is used. All subsequent mentions can be the
abbreviation.
Reference is sometimes made to overall dimensions and moulded

dimensions. Broadly speaking the former are the maximum or extreme
dimensions and the latter to the inside of the shell plating.
Length on Load Waterline (LWL): distance along the hull at the level of
the water when floating in the fully loaded condition. This is the proper
length used for stability calculations.
Length Overall (LOA): extreme length of the vessel. Critical for choosing
a berth but not used in stability.
Forward Perpendicular (FP): vertical line (perpendicular to the

waterline) at the point where the forward edge of the stem touches the
water when the vessel is floating at the Summer Load Draft. (Summer
Load Draft will be explained in the Stability Module)

After Perpendicular (AP): vertical line or line perpendicular to the
waterline on the after side of the rudderpost where it touches the water
line when the vessel is floating at her Summer Load Draft. If there is no
rudderpost as is the case with most modern vessels, it is taken as the
centre of the rudderstock.
Length Between Perpendiculars (LBP): distance between the Forward

and After Perpendiculars. Used by Naval Architects. Sometimes used
interchangeably with LWL as there may be very little of the hull aft of the
AP thus making the difference between the two so small as to be ignored.
Amidships: point midway between the forward and aft perpendiculars.

The centre of the load line circle should indicate this position.
Moulded Dimensions: inside measurement, taken from the internal side

of the plates
Beam or Breadth (B): measurement across ship at amidships from the

inside of the plating on each side. Maximum moulded breadth of ship. Of
interest to Masters and used for stability calculations.
Extreme Breadth (EB): maximum beam taken over all extremities.
Moulded Base Line: line which passes through the upper edge of the keel
plate. Vertical moulded dimensions are measured to this line.
Draught Datum Line: line which passes through the lowest point of the
hull and is extended to the forward and after perpendiculars. This is the
line from which the draught marks are measured.
Depth (D): distance from the bottom of the keel to the Freeboard Deck at
the ship’s side.
Depth Extreme: distance from the underside of keel to the upper side of
the deck plating at the vessel’s side.
Draught or Draft (d): distance from the bottom of the keel to the waterline.
Do not confuse D (Depth) and d (draft)!

Freeboard Deck: deck from which the freeboard is measured and below
which all bulkheads and openings are capable of being closed watertight. It
is usually the Uppermost Continuous deck to which all watertight bulkheads
are carried, but there are exceptions. Marked on the hull amidships as the
Deck Line because the Freeboard Deck is not always visible.
Freeboard (FBD): vertical distance from the top edge of the Deck Line
(Freeboard Deck) measured amidships to the waterline.
Assigned Freeboard: distance measured vertically downwards amidships

from the upper edge of the deck line to the upper edge of the related load
line. It is derived from the tabular freeboard and is corrected in accordance
with the Load Line Regulations.
Camber: transverse curvature of the deck which assists in dispersing

water from the deck.
Sheer: upward curvature of the vessel towards the bow and stern. This
helps maintain freeboard when the vessel is pitching.
NOTE: “Camber” and “sheer” are arranged in the design of a vessel so that
water shipped in a heavy sea may freely move across or along the deck
and overboard.
Rise of Floor: deviation on the transverse plane from the horizontal of the
bottom shell plating.
Flare: outward curvature of the bow plating. Apart from streamlining the
bow section, flare increases the breadth of the forecastle head and allows
anchors to drop clear of the bow plating. In a seaway, the buoyancy of the
bow section will increase as it is immersed further into the water. This
increasing buoyancy helps to prevent the bow from diving too deeply into
heavy seas.
Rake: fore and aft slope from the vertical. Bows, masts, and funnels are
often “raked”.
Watertight: door, hatch or other means of closure is said to be watertight

meaning that it will prevent water from passing in either direction.

Weathertight: door, hatch or other means of closure that will prevent
water from entering the ship in the worst sea and weather conditions likely
to be encountered by the ship in service. Water can push in one direction
only.
Superstructure: decked structure upon the freeboard deck, which either

extends from side to side of the ship or where its side plating extends to
within 4% of the breadth of the ship
Superstructure Deck: deck forming the top of the superstructure
Centre Line (℄): horizontal or vertical line indicating the longitudinal plane
cross-section along the length of the vessel through a point at half the
beam. Symbol is a capital letter C superimposed on the capital letter L.
Transverse cross-section: Transverse means across and a transverse

cross-section is in a plane slicing the vessel from port to starboard
perpendicular to the keel. When drawing cross sections or transverses to
show construction, it is normal to show only half the ship, as there is a
reasonable assumption that one side is a mirror image of the other for
most ships. In stability a very simple full transverse cross section is used to
show a vessel upright and inclined.
Longitudinal cross-section: plane slicing the vessel from bow to stern.

Can be used to show construction of the bow or stern.
Figure 1.5 Longitudinal Cross-Section

Figure 1.6 Transverse Cross-Section

TONNAGE
The term tonnage is rather confusing (some would say completely

confusing!) and depends on the measurements used to establish a figure.
Originally the word was spelt “tunnage” and derived from the number of
tuns of wine which a ship could carry. A tun was a wooden barrel
containing 252 imperial gallons. This figure was used to assess the carrying
capacity of the ship, hence the expression “of so many tuns burthen” seen
in some old documents. This figure was also used as a basis for assessing
the cost of chartering a particular ship and as a basis for taxation, first
levied in 1303.
The word later became tonnage and the calculation involved

measuring the internal volume of the ship and dividing the result by 100. A
ton occupied 100 cubic feet in stowage. Unfortunately, there is no
equivalent simple metric formula.
The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of

Ships (ITC) (1969) has seen all tonnage measurements standardized to
the same criteria and in the metric system.
The Convention also changed the terms of Gross Registered

Tonnage (GRT) and Net Registered Tonnage (NRT) to Gross Tonnage
(GT) and Net Tonnage (NT), neither of which has a unit.
It should be noted that the word ‘tons’ is no longer to be applied

since the gross and net tonnages are dimensionless, i.e. there are no
physical units of tonnage. Hence the tonnage will be expressed as, e.g. the
ship has ‘Gross Tonnage of 12,345’ without the addition of any units
Stability information on older vessels may still be given as GRT and

NRT in Imperial units (e.g. feet, long tons) as certain Flag States (such as
the US) still have regulations in force that refer to these values.
Every vessel is now issued with an International Tonnage Certificate

(1969) by Flag State.

Gross Tonnage (GT): is actually a volume. It is the internal volume of the
ship. Gross Tonnage is used in trades where the volume of cargo is the
limiting factor and for safety regulations, safe manning rules as well as
registration fees and port dues.
Net Tonnage (NT): is also a volume. It is calculated by making

deductions from Gross Tonnage. As in Gross Tonnage minus non-revenue
spaces, such as machinery spaces, crew accommodation, storerooms, and
galleys. The deductions are made as a basis for taxation and port dues and
many dodges are taken to reduce the figure! It is considered to be an
indication of her cargo carrying ability.
Displacement (Δ): only tonnage of any use or interest in calculating

stability is Displacement. It is not a volume. The W indicates weight.
Displacement is the only real measure of the weight of the ship. It is the
weight of water displaced in order for the vessel to float. It is always
measured in metric tons of 1,000 kilograms. The Greek Letter Delta (Δ) or
upper case (W) is used for the weight of the ship as a whole, while the
lower case (w) is used to indicate a weight loaded, discharged, or moved
within a ship. This will be covered in depth in Module 2.
Light Displacement: weight of ship when complete and ready for sea but
with no crew, stores, ballast, fuel, fresh water, or cargo on board, but does
include the weight of water in boilers up to working level (a relic of steam
ships).
Load Displacement: weight of vessel and everything on board when she

is floating at her Summer Load Line in saltwater. In other words, the most
the vessel can legally ‘weigh’.
Deadweight (DWT): difference between the displacement at a given

draught and the light displacement.
Total Deadweight (DWT): difference between load displacement of ship

floating in saltwater at her Summer Load Draft and displacement of ship
when floating at her light draught (i.e. Lightship). It is the weight of cargo
that the ship can carry and is used in trades where weight is the limiting
factor.

BASIC SHIP CONSTRUCTION REVIEW
You have now completed Syllabus Topic 1 Ship Construction Terminology.

During your review, you should make sure you can:
a) Define and illustrate the following terms:
 forward perpendicular,
 after perpendicular,
 length between perpendiculars,
 length overall,
 amidships,
 beam, depth, draught,
 freeboard,
 camber, sheer, flare,
 ℄ (Centre line)
 transverse cross section
b) State that gross tonnage (GT) is a measure of the internal volume of

the ship and net tonnage is obtained by making deductions from Gross
Tonnage.
c) Explain the difference between measurement tonnage and displacement

1.3 STRESSES
Figure 1.7 Material Stresses
It is useful to compare the structure of a ship to that of a girder or

beam used in buildings. An “I” girder (above left) has great resistance to
bending stress but could be prone to twisting or torsion stress. A box girder
(above centre), by contrast, has good resistance to both.
Figure 1.8 Material Stresses
If the box girder or beam is supported in the middle (as in diagram

above) the ends will sag. In this condition, the top of the beam is under a
tensile stress and the bottom of the beam is under a compressive stress.
Somewhere between these two stresses, there is a boundary where there
is no stress. This is known as the Neutral Axis. If the beam is supported at
the ends, it will tend to sag in the middle and the opposite stress condition
will result.

A box girder has a flange at the top and bottom which is thicker than
the webs on the side. This is because as the girder is bent the compressive
and tensile stresses are greatest on the outside of the girder. In the same
way a ship has greatly stronger structural elements in the main deck and in
the hull because this is where the greatest stresses will be experienced as
the ship moves in a seaway. The minimum stress will be experience in the
shell plating along what is called the ‘neutral axis’ (although shear forces
could be experienced here).
The terms stress and strain sometimes cause confusion and are
often misapplied. When a load is applied to a piece of material, it is
stressed and may show some deformation. Once the load is removed, the
material is no longer stressed, and it returns to its original shape. If an
excessive load is applied the material will be overstressed and deformed.
When the load is removed, the material will not return to its original shape.
It has been strained and permanently weakened and deformed. The
structure must have sufficient strength and flexibility to survive the various
forces encountered at sea.
The forces affecting ship fall into two categories:
• Hydrostatic forces
• Hydrodynamic forces
“Hydro” for water or fluid; “Static” for stationary; “Dynamic” for

constantly changing
Hydrostatic Forces
A ship when at rest, in still water, will be affected by hydrostatic
forces. These include buoyancy and gravity. There will be water pressure
on the side and bottom plating and local stresses around machinery and
other load points.

Hydrodynamic Forces - when a ship moves in a seaway.
The behaviour of a ship at sea is dependent not only on its design

and structure, but also on its subsurface shape, its beam, the position of
the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy. The experience of the master
and deck officers is essential in operating the ship well within the
operational guidelines to safeguard the lives of crew and passengers but
also to prevent damage to the vessel.
Hydrodynamic forces are either linear or rotational, acting in the

longitudinal, transverse, and vertical axis of the ship.
 Surging, heaving, and swaying are linear forces.

 Rolling, pitching, and yawing are rotational forces.
Figure 1.9 Six Degrees of Freedom
Along the Longitudinal axis:
ROLLING: Involves side-to-side movement of the vessel. The

period of roll is defined as the time taken for a complete cycle from the
horizontal to the left, back to the horizontal then to the right and finally
back to the horizontal.
SURGING: The motion of the sea will accelerate and decelerate the
ship in a forward and backward motion and is linked to swaying motion.

Along the transverse axis:
PITCHING: This is the action of lifting of the bow and lowering at

the stern and vice versa. The pitching angle will depend upon the length of
the vessel and the period of encountering the wave.
SWAYING: The motion of the sea will accelerate and decelerate the
ship in a sideways motion and is linked to surging motion due to the angle
of the wave motion with respect to the course being steered.
Along the vertical axis:
YAWING: This involves the rotation of the vessel about its vertical
axis. This occurs due to the impossibility of steering the vessel on an exact
course, the ship will swing about its intended course which can increase
with certain sea conditions and rudder deflection.
HEAVING: This involves the bodily upwards and downward

acceleration of the ship along its vertical axis. The buoyancy will vary along
the length of the ship in a seaway due to wave crests and troughs, causing
the ship to rise and fall in an oscillating motion.

Figure 1.10 Ship Stresses

HOGGING AND SAGGING
These longitudinal stresses are caused by waves at sea, and by

improper loading.
Hogging occurs when the middle of the ship is supported, and the ends
are not. The deck plating is in tension and the bottom plating is in
compression.
Sagging is the opposite effect. The ship is supported at the ends but not in
the middle. The deck plating is in compression and the bottom plating is in
tension.
Figure 1.11 Hogging and Sagging
When a ship Hogs and Sags in a seaway (particularly when

wavelength matches ship length) compressive and tensile forces are placed
on the upper deck and keel area and shear stresses around the neutral
axis. The worst hogging and sagging stresses are experienced amidships
hence classification societies lay down ‘scantling rules’ which determine the
size of frames and beams where particular stresses such as these are
experienced. The scantlings will be increased amidships.

TRANSVERSE AND RACKING STRESSES
Racking is the effect of a wave high on one side of the ship and low
on the other, trying to distort the shape of the ship transversely. With most
vessels, these are the most severe of the ship stresses. They are usually
caused by the rolling action of the vessel and a vessel which is very ‘stiff’ is
particularly prone to racking stresses. Transverse Watertight Bulkheads,
Tank Side Brackets, and Beam Knees all help to counter this force.
Figure 1.12 Racking stresses
Another type of transverse stress occurs when a vessel is put in dry

dock. The ship is supported not by a body of water, but by shores, blocks
and/ or strops, which can produce local and excessive forces if badly
placed. In this case, the stresses are contained also by the structure
supporting the shell plating, namely the stringers and frames of the vessel.
Care is taken in docking to ensure that the joists are positioned over a
frame to prevent the shell plating being damaged.
SAILING VESSEL STRESSES
Obviously with a sailing boat the mast will bear a great deal of stress
when the vessel is sailing. This stress has to be borne by the vessel’s
structure. Where the mast is seated will often be a reinforced frame, called
a ring frame, to help transfer the sailing stresses. The shrouds either side
of the mast will also attach to this ring frame and the fore and after stays
will be connected to the keel at the bow and stern. Thus, the mast is
supported by the strongest single structural elements in the vessel. On
smaller vessels, the mast will be seated on the cabin roof but on larger
vessels it will pass through the superstructure and the foot will be seated
directly onto the keel.
LOCAL STRESSES
In addition to these generalised longitudinal and transverse stresses,

the movement of the vessel through the water also places more localised
stresses on the structure. These stresses include Panting, Pounding,
Vibration, and those caused by discontinuities and Shear Forces.
Pounding occurs when the bow lifts out of the water and slams back
down on the water. The result is a very severe impact which often causes a
loud bang followed by characteristic shuddering as the stresses are
transferred through the hull. It can cause severe damage to the ship and is
more common on bluff bowed ships than those with fine lines. It is usually
caused by excessive speed in bad weather and can be cured by adjusting
speed or course. The pounding region is up to 30% of the length of the
ship abaft the bow.
Figure 1.13 Pounding
In the ‘pounding zone’, which will vary from ship to ship, the vessel
is strengthened with ‘increased scantlings’. This means that size and
frequency of structural elements will be enhanced. On larger ships ‘plate
floors’ or metal plating will be inserted between frames and longitudinals to
create a honeycomb effect which means that the stresses are passed more
evenly around the ship.

Panting is the varying force exerted on the shell plating, especially
around the bow of the ship as it pitches. If the bow rises out of the water
the external water pressure will reduce. When the bow dips into the sea,
the external water pressure will increase.
Figure 1.14 Panting
This stress is increased by the action of pushing the ship forward in

to the sea. If it becomes excessive, a reduction of speed is indicated. It is
associated with pounding. Additional strengthening is provided in the area
affected (see Figure 10 below) and the scantlings are increased.
With age this constant movement of the shell plating causes it to

lose its elasticity and the frames and stringers start to become visible. This
effect can be observed along most of the length of the vessel but is most
marked where there is the least shell plate support, away from the bow
and stern areas.

Figure 1.15 Panting Arrangements

Plan View Transverse Profile
Figure 1.16 Panting Arrangements

SHEAR FORCES
Shear forces occur when an upward force is adjacent to a downward

force. The compartments on either side of an engine room may have
positive buoyancy, but the weight of the engines may cause negative
buoyancy in that compartment. Alternatively, one cargo hold may be full
and the adjacent holds empty.
Figure 1.17 Shear Forces
LOCAL STRESSES DUE TO VIBRATION AND DISCONTINUITY
Local Stresses occur where there is vibration, such as around

propeller shafts, and where a piece of machinery or equipment such as a
mast, crane, windlass, or fairlead exerts a local load. Additional supports
and an increase in plating thickness are normally used. Over time, vibration
will cause metal fatigue and cracking will result, especially along welds.
This is particularly true for aluminium.
Local stresses can also occur where there is a discontinuity. Openings

such as hatchways or doorways all require extra stiffening. Naval architects
attempt to design ships without sharp corners in the sheet of metal plating
used to construct the vessel. If windows, for example, were square on a ship,
then as the vessel flexes in a seaway the stresses passing through the plate
would tend to focus on the corners of the window.

It is for this reason that doors, hatches, and scuttles are either round
or have curved corners. ‘Hard spots’ are areas of a metal plate which have a
rigid support behind. For example, if there were not enough frames in a
vessel then the transfer of stresses from one area of the vessel to another
would be focused at the point of reinforcement of the frame. Cracking would
occur at this point. Hard spots can be reduced, either by making the
reinforcing structure more flexible or by increasing the number of
reinforcements, thus making the whole structure stronger and providing
more elements in to bear the stresses.
Computer Simulation of a yacht’s hull plating

showing increased stress, (in red), caused by
non-circular openings).
Figure 1.18 Stress on Hull Plating
Where there is local stiffening, for example under machinery, the

additional strengthening does not stop abruptly, but gradually. There are no
sudden changes of strength.
If a crack is advancing across a steel plate due to tension, the short-

term way to stop it is to drill a hole at the end of the crack to spread the
load. Obviously, the cause of the crack must be established, and a
permanent solution found.

Figure 1.19 Local Stresses
VESSEL STRESSES REVIEW
You have now completed Syllabus Topic 2. Longitudinal, transverse, and local
stresses due to static and dynamic loading.
a) Describe the causes of longitudinal stresses with reference to hogging

and sagging.
b) Outline the effects of dynamic stresses with reference to wave action
and loading.
c) Describe how local stresses arise due to panting, pounding, vibration.
d) Describe the hull stresses caused by a sailing boat’s mast and rigging
and the stresses and loads present in the rig.
e) Describe how local stress is caused by discontinuities at hull openings
and local loading.
f) Outline the methods of maintaining continuity of strength described in
(e) above.

1.4 METHODS OF YACHT CONSTRUCTION
The modular assembly of modern ships does not illustrate the basic
principles as clearly as the traditional methods, where each component was
added to the whole in a rigid order as follows:
a) The keel is the backbone of the ship and is laid first. The bottom, side
shell and upper deck structure are the important strength members
that follow. Initially, the methods were those of the wooden ship, with
good transverse strength.
b) To improve the longitudinal strength, a method of using longitudinal

framing was developed. Naval architects soon discovered that the best
method was to combine the two systems for both longitudinal and
transverse strength.
c) The keel is a series of plates welded together along the length of the
ship. It would be free to bend up and down and to prevent this vertical
plates are welded to the keel plate. This is the centre girder.
d) Some large ships have two centre girders. The space between is used
as a pipe duct. To stiffen the top or free edge of the centre girder, an
inner keel plate, sometimes still called a keelson is laid. The keel
assembly has now become a very strong I girder.
e) Transverse vertical plates are attached to the keel. These are called
floors and to these the frames are attached via tank side brackets.
f) To provide additional longitudinal strength, additional longitudinal side

girders are attached to the floors.
g) The bottom plating is welded to the floors and side girders.
h) To save weight without losing strength and to provide access for tank
inspections and maintenance, lightening holes are cut on the neutral
axis of the floors and side girders.
i) Transverse bulkheads are placed as required for transverse strength,

counteracting racking stresses and for watertight integrity. These are
the strongest transverse strength members.

j) The floodable length of each compartment usually determines the
spacing of watertight bulkheads. For most ships, a calculation is made
to determine the sinkage or loss of freeboard, which would occur if two
adjacent compartments were flooded. The bulkheads are spaced to
ensure that the freeboard deck always remains above the new
waterline in the flooded condition.
k) The frames are attached to the tank side brackets and the side plating
is welded to the frames.
l) Decks are added as necessary and supported by beams.
m) Beams are attached to the frames via beam knees.
n) Upper deck and bottom plating is usually thicker than that for
intermediate decks.
o) The floors, frames and deck beams make a complete circle of

strength/continuity.
p) Where this circle is broken for any reason, at hatchways or shipside

doors, the structure is weakened, and this loss of strength must be
compensated. Additional stiffeners are provided in the form of
coamings, girders and thickened plating or insert plates.
q) If additional longitudinal strength is needed on the sides of the ship

and a deck is not practical, longitudinal girders called stringers are
fitted. Vertically pillars provide a method of transferring the load of
decks and cargo carried down to the bottom of the vessel where
buoyancy supports it. These would be very prevalent in tradition
general cargo ships.
You need to know all the elements of Figure 1.25.

The diagrams before that are just to help you get your head around the
construction.

Figure 1.20 Keel Cross-Section

Figure 1.21 Side Shell

Figure 1.22 Cross-Section

Figure 1.23 Double Bottom Construction

Figure 1.24 Web Frame

HULL SHELL PLATING
The outer shell plating is a very important structural element. Plates

and seals the whole structure, connecting together all the components.
Provides watertight unit, resistance to water pressure and contributes to
continuity of longitudinal strength and continuity of stress
flow. Certain areas of the shell plating are enhanced to form ‘strakes’. The
‘garboard strakes’ are thickened strips of shell plating running either side of
the keel for the length of the vessel. The ‘sheer strakes’ run along the top of
the shell plating where it meets the deck plating and, again, they run the
whole length of the vessel. Some vessels have ‘bilge strakes’ which run along
the bilges in the same way.
WATERTIGHT BULKHEADS
There are three basic types of bulkhead, watertight, non-watertight

and tank bulkheads.
Different types of bulkheads are designed to carry out different functions.
The watertight bulkhead functions in several ways:

 They divide the ship into watertight compartments protecting the
reserve of buoyancy in the event of the hull being breached. The
number of compartments is governed by regulation and type of vessel.
 Cargo separation in merchant ships
 Bulkheads restrict the spread of fire.
 Increased transverse strength, in effect they act like ends of a box.
 Longitudinal deck girders are supported by transverse watertight
bulkheads which act as pillars
TRANSVERSE BULKHEAD is full width transverse partition providing

transverse strength, resistance to racking, watertight subdivision and fire
containment.

Figure 1.25 Important Construction Members

CENTRE GIRDER or KEEL is the ‘back-bone’ of longitudinal strength.
PLATE FLOOR runs transversally across bottom of framing system.
SIDE GIRDERS or INTERCOSTAL GIRDERS run longitudinally giving

additional longitudinal strength.
SIDE FRAMES are part of transverse framing, connecting deck to the

bottom plate floor, supports the deck and resistance to transverse stresses.
BEAM KNEE connects and supports joint between transverse deck beam and
side frame. Provides resistance to racking.
LONGITUDINAL DECK GIRDER supports the deck, gives longitudinal

strength and resistance to hogging and sagging.
TRANSVERSE DECK BEAM supports the deck, connects together and

spreads loading to side frames.
PILLAR or STANCHION supports the deck or local loadings.

TANK SIDE BRACKET connects and supports joint between side frames and
plate floor. Provides resistance to racking stress.
STRINGER is a longitudinal support to increase panel stiffness.
Newbuild vessels will often have company representatives and

Classification Society surveyors monitoring the construction throughout. They
will be looking at all aspects of the build including that the design is being
followed correctly, that all the rules and regulations are being complied with,
and that all the specifications are being met.
Is the steel of the right grade and has it been prepared and maintained
correctly, is the welding of a high standard, is the paint of acceptable quality
and being applied properly?
After launching, the ship will be taken to a fitting out berth and
prepared for sea trials.
On satisfactory completion, the owner will take delivery of the ship.

SHIPBUILDING MATERIALS
Over the years, many materials have been used for ship construction,
including concrete, plywood, and various composite plastics. The choice of a
suitable material for the construction of hulls and superstructure depends
upon the ship type, and dimensions. Other considerations include owner’s
choice, material costs, established shipyards, and skilled labour.
The SOLAS Convention governs much of the material used in ships.

Interior finishes must be fire resistant and finishes such as paint must meet
safety standards.
WOOD
Wood is the traditional ship building material. Timber is the only

natural resource that can be replaced; good forestry management will ensure
a long-term supply of the material.
Hardwoods were the timbers of choice as they were less prone to

rotting than softwoods, but spars tended to be softwoods, as they had to be
relatively light and flexible.
‘Hard’ and ‘Soft’ does not relate to surface strength, density, or what
we would consider as the “hardness” of the wood. It defines the botanical
species of the tree family. In general hardwood trees are of the deciduous
type, they have broad leaves that shed in the winter. Oak, Ash, Elm and
Birch are hardwoods. Softwoods have long spiky leaves, which remain on the
tree all year. Larch, Fir, Pitch Pine are typical of these. Some hardwoods such
as Balsa are very soft whilst Pitch Pine, considered a strong, relatively hard,
and a first-class boat building timber, is a softwood.

Wood is still in common use throughout the world but of all the great
variety of wood species, very few are used in the boat building industry.
Availability of suitable wood is sufficient quantity has an influence on their
use. In the Far East Teak is commonly used. In Europe the Oak, Larch and
Fir are generally used. (The cost of Teak would be excessive).
Today, even teak decks are becoming rare, being replaced by

hardwearing composite materials, or are simply painted.
Wood is generally used for appearance and aesthetic appeal. In

passenger ships, and especially yachts, the appearance is considered worth
the cost. In commercial cargo ships, there is very little wood.
Maintenance of a wooden boat should not be greater than is required

in a boat built of other materials provided it receives the same amount of
care, both during construction and service.
The construction rules require all timber shall be knot free reasonably
seasoned, free from sap wood, shakes, large knots, and any other defects.
All timber that is inaccessible after completion should be treated with an
approved wood preservative.
Fastenings for Wood:
 All bolts made of rolled mild steel must be galvanised. If the end is cut
the exposed metal should be coated with zinc paint.
 Spikes used for planking are to be galvanised mild steel or in smaller
boats, copper.
Plywood
Plywood is a material used to cover large areas and can accept some
bending. It must be an approved grade (BS 1088) and manufactured to a
rigid specification. In most vessels plywood is used for the accommodation
and superstructure. After fitting the timber must be impregnated with a
suitable preservative to assist in deterioration. In vessels where weight is
crucial, such as high-speed craft, the usual material was special plywood,
which was hot moulded to the required shape. This construction was used for
most fast torpedo and gunboats, but is not much used today, having been
replaced by aluminium and glass fibre.

Wood Decay
Decay in timber from fungal infection is usually from:

 Warmth
 Air
 Moisture
 Food
Fungi growths are usually restricted to areas of the boat where

condensation or leaks evaporate because of poor or non-existent ventilation.
Fungal growth will not develop in the presence of salt water, which in its self
is a fungicide. Since the factors responsible for fungal decay are the use of
timber containing a high proportion of sapwood, warm climate, fresh water,
and dead air spaces.
The areas of the structure at most risk are:
 Behind linings in the accommodation

 Under decks where rainwater can leak through poorly maintained
caulking
 Damaged parts of the structure
The reduction in decay can be reduced by the following:
 Use hardwood of durable timber in all high-risk areas

 Use timber that is reasonably seasoned and not split or infected
 Provide plenty of ventilation in all parts of the hull structure
 Impregnate the timber with a suitable preservative during construction
As well as biological decay, timber can be subjected to the effects of

chemical decay caused by the corrosion of metal fastenings, which will stain
and soften timbers. Galvanic corrosion caused by the electro-chemical effects
of dissimilar metals in contact with seawater will degrade the timber which
will become spongy and soft reducing the integrity of the fastenings. This
timber will have to be replaced and the anodes renewed. Zinc coated spikes
will also be affected leading to severe corrosion of the spikes. Rot may also
be detected underneath metal chafing bars and metal, or plastic sheeting
fitted to protect the hull planking from damage.

Marine Life (Borers)
There are two types of marine borers:

 Shipworm (Mollusc, Teredo)
 Gribble (Crustacean, Limnoria)
These forms of marine life are found in temperate waters, other

species occur in tropical waters. Prevention of attack by marine borers can be
achieved by pressure impregnation of the timber with a suitable preservative
and using a timber that is resistant to attack.
Wood – Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: will float, strength, appearance, relatively easy to work and

the necessary boat building skills are available
Disadvantages: likely to rot, can burn, expensive, poor radar reflector.

STEEL
Steel has replaced wood in all large vessels. It is widely available and
relatively cheap. Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, with the carbon content
varying between 0.1% and 1.8% in some hardened steels. The production of
all steels starts with the smelting of iron ore in a blast furnace to make pig
iron. Molten iron is drawn off at intervals and run into sand or metal moulds;
the resultant pig iron contains 92% to 96% iron the remainder being
impurities of carbon, silicon, manganese sulphur and phosphorus. These
impurities are removed by subsequent processing to produce steel.
The science of metallurgy has made great advances in recent years.

This has improved the consistency and quality of the steel used in
shipbuilding and allowed for a reduction in the thickness of material, without
reducing strength. This allows for less weight and so greater carrying
capacity.
Not all steel is the same. Some steels are harder than others are, and
some have greater tensile strength. Different steels may be used in different
parts of the ship, but all steel used in welding must have a good resistance to
cracking or “high notch resistance”.
The properties of steel can be changed by heat treatment; this brings

about a change in the mechanical properties of the steel. When a ship is to
be classed by say Lloyd’s Register, the steel for its construction must be
produced by an approved steel manufacturer, with all steel requiring to be
tested in the presence of a surveyor. Random samples are taken and
subjected to a tensile test and an impact test. All finished steel is stamped
with the Classification Societies brand to indicate it meets the required
specification.
The Classification Societies specify five different grades of steel used in

the construction of ships. They are graded as A, B, C, D, and E. Grades A and
B are mild steel, with Grade B being of a higher quality. C, D and E are
tougher grades with higher notch characteristics.

Steels having a higher grade are usually used for the higher stressed regions
of ships. Use of the high tensile steels allows a reduction in ‘Rule’ thickness in
the scantlings of bottom and deck plating and the framing fitted over the
middle 40% of the vessel’s length. The result is saving of weight, with the
additional advantage of higher tensile steel retaining its strength at low
temperatures.
Complicated Shapes (Castings and Forging)
If a complicated shape is required and fabrication is not an effective

method then a mould is made to the required shape. This is carried out by
pouring molten steel into the mould and allowed to solidify. After removal
from the mould the casting is heat treated, usually by annealing.
Such items manufactured by this process include stern frames, which

may be cast in two sections and then welded together.

Forging is an alternative method of shaping steel by heating it to a
plastic state and then squeezing or hammering into the required shape. After
working the forging into the required shape, the item is then heat treated to
remove the effects of erratic cooling and working stress. On large forgings
heat treatment may be carried out several times.
New protective paints that remain in place during welding have

reduced the likelihood of rusting.
If repairs are required during the life of the ship, replacement

steelwork must be of the same grade and quality. Repairs to the steel work
of a vessel can involve complete replacement of a plate or in the case of
smaller areas the damaged area can be cut away to the good steel and then
an “insert plate” welded into the hole.
Steel – Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: relatively strong, widely available, easy to work, cheap, good

radar reflector.
Disadvantages: liable to corrosion, relatively heavy, conducts heat.

ALUMINIUM ALLOY
Aluminium is derived from the ore, bauxite, and is heat-treated,

usually in an electric furnace, to remove all impurities. The process requires a
considerable amount of electricity and therefore can be very costly. When
aluminium is produced, it is cast into ingots ready for rolling into plates or
extruded into sections. Pure Aluminium is a soft pliable metal, which lacks
strength making it unsuitable for shipbuilding. To harden it and to give
tensile strength, various alloys are added. In non-heat-treated alloys the
principle alloying agent is magnesium, for heat treated alloys magnesium and
silicon are used. The most important is magnesium, which produces an
aluminium alloy with good rigidity and a high strength to weight ratio. It is
used extensively in aircraft structures.
A piece of aluminium has two-thirds the strength of an equivalent

sized piece of steel, but only one-third the weight.
The joining of aluminium structures can be carried out either by

riveting or more commonly by welding techniques. Aluminium with a high
magnesium content is likely to burn fiercely if sufficient heat is applied to
start a fire. It can be very difficult to extinguish. For this reason, it is difficult
to weld aluminium and all welding must be carried out using an inert gas
shield to prevent oxygen being exposed to the hot metal. Argon is usually
used.

Aluminium does react with oxygen to form a coating of aluminium
oxide, but unlike steel, is stable and if the coating is not disturbed, no further
corrosion takes place.
It is normal to paint aluminium, using a zinc chromate primer. Lead

based primers must never be used. Scaling hammers are not necessary on
aluminium and should never be used as it is a soft metal and will suffer
pitting. Even wire brushing should be carried out with care.
In a high-speed or planing vessel, where weight is crucial, aluminium

would be preferred to steel, because of the high strength to weight ratio, but
in a conventional displacement vessel, the additional cost might not be
justified.
A vessel fitted with an aluminium superstructure, apart from a

reduction in the displacement will have a reduction in the height of the centre
of gravity. Should the vessels stability be critical this lowering of the centre
of gravity ‘G’ will give the vessel a larger metacentric height in the initial
condition.
A serious disadvantage with using aluminium is the effect of galvanic

action. This occurs when dissimilar metals are in contact in the presence of
an electrolyte. In this case salt water, steel and aluminium are far apart in
the galvanic series so rapid corrosion will take place. To prevent contact all
steel and aluminium connections must be insulated.
Another disadvantage to be considered is that aluminium has a low

melting point. Therefore, fire protection is a more critical consideration in
ships using aluminium alloys for the superstructure than steel ships. A
serious fire could cause the structure to collapse and allow molten metal to
run down into the lower spaces and causing the fire to spread. In passenger
vessels, the insulation of the bulkheads will have to be equivalent to the
insulation of a steel bulkhead.
Care must be taken during boundary cooling as a high-pressure water

jet can go straight through it when hot.

Aluminium Sections
Aluminium alloys used in ship construction are found to be too soft to

roll successfully in section form and are therefore produced by extrusion i.e.
forcing the metal through a suitably shaped die. This becomes an advantage
since the dies are relatively cheap to produce, allowing numerous shapes of
section to be made. Thus, there are few standard sections, but the
aluminium companies are prepared to extrude any feasible forms of sections
which the shipbuilder requires in reasonable quantities
Aluminium Alloys – Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: high strength to weight ratio, does not corrode as readily as

steel, good radar reflector.
Disadvantages: relatively high cost, not all shipyards have the equipment
or skills required.

FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTICS
Glass Fibre, Glass Reinforced Plastics and Fiberglass, Carbon Fibre and
other composite materials consist of two parts: complex resins and
reinforcement mats of various fibres.
Resins used in the construction of boats is a thermosetting polyester

and epoxy compound. The curing reaction of the polyester resin is started by
adding a catalyst as either a liquid or a paste in a proportion of 1% to 2% to
the resin. Adding more than the recommended amount will increase the heat
generated during curing (exothermic) which will destroy the resin and
reducing the resin to a brittle brown crystal structure. GRP resins are
inflammable and will support combustion in a similar way to plywood. Fire
retardant resins are available but are more costly. All resins will generate
toxic fumes in the presence of a fire.
To improve the surface finish and create resistance to abrasion a

compounded outer surface resin containing fillers is used (colour pigments
can be added). The reinforcing material known as glass cloth is usually
alumina borosilicate, filaments are produced in strands which can then be
made up into a variety of matting or woven roving. The most economical use
of the material is by a production run. Single one-off hulls are expensive
because of the work involved in producing the plug from which the mould
must be made. Both the plug and the mould would cost considerably more
than the completed hull.
Typical laminates are of the single skin lay-up, combined with some
form of framing system in all but very small boats. The lay-up of a hull starts
with polishing the mould and applying a release agent, this must be done
with great care to prevent the finished hull from sticking to the mould. The
‘Gel Coat’ is applied and allowed to partially cure for about 1 hour followed by
the required number of laminates of the correct type and weight. After fully
curing the boat is removed from the mould ready for outfitting.
The mats are placed over moulds and the resin is poured over them.
This can be done many times, resulting in a multi-layered structure. The care
with which the laying and pouring is carried out is crucial to the ultimate
strength and longevity.
This process is now carried out in very clean and well vented buildings.
The resins contain carcinogens and the fibre particles can cause lung disease.

Most small yards use hand lay-up methods, in some yards using spray
techniques reduces production time.
Most will resist fire to a limited degree, but once ignited will burn
intensely and give off highly toxic gasses.
Certain specialized carbon fibres are used in masts and spars.
Generally, FRP is lighter and stronger than steel, but often

incorporates embedded steel or aluminium to provide additional strength.
FRP is not indestructible it can be damaged in the same way as any

other boat building material. Areas of the hull that are liable to be damaged
by working the gear must be protected by the use of timber sheathing or
metal headings. GRP as a material will not require painting; most colour
pigments are available but below the waterline anti-fouling is recommended
to prevent growth roughening the surface.
Impact damage may cause delamination and the actual damage may
be some distance from the site of the impact. Repairs always add weight as
additional material is required.
Faults can occur in GRP hulls such as dry patches, cracking or

shrinking, which are usually found during manufacture and can be corrected.
Blistering can occur after the boat has been in service for some time, this will
indicate that there is de-lamination in the moulding and that air and solvent
has been trapped in the lay-up. In most cases cutting out the affected areas
and repairing as necessary can cure blistering. If the blistering is only in the
gel coat it can be sanded back and filled.

GRP Osmosis
Osmosis is a natural phenomenon. It occurs in all living plants. It

causes groundwater to rise from the roots to the leaves, where it
evaporates. (This phenomenon is the basis for reverse osmosis fresh water
making equipment.)
This also occurs in GRP, since water molecules are small enough to
pass through the gaps between the atoms of the resins forming the material.
The permeability of the GRP can be reduced by using better quality

resins and by careful attention to cleanliness during the laying process, to
ensure that no contaminants or foreign bodies are present. The use of
epoxies and two-part polyurethane coatings will reduce this, but water may
pass through the structure, as long as there is an imbalance of water
pressure on either side of the material.
This process is so slow that any water present will evaporate and will
not be noticed, as long as there is reasonable ventilation. The water passing
through the material may encounter impurities and chemically combine with
them to start the blistering process.
In a poorly constructed hull, using dirty or poor-quality materials, this

process cans start almost immediately, with the results of obvious blistering
and delamination.
The combination of water and the impurities will start the process of
breaking down the laminate. One by-product of this process is acetic acid,
hence the characteristic smell of vinegar associated with this process.
Most of the products of the material breakdown are hydroscopic. They
attract more water and so accelerate the process.
As it continues, the by-products build up, further accelerating the

process eventually causing mechanical damage to the laminate by hydraulic
pressure. This damage is the blister, which is the visual evidence of osmosis.
The problem has been much reduced by the improvement in materials and
processes.

Figure 1.26 GRP Osmosis
FRP – Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages: high strength to weight ratio, non-corrosive, low cost if moulds

are used multiple times
Disadvantages: blistering and delamination, once on fire will burn intensely

giving off toxic fumes, poor radar reflector

YACHT CONSTRUCTION REVIEW
You have now completed Syllabus Topic 3: Methods of yacht construction.

a) State that the bottom, side shell and upper deck structure are
b) Describe the methods of construction employed to resist the stresses

in Topic 2a to 2d with reference to transverse, longitudinal and
combined systems of framing.
c) Draw the mid-section of sail and motor yachts and identify and
describe the function of the following components:
 centre girder
 side girders
 stringers
 transverse bulkheads
 transverse frames
 beams
 beam knees
 floors
 pillars
 coamings
 insert plates
d) State the advantages and disadvantages of the following materials

when used in yacht construction:
 wood
 steel
 aluminium alloy
 Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) and other composite systems

1.5 PLANS NORMALLY CARRIED ON BOARD
A naval architect, whose designs will be governed by regulations, such

as SOLAS and the International Convention on Load Lines, as well as by the
owner’s requirements, initially prepares plans for a ship.
In the case of yachts, to be registered under a “Red Ensign”, the

relevant MCA Code of Practice for Yachts (LYC and Small Boat Codes) would
affect the design.
The plans provided to the ship are as required by the owner, but must
include all stability data, emergency plans, docking plans and General
Arrangements (GA). There may also be wiring and piping plans, detail plans
of mooring arrangements and rigging plans.
The Load Line Convention requires that owners supply masters of ships
with stability data, which must be in a language and format readily
understood by the officers.
Plans generally carried onboard include:

 General Arrangement Plan
 Fire and Emergency Plan (usually a modified GA)
 Docking plans (showing frames and hull fittings)
 Shell Expansion Plan
 Tank arrangements
 Wiring diagrams
 Bilge pumping systems
 Cooling systems
 Engine room technical drawings
Some ships are well provided, while others are not. It is always a good
idea to have copies of plans available for refits and dry-docking. The
originals should never leave the ship.

GENERAL ARRANGEMENT PLANS
The General Arrangement (GA) plan includes:

 ship particulars
 table of the more important dimensions (length, beam, depth,
draught, air draught etc.)
 scale to which it is drawn
 full-length profile section
 transverse section
 plan views of each deck and tank, including locations of cabins, bridge,
engine room, passageways, and all compartments
 locations of watertight bulkheads
 locations of watertight doors
 locations of frames
 access points to the ship
 locations of emergency exits
 the Fire main
It is usually very detailed, showing even minor items such as tables,

chairs, and lockers.
The individual frame numbers are shown, with bulkheads, doors, and
other openings.
Transverse plans are usually shown for the transverse bulkheads.

Transverses at intermediate frame spaces may be shown if required.

Figure 1.27 General Arrangement Plan
FIRE PLANS
SOLAS Chapter II-2 Regulation 15 requires that the Fire Fighting

Plan be permanently exhibited for the guidance of ship’s officers. The Large
Yacht Code lays out the requirements in Chapter 14:
Fire Control Plan(s)

14.5 Fire Control Plan(s)
(1) A fire control (general arrangement) plan(s) shall be permanently
exhibited for the guidance of the Master and crew of the vessel. The content
of the plan(s) shall adequately show and describe the principal fire
prevention and protection equipment and materials. As far as practical,
symbols used on the plans shall comply with a recognised international
standard. The fire control plan may be a combined Fire and Safety Plan,
which shall show the positions of stowage of the life-saving and fire
appliances.
(2) For each deck, the plan(s) shall show the position of control stations;
sections of the vessel which are enclosed respectively by "A" class divisions
and "B" class divisions; location of flammable liquid storage (see section
14.1.); particulars of and locations of fire alarms, fire detection systems,
sprinkler installations, fixed and portable fire extinguishing appliances;
fireman's outfit(s); means of access and emergency escapes for
compartments and decks; locations and means of control of systems and
openings which shall be closed down in a fire emergency.
(3) The plan(s) required by 14.5(1) shall be kept up to date. Updating

alterations shall be applied to all copies of the plan(s) without delay. Each
plan shall include a list of alterations and the date on which each alteration
was applied.
(4) A duplicate set of the plan(s) shall be permanently stored in a

prominently marked weathertight enclosure readily accessible to assist non-
vessel fire-fighting personnel who may board the vessel in a fire emergency.
(5) Instructions valid to the maintenance and operation of all the equipment
and installations onboard for the fighting and containment of fire shall be
kept in one document holder, readily available in an accessible location. For
yachts over 500GT, a Fire Training Manual, as required by SOLAS II-2/15
shall be provided.

Figure 1.28 Fire Plan
The Fire and Emergency Plan is usually a GA plan modified to show the
locations of:
 all fire extinguishers

 all fixed installation and their operating points (e.g. engine room,
galley)
 muster stations
 fire and emergency lockers containing BA sets and fire kit and
equipment.
 hydrants and hoses
 fire pumps
 emergency fire pumps
 sprinklers/water fog jets
 hazards such as jet ski petrol stowage, acetylene/butane /propane gas
cylinders, fuel tanks, and fuel pipes

LIFE-SAVING APPLIANCE (LSA) PLANS
Figure 1.29 Combination Fire Control and Lifesaving Plan

(Source A.R.S. Co)
SOLAS Chapter III requires that information on Life-Saving Appliances

(LSA) is provided in a plan. This would include:
 Throw over liferafts

 Davit launched liferafts (if carried)
 Lifeboats (if carried)
 Lifejackets
 Reserve Lifejacket stowage on the upper deck
 Emergency escape BA (if carried)
 Medical equipment
 Life rings and lights/MOB markers.
 Muster stations
 Emersion suits
 EPIRB & SART
 Emergency radio
 Flares/smokes
 Grab bag (if used)
 Boarding positions to liferafts etc. for abandoning ship.

SAFETY PLANS
SOLAS Chapter II-1 requires that damage control information be

“permanently exhibited or readily available on the navigation bridge for the
guidance of the Officer in charge of the ship … “
There may be separate Damage Control (flooding), Evacuation and

Fire Plans, but in many ships, these functions are all on the same “Safety
Plan”. This is a simplified General Arrangement, with much of the intricate
detail suppressed.
Standard colour codes are used:

 white on red for fire
 white on green for evacuation
 black on yellow for hazards
 white on blue for mandatory use of safety equipment.
The locations of the main fire zones, fire doors, watertight doors,
firefighting equipment, emergency escapes and escape routes and life-saving
appliances are shown.
Standard symbols are used, but a key is also on the plan.
As with other plans the Safety Plans are approved by the Flag State
and should not be altered without authority from a flag state surveyor.
RIGGING PLANS
Rigging Plans show the masts and spars as well as every item of
standing and running rigging.
On a sailing vessel, these plans may be very involved and complex.

They also incorporate a sail loading diagram, with the centre of effort of each
sail and the heeling moment generated by each sail at various wind velocities
and angles and various reef configurations.
On a larger ship, this data is normally in the form of tables attached to

the rigging plan.
On a traditional cargo ship, the rigging could be nearly as involved as

in a sailing vessel, with guys topping lifts and runners for each derrick.

In a modern motor yacht, there might be no standing rigging and the
running rigging might consist of nothing more than a few halyards. All blocks,
clamps and sheaves are shown, together with the respective Safe Working
Load (SWL).
PLANS NORMALLY CARRIED ON BOARD REVIEW
You have now completed Topic 4: Plans normally carried on board.

a) List the information contained in a General Arrangement Plan.
b) List the information contained in a Fire Plan.
c) List the information contained in a Life Saving Appliance Plan.
Module 1.9 covers the Bilge Pumping System Plan and components.

1.6 THE CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF CORROSION
OXIDATION
Some metals react with the oxygen in the air, to produce a new
substance called an oxide. It is the oxide of steel that we call “rust”. The rate
the metal reacts with oxygen will vary from metal to metal.
Metals like Aluminium form oxides rapidly. However, the oxide is

extremely tough and bonds strongly onto the aluminium surface. This
prevents any further contact with oxygen, thus preventing further corrosion,
hence, the corrosion resistance property of Aluminium.
Rust, the oxide of steel, does not protect the metal. Therefore, it
needs to be protected from oxygen by an external coat such as paint.
CHEMICAL CORROSION
Chemical corrosion is the attack of metals by solutions of either acid or

alkaline. They chemically combine with the metal to form entirely new
substances. Chemical attack is usually caused by spillage of liquids such as
battery acids, galley waste, or toilet refuses. The metal or alloy under attack
can be considered as being dissolved and changed.
GALVANIC CORROSION
Galvanic or electrolytic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar metals are

immersed in an electrolyte, which is a solution, which conducts electricity.
Such a cell may be formed when iron and copper plates are connected
electrically and immersed in a solution of sodium chloride, a form of salt.
The iron plate will corrode, and a deposit will be formed on the copper plate.
An electric current will flow between the plates and a galvanic cell has been
formed. Iron is the anode and copper is the cathode. By convention,
an electrical current flows from the anode (+) to the cathode (-). Ions flow
from the anode to the cathode, resulting in the decay of the anode and
the build- up on the cathode. This is a primitive form of cell and a battery is
a number of cells grouped together.

Figure 1.30 Figure Galvanic Cell
All metals have a different electrical potential. Metals are graded on the
“Galvanic Scale”. “Noble” means that they will be the cathode and “Ignoble”
means that they will be the anode. Gold and silver are at the top, while
magnesium and zinc are at the bottom. The further apart the two metals are
on the scale, the greater the reaction between them.
Galvanic Scale
Cathode / Noble / Builds Up Stainless Steel

Bronze
Copper
Mill scale Tin,
Lead Iron,
Steel
Aluminium
Zinc
Anode / Ignoble / Corrodes Magnesium

Consider two metals located apart in the Galvanic Series (e.g. iron and
copper). Placed together in an electrolyte (e.g. sea water) and connected
together as shown above. From the table we note that, iron will be the anode
and copper will be the cathode. Due to the potential difference between the
two metals, a current will flow from the cathode to the anode as shown. This
will cause particles of the anode to corrode, i.e. leave the metal and enter the
electrolyte. Thus, the iron (anode) will corrode, while the copper (cathode)
will remain intact.
In order for electro-chemical corrosion to occur:
 anodic and cathodic areas must exist;

 areas must be connected; and
 they must be in contact with an electrolyte, (e.g. sea water).
Where does Galvanic Corrosion occur?
In ships the places worst affected by Galvanic corrosion are:

 In the hull near the propellers
 Between the prop-shaft at the propeller
 At through-hull fittings
 Where aluminium superstructures are joined to steel hulls
 In the engine room if machinery or components/pipework are poorly
insulated.

Galvanic Corrosion - Ship’s Hull
In the case of a ship’s hull, corrosion occurs through the electro-
chemical process that is galvanic corrosion that takes place at the metal
surfaces that have different electric potential. This is usually between
dissimilar metal or at an area of the same material that has a different
potential to the rest.

Galvanic Corrosion - Hull/Propeller/Shaft
Where the propeller (usually made of a bronze alloy) is attached to the
shaft (usually a type of stainless steel) they are physically connected and are
both in an electrolyte (the sea) thus there is potential for the shaft to be
corroded. The propeller is also indirectly connected to the hull and the
galvanic current will flow the distance between the two, corroding the hull.
Although the hull is further away from the propeller than the shaft, because it
is made of lower grade steel their separation on the galvanic scale is more
and therefore the potential for corrosion greater.
Galvanic Corrosion - Through-Hull fittings

These are made of different metal to the hull. If there is a large
galvanic difference, these fittings can either cause corrosion in the hull or be
themselves corroded if not correctly insulated.
Figure 1.31 Galvanic Corrosion - Hull/Superstructure Connections

Many steel hulled vessels have aluminium superstructures; where they
are joined together there is clearly a danger of galvanic corrosion. Great care
needs to be taken in the joins to avoid this. Use of aluminium rivets in steel
plate also risks corrosion. Where possible the mating surfaces between two
dissimilar metals should be insulated.
As a yacht superstructure/hull connection is usually concealed with

faring compound on the outside and wooden panelling on the inside this type
of corrosion may not be detected until it is quite advanced. Condensation
running down the inside of windows can be a source of the electrolyte if this
is not properly channelled, so can rain/sea water seeping in through cracks.
Galvanic Corrosion – Impurities in Steel
If impurities such as mill scale are present, galvanic corrosion can occur.
Galvanic Corrosion – Incorrect Painting System
It can also occur between the paint and the metal if improper surface
coatings are applied. A lead-based primer applied to aluminium will cause
severe corrosion of the aluminium. If a steel plate is protected by the correct
lead-based paint there should be no corrosion but if the protective coating is
damaged and a small area of the steel is exposed, the exposed area will
corrode. The protected area of the steel has a higher electrical potential than
the unprotected area. Therefore, the unprotected area will corrode.
CORROSION PREVENTION
It might appear that the simple solution to this problem would be to

ensure that the construction of the ship should consist of one metal of
uniform composition. This might work but would be impractical. If two ships
in port were berthed close to each other, there could be reaction between the
two ships. Even within a ship, there are dissimilar metals. Some parts of the
ship are subjected to localized stresses and require steel of a higher tensile
strength than that used for the hull as a whole. Shaft brackets, rudders,
stabilisers, and their housings, bow thrusters and even hawse pipes are areas
of local stress. Internal pipe work, along with sea suctions and valve chests,
is another matter. Propellers are normally made of manganese bronze or
high tensile stainless steel.

Methods of controlling corrosion on steel surfaces are:
 anti-corrosive paints
 passive cathodic protection - sacrificial anodes
 active cathodic protection - impressed current systems
Anti-Corrosive Paints
These protect the metal by:
 preventing the contact of oxygen and sea water with the metal
 including a highly anodic material (zinc or aluminium), or a material
highly resistant to electrical current flow (rubber), in the paint
As such electrolytic cells are easily established in a ship floating in salt

water in order to prevent rust in steel and aluminium, the metals must be
sealed from water and the atmosphere. This seal can be achieved by the use
of a proper paint system and the paint must be maintained in order to
prevent a breakdown of the seal. Correct application and proper maintenance
of protective coatings is critical.
Correct Application of Paint Protection
For steel, all rust and scale must be removed from steel by means of
shot blasting and wire brushing. In the absence of shot blasting, the steel
must be chipped and scraped and then wire brushed. The wire brushing
polishes the metal, but care must be taken as it may also polish rust that has
not been removed.
1. Primer
2. Undercoat
3. Finishing coat
When the steel is clean and dry, it should be primed with red lead or an
epoxy primer. The primer is then protected by an undercoat and a gloss
paint. These may be traditional paints with a linseed oil base or a more
modern paint with the linseed oil replaced with a spirit base. The type of a
pigment will dictate the properties of the final finish whether it be a hard
finish or a flexible finish.

Epoxy resin paints come in a two-part pack to be mixed together, one
part is the epoxy, the other the hardener. The paints set to form an
extremely hard surface that is ideal to resist chafing and chemical attack.
Aluminium surfaces should not be chipped as it is a soft metal plate

and the hammers could do considerable damage. Aluminium should be
carefully scraped, and wire brushed, then coated with a primer such as zinc
chromate before applying the finishing coats as with steel.
CORROSION PREVENTION - CATHODIC PROTECTION
There are practical solutions. The commonest is to fit sacrificial

anodes, usually made of zinc, in areas subject to cathodic corrosion. Anodes,
sometimes called zincs, are concentrated around the stern of a ship, but will
also be found in bow thruster tunnels, around fin boxes, in sea suctions and
valve chests. Engine cooling systems will also have their own anodes.
Internal pipe work may have anodes at key points. This system of sacrificial
anodes is known as passive cathodic protection. It is important to maintain
the anodes and to replace those, which have decayed. Inspection is usually
carried out during dry-docking. The metal bar on which the anodic material is
attached must be connected to the hull either by welding or directly bolted. If
not, then the electron flow is interrupted, and the anode will not work. A
good indication of this is when the anode has not corroded over a period of
time. If the anode is not corroding - something else is! DO NOT PAINT
ANODES. They must remain exposed in order to work effectively. The correct
level of protection should be maintained, and the application of extra anodes
will cause corrosion. This method of protection is the cheapest and is that
normally used in merchant ships.
A more expensive option is active cathodic protection. When cathodic

corrosion is present, small electric currents are generated between the anode
and cathode. If these are detected and an equal and opposite current is
introduced, the two currents cancel each other and so the corrosion is

prevented. This is achieved by mounting an anode in the hull and supplying it
with a current. This makes the entire hull “cathodic”, stopping the corrosion
of the hull. The material of the anode is chosen to have high corrosion
resistance properties and is thus not destroyed in the cathodic protection
process. Platinum is a common material used in such systems.
This is called an Impressed Current System. It is difficult to fit to

existing vessels and it depends on the accurate detection of the weak direct
currents flowing between the anode and cathode, but it is effective when well
maintained. It removes the need to replace anodes, whenever they are worn
and is used where appearance is particularly important.
Figure 1.32 The basic Impressed Current System
 The reference electrode (1) is mounted through the hull (2) of the ship
and is exposed to the sea water.
 The anode (3) is also mounted through the hull and is electrically
insulated from it.
 A controller (4) is connected to the reference electrode.
 Based on the signal from the reference electrode, the controller
delivers a signal to a power supply (5).
 The power supply then supplies a DC voltage to the anode.
 This makes the hull cathodic to the anode, thus preventing corrosion of
the hull.

Corrosion Prevention – Galvanising
For small parts such as shackles, cleats, and eyebolts, it is practicable

to dip them in a bath of molten zinc. This is known as galvanizing and a
shackle so treated would be a galvanized. Frequently small fittings were
made of brass.
Corrosion Prevention – Insulation
Some ships have steel hulls and aluminium superstructures. This

allows for a larger superstructure than would have been possible with steel
as the extra weight high in the ship would have reduced the stability.
The original method of attaching the aluminium superstructure to the

hull was to keep the metals apart by using liners of neoprene and stainless-
steel bolts in sleeves. However, this still did not fully prevent galvanic
corrosion.
The next development replaced the bolts with aluminium rivets but
retained the liners and sleeves.
This is achieved either by jointing compounds or properly designed

washers, inserts, and sleeves. This drawing shows the problems with joining
such material and the possible solutions. The problem with this type of join is
that if the quality of the insulation degrades with age of if the join is poorly
executed there remains a considerable risk of corrosion.

Figure 1.33 Aluminium to Steel Connections

Corrosion Prevention – Insulation Explosion Bonding
Today, it is normal to use “explosion bonding” to form a Structural

Transition Joint. This virtually eliminates galvanic corrosion as there is no
possibility of an electrolyte or impurities getting between the plates. Even
metals well apart on the galvanic scale can be joined in this way, like
aluminium and steel.
An aluminium plate is laid over a steel plate, using spacers to maintain

an accurate separation. An explosive powder is spread over the aluminium
and detonated. The heat and pressure from the explosion cause the two
plates to bond or fuse together at the atomic level. There are no sleeves,
liners, bolts, or rivets. A neat, light, and strong joint is formed, which is much
more durable. Even on the surface of the joint, which could be exposed to
moisture the aluminium, oxide protects the line of the joint. However, it is
imperative that the protective coating is maintained, or corrosion will set in.
The composite plate is usually made into strips for use. The steel can
be welded to steel and the aluminium to aluminium.
Figure 1.34 Insulation Explosion Bonding

Advantages of STJ versus Traditional Methods of Joining
STJ EXPLOSION BONDED TRADITIONAL

1 Permanent, maintenance free, 1 Generally require use of bolts or
"fit and forget" rivets, plus gaskets. Can work
loose, due to flexing of the hull,
creating gaps in which corrosion
develops.
Rivet or bolt needs to be insulated
from aluminium
2 Can be installed by one
2 Generally, two operatives necessary
operative
3 Continuous joint, even stress
3 Rivets/bolts give uneven stress
distribution
4 Rigorously tested approved 4 Difficult to assess quality of joint
product
5 Watertight. Any corrosion self-
5 Tend to leak
extinguishing
Corrosion Review
You have now completed Topic 5: The cause and prevention of corrosion.
During your revision, you should make sure you can:
a) Outline the process of chemical corrosion (e.g. acids and alkalis).

b) Describe the principle of oxidisation of a steel plate.
c) Describe the process of galvanic corrosion between dissimilar metals
by explaining the electro-chemical cell.
d) Identify areas prone to galvanic corrosion
e) Describe the methods of joining and attaching dissimilar metals and
fittings.
f) Describe the function of a paint system in the prevention of corrosion
and the importance of its proper maintenance.
g) State the principle of cathodic protection using sacrificial anodes and
impressed current systems.

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1.7 CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES
Classification is a means of inspection and ensuring that ships are

seaworthy and thus worthy of insurance. The bodies that set the standards
and carry out the inspection are known as Classification Societies.
The IACS is the International Association of Classification Societies.

Their website has an excellent “What, Why, and How” information sheet that
explains what they are all about. Their main function is to safeguard
the interests of charterers, bankers, owners, and underwriters by ensuring
that ships are constructed, equipped, and maintained to satisfactory
standards of strength, stability, and safety
They were initially formed by insurers who needed to know the

condition of ships they were considering insuring. In their initial form, they
were non-profit making “societies” serving only the insurers who formed
them.
While still called societies, these companies are in business to make

money and they compete with each other for business. Despite this
competition, the risks are the same and a ship, which is seaworthy, will be so
whichever society carries out the inspection. If the standards demanded by a
society are too strict, ship owners will go elsewhere. If the standards are too
lax, the insurers will demand higher premiums or decline to offer insurance.
Despite the competition, there is cooperation between the better societies
and their standards do not differ. Being the first in the business, Lloyd’s has
generated most of the standards.
There are many ship surveying organizations, but the main and most
widely recognized are the following:
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping LR United Kingdom

Bureau Veritas BV France
American Bureau of Shipping AB United States
Det Norske Veritas/Germanischer Lloyd DNV/GL Norway/Germany
Registro Italiano RI Italy
Registration with a Classification Society is not compulsory, but it has

many advantages so that unclassed vessels tend to be a rarity in merchant
shipping and in new build yachts, though many older yachts are un-classed
or fall out of class.

Classification has evolved to allow insurers, cargo interests, port
authorities and other interested parties to identify ships, which are fit for
their intended purpose from the point of view of design, build and
maintenance of structure, equipment, machinery, and fittings.
The Societies provide a dual service to ship owners by classifying ships

according to published rules and standards and by the inspection during the
building, which might go back as far as the steel mill.
The benefits of classification allow cargo owners, port authorities and

insurers the security of knowing that a ship is sound, while owners of ships in
class are able to compete for trade more efficiently by offering well-
maintained and efficient ships for charter. Some port authorities refuse entry
to sub-standard ships and the simplest way to prove that ships meet
reasonable standards is to keep them in class with a reputable society.
Note: These companies inspect many things beside ships and much of their
business today is in “Quality Assurance”.
Each IACS member uses “class notation symbols” to denote a ship

constructed under special survey in compliance with the society’s rules. Using
Lloyd’s as an example, a ship built to Lloyd’s standards and under the
supervision of Lloyd’s for seagoing service would have the notation as
follows:
100: Considered suitable for sea going service

A: Built in accordance with or accepted into class in accordance with
Lloyd’s Class Rules and which are maintained in good and efficient
condition. Once lost it cannot be recovered.
1: Anchors, cables & mooring equipment comply with Lloyd’s Rules
✠: New ship built under the supervision of a Society Surveyor. Symbol is
the Maltese Cross (which is actually a Formée Cross)
LMC: Lloyd’s Machinery Certificate (All machinery meets Class Rules)
UMS: Unattended Machinery Spaces
Other characters and notifications are used for special ships and machinery.
The rules have evolved over centuries of shipbuilding and are

constantly evolving as new materials and methods are introduced. The MCA
Large Yacht Code is derived from the original rules laid down by Lloyd’s.

Lloyd’s Register
Lloyds’s Register traces its history to 1760 when a group of insurers

formed Lloyd’s Register of Shipping to inspect and advice on the insurability
of ships. (Lloyd’s Insurance (Lloyd’s of London) for whom those insurers
worked began over a century earlier in 1601 with the daily meetings of
insurers in the City of London, at Lloyd’s Coffee House.) The surveyors would
note all the particulars of a vessel and these details would be entered into a
book or register. Every ship inspected would be assigned a number, which
remained with the ship for the entire life of the ship. The official number
would change if the ship was sold to a foreign flag, but the Lloyd’s number
never changed.
The IMO number never changes, and this takes its origin from the idea
of the original Lloyd’s number. Lloyd’s Insurance syndicates are involved with
insurance in every possible form and not just shipping.
Although Lloyd’s Register and Lloyd’s Insurance are closely associated,

today, they are completely separate organizations. Lloyds Register is an
independent non-profit making authority - income is derived from survey
fees and charges for other services
From the days before radio at sea, Lloyd’s has maintained signal
stations around the world. Sightings of ships would be reported to owners.
These lasted until the late nineteen sixties. Lloyd’s also publishes a daily
newspaper, Lloyd’s List, claimed to be the oldest daily newspaper in
continuous publication. There is also a book-publishing arm.
Main tasks performed by Lloyd’s Register:
1. Lays down standards of construction for all types of vessel, including

yachts. (Not all Classification Societies provide construction data for
yachts). Published as ‘Rules and Regulations for the Classification of
Ships. Amendments published bi-annually.
2. Publishes a register of all known vessels of gross tonnage 100 or
greater - issued annually in 3 volumes.
3. Publishes a register or yachts - issued annually
4. Provides surveyors in most major ports throughout the world - to
conduct surveys as required to maintain classification (periodic
surveys), survey damage and advise on repairs.

5. Is an assigning authority for certain statutory purposes, e.g.
a) Assignment of Load Lines and periodical Load Line surveys.
b) Tonnage measurement and issuing tonnage certificates.
c) Testing of anchors and cables.
d) Type approval of lifesaving appliances and firefighting
appliances.
6. Supervises the testing of steels and other ship building materials.
7. Carries out research work into ships structures, equipment, and
machinery failures.
8. Collects data on performance and reliability of existing vessels for
future reference.
Class Surveys
For the purpose of obtaining and maintaining classification vessels are

subject to:
a) Construction surveys. (However existing vessels may be considered
after inspection)
b) Annual surveys
c) Dry-docking survey
d) Special surveys (every 5 years from year of build)
NB. Under the REG LYC and its predecessors, surveys and inspections are
required to maintain and renew a ‘Certificate of Compliance’ with the Code. If
a vessel undergoes a classification survey regime, Code surveys may be
waived in certain circumstances.
Some of the surveys delegated to Classification Societies in non-code vessels
are carried out directly by Flag surveyors NOT Class surveyors because
international standards are being modified, (for example load line surveys)
Construction
During construction. (Existing vessels may be accepted after inspection

but can never get the highest classification). Before construction starts plans
are submitted for approval regarding layout, scantlings machinery, etc.
Materials are tested and approved by the Society; use of materials and
workmanship are monitored during build.

Annual Surveys
These ensure that the operation and maintenance standards are being
kept. Usually held concurrently with statutory annual surveys, such as Load
Line and SOLAS Construction. The surveyor assesses general condition of
hull, superstructure, and machinery spaces.
Specifically, the surveyor will check:

1. Watertight integrity of the hull and enclosed superstructure spaces,
plus closing appliances for hatches, access ways, deadlights, side
scuttles, etc.
2. Machinery casings, deck houses, companion ways, ladders, handrails,
guardrails, and bulwarks.
3. Ventilation, air pipes, freeing ports, and scuppers.
4. Water inlet and overboard discharges, plus associated valves.
5. Stability information.
6. Steering gear and emergency steering arrangements.
7. In vessels with U.M.S. Classification, all bilge level alarms are
inspected and tested.
8. As age of vessel increases an internal examination of a ballast or F.W.
tank(s).
Dry Docking Surveys
Usually coinciding with an annual survey, to inspect the condition of

the hull, through hull fittings, sacrificial anodes etc. They are required every
2 years or 2½ years depending on underwater hull protection system used.
Attention is given to the general appearance of the hull. Particular attention
is given to:
1. Areas of high corrosion risk and panting or pounding damage.
2. Stern frame, stern tube(s), rudder, and rudder pintles and
propeller(s).
3. Underwater protection system, e.g. sacrificial anodes, impressed
current D.C. anodes and reference electrodes, and-fouling paint
system.
4. Water inlet sea chests and grids, overboard discharge openings, ship’s
side valves and fitting arrangements.

Special Surveys
Every 5 years from year of build. These were originally required at 4-

year intervals, then ‘stretched’ to 5 years. These surveys look at:
1. All items inspected under annual and dry-dock surveys, but the hull
and superstructure are examined closely for defects, particularly
wastage due to corrosion and chafing. Also, any defect due to panting,
pounding, or grounding.
2. The ship structure is examined both inside and out.
3. Tanks are subjected to maximum head tests to check for leakage.
4. Gauging for plate thickness may be done in areas of bad corrosion.
5. Internal inspection of tanks will be required - especially in older ships
or where there is evidence of damage or heavy corrosion.
PREPARATION FOR SURVEYS
Lloyd’s is delegated by the MCA to carry out load line surveys and to
assign load lines for new ships. They also carry out periodical surveys to
ensure that ships are maintained to the required standards or are “in class”.
When a ship is launched or floated out of a building dock, she starts

her first five-year cycle. The Load Line Certificate is valid for five years,
subject to satisfactory annual survey. Every year the general condition of the
ship is assessed, and particular attention is given to watertight integrity.
Hatches, watertight and weather tight doors, ventilators, air pipes and
the closing arrangements are inspected. Freeboard marks, load lines and
draught marks are verified. Stability data is checked. Main, auxiliary, and
emergency steering arrangements are inspected. The provisions of structural
fire protection are verified.
Anchors and cables are ranged and inspected, with particular attention
being paid to the joining links. It is normal to move the inboard shackle or
length of cable to the outboard end to even out the wear.
When the ship is out of the water, the hull is inspected. All points of
local loading are checked, propeller shafts and brackets, fin stabilizers, bow
thrusters and rudders. All through hull, fittings are inspected. Any dents or
other damage will be noted, and necessary repairs carried out.

When the ship has completed her first five-year cycle, she starts cycle
two, year one. At each five-year cycle, inspections and tests become more
stringent.
If a ship suffers any damage, or the ship is involved in an incident and

damage is suspected, the classification society must be advised. A surveyor
may have to inspect the damage and will advise on repairs. If the damage is
not serious and the ship can safely operate, repairs may be deferred until the
ship is at a scheduled dry docking or is able to visit a suitable repair facility.
In this case, a note is made of the damage and the date by which repairs
must be made is recorded. The ship remains in class but is subject to a
“Condition of Class”, which will define the damage or defect and state the
date by which repairs must be made. If a surveyor from the ship’s own
classification society is not available in the particular location, one from
another society is appointed.
For a new ship or for an existing ship, which changes flag or

classification society or a ship, which has been modified, the stability is
assessed. An inclining test (sometimes still called an inclining experiment) is
carried out to establish the Centre of Gravity of the ship. This test may be
required if there is any reason to believe the stability data is not correct.
CLASSIFICATION SOCIETIES REVIEW
You have now completed Topic 6: The functions of classification societies.

a) State the role of the Classification Society.
b) State that IACS is the International Association of Classification
Societies.
c) State that each IACS member uses “class notation symbols” to denote
a ship constructed under special survey in compliance with the
society’s rules.

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1.8 LOAD LINES, RESERVE BUOYANCY AND METHODS OF DAMAGE
CONTROL
The actual technical theory and calculations for this topic will be covered in
Module 2.
INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON LOAD LINES (1966)
There is now an international agreement on load lines, in the form of

the International Convention on Load Lines (1966). The most recent
amendments came into force in January 2015 and January 2016.
Class surveyors carry out Load Line Surveys on behalf of flag states.
This survey will establish the load line, deck line and the draught marks.
The surveyor is not so much interested in the draught of the ship as in

the freeboard, and especially the freeboard in the worst possible damaged
condition. A ship floats because she displaces a volume of water equal in
weight to her own weight. The buoyancy generated by the displacement of
water provides an upward force, which counteracts the downward force due
to gravity. If some of the buoyancy is lost due to flooding, the ship will sink,
unless there is a reserve of buoyancy. Some of the reserve buoyancy will be
used to keep the vessel afloat. It is this reserve of buoyancy or safety factor,
which the surveyor will assess.
The extra buoyancy may be required in an emergency if an extra

weight is placed on the ship such as a heavy sea landing on deck or if a part
of the hull is damaged and loses its buoyancy. In order to provide the
reserve buoyancy, the hull must be watertight and remain this way.
If the hull of a ship is open from one end to another, the hull is then
holed, and the complete hull will fill with water, buoyancy will be lost, and
the ship will sink.
A ship should be subdivided with watertight bulkheads across the ship

and at intervals along its length. If the hull is then damaged, then only one
or perhaps two compartments will fill with water.
The ship settles in the water and some of the reserve buoyancy, in the
compartments not filled with water, is converted into actual buoyancy, so
allowing the ship to remain afloat.

The enclosed watertight volume between the waterline and the
freeboard deck is measured. The watertight bulkheads extend to the
freeboard deck, which is normally, but not always, the uppermost continuous
deck. Once the freeboard deck is defined, the deck line is placed on the ship’s
sides exactly amidships.
The position of each load line is noted on the load line certificate using
the Freeboard Deck as the reference point. Distances for each load line are
given below the deck line in millimetres.
The UK requires all vessels, of >24m, on international voyages to have

an International Load Line Certificate (ILLC), which is issued by one of the six
approved Classification Societies on behalf of the MCA. Vessels on domestic
service and those of less than 24m may elect to have a UK load line
certificate.
The top of the load line passes through the centre of a circle or load
line disc. The identification letters of the assigning authority (classification
society) are placed outside the disc. The surveyor will issue a Load Line
Certificate, which remains valid for five years, subject to satisfactory annual
survey.
Unless intended to operate entirely within a fresh water environment

such as the Great Lakes, ships are measured using displacements for salt
water. The stability data supplied to ships assumes that they are floating in
salt water.
ALL SEASONS LOAD LINE
When a ship is assigned a freeboard, which is greater than the

minimum Summer Freeboard and lower than all other appropriate load lines,
this is known as an “All Seasons Load Line”. It will show the Load Line Mark
(circle and horizontal line indicating summer freeboard) and two single lines
indicating the Deck line and the FW line. The vertical line used in other load
lines can be eliminated.
Yachts often have an All Seasons Load Line as they will rarely be
submerged to their Summer Load Line, cargo carrying not being a
consideration. It allows a reduction in the scantlings (dimensions and number
of structural members) as maximum allowed displacement has been reduced.

LOAD LINE MARKINGS
Figure 1.35 Example of Load Line Markings
In general, the colour of the markings is white on dark coloured hulls and
black on light coloured hulls.
It is an offence to submerge the relevant load line.

Figure 1.37 All Season Load Line
The Deck Line is part of the Load Line.

LOAD LINE ZONES
For commercial ships, the owner will always seek to maximize the
cargo carrying capabilities of the ship to achieve the best return on the
investment. Seasonal load lines may be applied. The Zones can be found in
Admiralty Ocean Passages of the World and Routeing Charts.
Summer Zones fulfil the criteria that not more than 10% of the winds
are Force 8 or more. In tropical waters, the weather is generally better than
in temperate latitudes and deeper loading, to the tropical mark, is permitted.
The criteria are that not more than 1% of winds are Force 8 or more and
limits on the number of tropical storms. In winter zones, the weather is
usually worse, and a restriction is placed on loading, permitted only to the
winter mark.
The Winter North Atlantic Mark is applied to ships of less than 100
metres in length.
Figure 1.38 Load Line Zones

FRESH WATER ALLOWANCE (FWA)
By calculating the volume of reserve buoyancy required, the load line

can be located directly below the freeboard line. This statutory load line is the
ship’s Summer Load Draught (SLD).
If the ship is floating in fresh water, which is less dense than salt
water, she will displace a greater volume and sink deeper at the same
weight. An allowance is made for this and a Fresh Water load line is placed
above the summer mark. It is the distance the vessel can be submerged
over the summer load line whilst floating in FW.
We will go into the calculations later, but it is given that:
𝑺𝒖𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

FWA = in mm
𝟒 𝐓𝐏𝐂
or
FWA = 1 48th of the Summer Load Draft
WEATHERTIGHT & WATERTIGHT
All openings which give access to spaces below the weather deck must
be designed and constructed so as to prevent the ingress of sea water.
Hatchways should be hinged or sliding, or permanently secured by

other equivalent means to the structure of the ship and be provided with at
least two locking devices.
In general, all hatchways should be kept closed at sea. However,

hatchways which are often open at sea should be as small as possible, never
more than a meter square and have a coaming or sill at least 300 mm above
the deck.
Doorways should have weather tight doors, open outwards and have
means of closure that can be operated from either side. They should be
located as close as possible to the centreline of the ship or if on the side if
the boat be hinged on the forward edge and fitted with a coaming or sill at
least 300 mm above the weather deck.

Skylights, side scuttles, portholes and windows must be of equivalent
strength to the structure around them and must have further means of
closure in case of breakage.
Spaces below the weather deck must have permanently attached

deadlights and those above the weather deck must have portable means of
closure.
Ventilators and exhausts must be as far inboard as practicable and be

of sufficient height to prevent the ready admission of water. They must also
be provided with a permanently attached means of weather tight closure.
Air pipes greater than 10 mm in diameter should have permanently

attached means of closure, be as far inboard as possible and be of sufficient
height to prevent inadvertent flooding. Tank vents and sounding pipes should
be fitted with non-return valves, especially when fitted low down on the
vessel.
Where the deck is fitted with bulwarks such that shipped water may be
temporarily trapped behind them, the bulwarks should be provided with an
adequate number of freeing ports.
Keeping the water out of the vessel is critical. As vital to the

seaworthiness and watertight integrity of the vessel is that of clearing water
from the open decks as quickly as possible. Keeping scuppers cleared and
freeing ports maintained is a very necessary part of regular maintenance.
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
All of the means of closure must be maintained in good order and

condition. Screws and dogs must be kept free, clean, and greased so as to
work efficiently. Gaskets and rubber seals should be inspected and tested on
a regular basis.
Maintenance plans must be kept in a record book.

RESERVE BUOYANCY AND DAMAGE CONTROL
A ship floats by virtue of the buoyancy produced by the hull. That part
of the hull that is below the waterline displaces water, which displaced water
presses back on the hull so providing the buoyancy.
The part of the hull that remains above the waterline provides reserve
buoyancy. The extra buoyancy may be required in an emergency if an extra
weight is placed on the ship such as a heavy sea landing on deck or if a part
of the hull is damaged and loses its buoyancy. In order to provide the
reserve buoyancy, the hull must be watertight and remain this way.
If the hull of a ship is open from one end to another, the hull is then
holed, and the complete hull will fill with water, buoyancy will be lost, and
the ship will sink.
A ship should be subdivided with watertight bulkheads across the ship

and at intervals along its length. If the hull is then damaged, then only one
or perhaps two compartments will fill with water.
The ship settles in the water and some of the reserve buoyancy, in the
compartments not filled with water, is converted into actual buoyancy, so
allowing the ship to remain afloat.

LOAD LINES, RESERVE BUOYANCY AND METHODS OF DAMAGE
CONTROL REVIEW
You have now completed Topic 7: Load lines, reserve buoyancy and methods
of damage control.
a) Define the terms:

 freeboard deck,
 superstructure deck,
 superstructure,
 assigned freeboard,
 weathertight
 watertight
b) State the purpose of the Load Line.
c) Define fresh water allowance FWA as the difference between draft in
Salt and fresh water
d) State that the FWA = W / (4x TPC salt water).
e) State that the Fresh Water Mark is 1/48 of the Summer Draught above
the summer mark.
f) Outline the importance of reserve buoyancy and the necessity for
maintaining its integrity.
g) State the items which affect the watertight integrity of the ship with
reference to:
 hatchways and coamings,
 doorways, side scuttles, skylights, windows,
 ventilators and exhausts,
 air pipes
h) Describe the routine maintenance to ensure the efficiency of closing
arrangements for the items listed in 7g above.
i) State the importance of non-return valves on tank vent and sounding
pipes, especially when fitted low down on a vessel.
j) Describe the importance of water freeing arrangements to the


1.9 BILGE PUMPING SYSTEMS
The Load Line Rules require ships to be able to pump out water that
accumulates on board and SOLAS requires fire-fighting systems. MARPOL
requires oil-contaminated bilge water to be processed before it can be
discharged.
The bilge system is essential in maintaining the safety of the vessel.

For example, if the vessel floods due to damage, the bilge system will be
required to pump out the water to prevent the vessel from sinking.
Therefore, strict regulations ensure that the vessel has sufficient pumping
capacity to deal with an emergency such as a flooding. It also ensures that
the vessel has more than one system available in case the main bilge system
is inoperable.
MARPOL current standard requires the oil content to be less than 15

parts per million. Ships with a Gross Tonnage of 400 tonnes or more are
required to carry separation and monitoring equipment. The limit is 150GT
for oil tankers. The fact that the vessel is below the limit does not eliminate
the requirement to comply with MARPOL, but it does ease the burden of
record keeping. Without the necessary equipment, all oil-contaminated water
must be pumped ashore, except in an emergency.
BILGE PUMPING SYSTEM
A bilge pumping system is designed to pump out any liquids that

collect in the lower parts of the vessel. Bilge water can collect from leaks in
the cooling system, stern gland, tanks, washing down, or even leakage past
the hull. It is pumped from selected bilge suction through a strainer or mud
box to a holding tank. At the suction, there is a coarse filter called a “strum
box”.
If left alone, the oil and the water will separate, and partial separation
may be achieved in the holding tank. When permitted the oily water is
pumped into an “Oily Water Separator”. This may be a centrifuge type or a
flocculent or filter type. Normally the mixture is heated, and chemicals are
added to speed the process. The treated water is pumped past an “Oil
Content Meter” (OCM), which measures the oil content and, if less than 15
ppm oil is present, overboard. If greater oil content is detected, the “Three
Way Valve” returns the oily water to the separator or holding tank.

This valve has three positions: closed, overside discharge, or
recirculate, the latter two functions being controlled by the OCM. It is kept in
the closed position when not in use. In most ships, the actual ship’s side
valve on the discharge line is kept locked to prevent any accidental discharge
of oily water.
The bilge pumping system should be capable of pumping bilges from

all parts of the vessel. Since the bilge pumps are located in the engine room,
pipelines have to run from the engine room to all compartments that are
required to be cleared. This diagram shows a typical bilge pumping system
found on a small vessel. The table below it describes the main components of
the bilge pumping system Note: The forward bilge suction is not into the
forepeak, but into the chain locker, whereas the aft suction is from the
steering flat.
In most vessels, the bilge pumps can be used to supply water to the
fire mains and the deck wash system, (Figure 1.4). However, ensure that the
bilge pump is first flushed with seawater, before connecting to the fire mains.
This is essential if the bilge pumps were used to pump oily bilges.
High bilge levels can lead to:

 Free surface effect on stability
 Fire hazard due to oil in the bilges
 Dangerous and explosive gases from bilges
 Slippery and dangerous surfaces to work on
 Corrosion
 Oil and water getting on machinery situated lower down
 Effect on trim, heel, and draft of the ship
 Lack of Cleanliness
 Impaired visibility of lower spaces covered by bilges

Figure 1.39 Schematic diagram of bilge system elements

1. Bilge Pumps must be self-priming or have a priming device. In order to
deal with emergencies there are at least two bilge pumps. The actual
number will depend on the length and duty of the vessel.
2. Bilge Wells are located around the vessel in order collect the bilge liquids
to pump them. All liquid from adjacent areas will drain into the wells.
3. Bilge level alarms are usually float alarms located in the bilge wells.
They will activate an alarm if the bilge water exceeds a set level.
4. Strainers (Strum Boxes and Mud Boxes) are used to prevent foreign
materials entering the pumps and valves. If foreign particles enter the
system, they may cause blockage of the system or prevent valves from
closing. Strum boxes are located in the bilge wells protecting the initial
suction of the pipeline. Mud Boxes are in-line strainers offering further
protection to the pumps.
5. Bilge Suction Valves are fitted to the suction lines from the bilge wells
in order to prevent back flooding. They are screw lift non-return (SLNR)
valves. See “Pipeline Valves” later for more details.
6. Bilge Holding Tank stores the bilge water on board, until it can be
discharged ashore or through the OWS. The oily water will naturally
separate into layers of oil and water which helps with the disposal
process. The oil floating on top will go to the sludge tank for disposal
ashore and the water will go to the OWS for further separation.
7. Oily Water Separator (OWS) is fitted to larger vessels. It separates the

oil from the water being pumped overboard, thus preventing oil pollution
of the sea. The oil is retained on board to be disposed ashore or burnt.
8. Oil Content Meter (OCM) calculates the parts per million (ppm) of oil in
the water. If within MARPOL guidelines (15 ppm) then it will allow the
opening of the three-way valve to pump overboard. If not, then it will be
returned to the Holding tank or put through the OWS again.
9. Overboard discharge non-return valve fitted to prevent back flooding.
10. Sea Water Connection The seawater connection acts as a source of

water to prime the pump. It is also used to flush the system after
pumping bilges.

Figure 1.40 Mud Box and Strum Box
Pipeline Valves
Valves are fitted to control the flow of liquid and to protect the pumps.
Simple open/close valves may be gate, butterfly or lift, the latter being more
usual in a bilge system in smaller ships. Lift valves can be screwed down to
close them. All these valves will pass liquid in either direction when open. In
Bilge and Fire mains, the requirement is to pump the water in one direction
only and non-return valves are used. In this valve, liquid may flow only in
one direction. Pressure on the seating will lift it to allow liquid to flow in the
reverse direction will cause the seating to seal. These can also be screwed
shut, hence “Screw Down Non-Return Valve” (SDNR).
Figure 1.41 Screw Lift Valves

Fire-Fighting System
The rules governing fire-fighting arrangements are contained in

SOLAS. The salient features are the ability to project two jets of water in any
compartment and two pumps, one of which may be in the main machinery
space and may be main engine driven. A second independently powered
pump must be located outside the main machinery space. It is normal to use
a small diesel engine as the power source.
This must have an auto or self-starter and must be capable of being

started by hand. To avoid penetration of watertight bulkheads, the fire main
rises from the main and emergency fire pumps to the freeboard deck, before
moving forward and aft. If the ship has fixed fire-fighting systems such as
sprinklers for the accommodation and galleys or high-pressure fog in the
machinery spaces, there will be a header tank, pressurized by compressed
air, containing treated fresh water. If activated the water is replaced by
seawater pumped usually by a dedicated pump.
BILGE-PUMPING SYSTEMS REVIEW
You have now completed Topic 3.d and Topic 8: Bilge pumping systems.
a) Draw a bilge pumping diagram to include the following components,

using the correct symbols:
 Bilge pump
 strum box
 mud box
 screw down non-return valve
 screw down valve
 manifold
 oily water separator
 overboard discharge
b) Describe the purpose of each of the components in Topic 8a.

MODULE 2: STABILITY

1. Define density and relative density of a substance.
2. State a marine hydrometer is used to measure Relative Density of
dock water.
3. State the Law of Flotation and Archimedes Principle.
4. Define the terms: light displacement, load displacement, deadweight,
buoyancy, reserve buoyancy, TPC, KM
5. State that Displacement (∆) is equal to the Underwater Volume x
relative density of the liquid displaced. ∆ = V x RD
6. Calculate the displacement of a box shaped vessel for a given draught
in liquid of a given relative density.
7. Extract the displacement, TPC and KM for a given mean draught using
a hydrostatic table.
8. Calculate the displacement, change in draught and GM from tabulated
hydrostatic data.
9. Define the terms: centre of gravity, centre of buoyancy, transverse
metacentre, metacentric height, righting lever, righting moment.
10. Draw a diagram for a vessel in stable equilibrium, heeled to a small
angle to show the positions and forces through the centre of gravity
and centre of buoyancy, show the development of righting and
capsizing moments, and describe the creation of the righting lever and
the transverse metacentre.
11. State that righting moment (RM) = GZ x displacement.
12. State that metacentric height (GM) can be used as an assessment of
initial stability.
13. Describe the motion of stiff and tender vessels and state the
14. Identify, using diagrams, the difference between stable, neutral, and
unstable equilibrium.
15. Describe the effect on GM due to adding, removing, and transferring
weights including fuel and water.
16. State the effect on GM of a suspended weight.
17. State that the effect of free surface can be considered as a reduction in
GM or a rise in KG and this change is known as the Free Surface
Correction.
18. Describe the importance of draining swimming pools.

2.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HYDROSTATICS AND RELATED TERMS
THEORY OF FLOTATION
In this General Ship Knowledge course, there are calculations involving

simple flotation, but none for stability. Stability questions are based on
knowledge of the principles.
INTRODUCTION TO SHIP MEASUREMENTS AND THE METRIC SYSTEM
All stability calculations and ship measurements, by international convention,

are metric.
The units used:

 metre (m) for linear measure
 metric ton or tonne (t) for weight
Linear measurement is simply a distance, i.e. length, breadth, or height in

metres (m).
Area is two dimensions, normally Length x Breadth = metres x metres or

square metres (m2).
Figure 2.1 Area

Volume is three dimensions,
Length x Breadth x Height = metres x metres x metres or cubic metres (m 3).
On a ship, we use Depth instead of Height.
Figure 2.2 Volume
Instances when the metre is not used
There are five instances where units other than the metre are used:
 TPC (Tonnes per Centimetre) uses centimetre (cm)
 MCTC (Moments to Change Trim by One Centimetre) uses (cm)
 Fresh Water Allowance (FWA) uses millimetres (mm)
 Summer Freeboard (distance from Deck Line (marking the freeboard

deck) to Load Line) is measured in millimetres (mm)
 (mm) is the unit used on the Load Line Certificate.
Make sure you know which unit applies to which calculation and how to
convert between m / cm / mm.
IAMI requirements:
 Calculation to 3 decimal places
 Exceptions are Trig Functions (Sin, Cos, and Tan) which are
take to 5 decimal places (not part of OOW Course)
 Answers rounded to 2 decimal places

BOX-SHAPED VESSELS
As stated, and displayed above, the dimensions for a box-shaped

object are Length x Beam (or Breadth) x Depth.
On ships, the Depth is taken from the Keel to the Deck Line (the line
that marks the Freeboard Deck).
If we now put that box into water and it floats, we can include the two
parts of Depth, i.e. draft and Freeboard
Figure 2.3 Box Shaped Vessel
Depth = draft + Freeboard

= d + Fbd in (m)
Area = Length x Breadth

=LxB in m²
Volume = Length x Breadth x Depth

=LxBxD in m³
Underwater Volume = Length x Breadth x draft

=LxBxd in m³
Be careful not to mix up Depth (D) and draft (d)!
FROM BOX-SHAPE TO SHIP SHAPE – NOT PART OF THIS COURSE!

 Area – Waterplane Coefficient Cw
 Volume – Block Coefficient Cb

MASS AND WEIGHT AND DISPLACEMENT
Mass – amount of matter in an object. Unit kilogram (kg)
Force – product of mass & acceleration. Unit meters per second squared
(m/s²)
Weight - force resulting from acceleration due to gravity acting on an object

Unit kilogram-force (kg-f) or Newton
Displacement – in ship construction and stability the weight of a vessel is

worked out by calculating the weight of the water it displaces (more later
when we get to Archimedes!). Unit tonne (t).
For the purposes of this course (and Master Stability)

Ignore the Physicists!
Weight = Displacement
and is expressed in the same units as Mass:
1000 kg = 1 metric ton = 1 tonne (t)

DENSITY AND RELATIVE DENSITY
In everyday conversation, we may make a statement such as ‘iron
is heavier than cork’ and feel sure that everyone knows what we mean.
However, if someone wants to be awkward, he may take a large amount
of cork and a small piece of iron and state, quite correctly that in this case
the cork weighs more than the iron. Clearly, we need a precise way of
comparing how heavy materials are. Since the weight of cork in our
example depends on how much of it we take, it is convenient to compare
the weight or the mass of a substance with its volume.
Density is the relationship between the weight of a material and

the amount of space it takes up i.e. how compact it is:
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
Density =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
Density = ρ = weight per unit volume = kg per m³ = = kg/m³

³
(ρ is the Greek small letter Rho – not needed for course but
included here in case you see Density referenced as such)
Density of Fresh Water (FW) = 1000 kg/m³ = 1 t/m³

i.e. 1 tonne of FW = 1 m³ volume
As a comparison:
• Fuel Oil (FO) is less dense at 850 kg/m³
• Salt Water (SW) is denser at 1025 kg/m³
• (To use in class later, Honey is even denser at 1420 kg/m³)
Effect of Different Densities:

 A less dense material will float on top of a denser one. e.g. oil on
water.
 A ship will sink to a greater draft in less dense waters.
Note that the density must have the same units as those in which we
measured the mass and the volume. Thus, we may say for example that the
density of mercury is 13.6 g/cm³; of aluminium is 2700 kg/m³ and of iron
7.8 t/m³. Since all pure metals have a distinct and precise density they may
be identified by this property.

Weight = Volume x Density
Both of these expressions are useful for working out how much
material there is in a given space or what quantity is required for a given
purpose.
Equally if we know how much material there is in terms of weight and

density, we can find out how much space it will occupy (the volume). We can
transpose the equation again to find the formula.
𝐖𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭
Volume =
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲
Examples
a. A solid block of material has mass of 6.2 tonne and occupies

2.4m³. What is its density?
Density = Weight / Volume
= 6.2/2.4
Density = 2.583 = 2.58 t/m3
b. 30kg of metal of density 540 kg/m³ is to be cast into a solid

bar of rectangular cross section 10cm x 6cm. What length will
the bar be?
Volume = Weight / Density
LxBxD = Weight / Density
L x 0.1 x 0.06 = 30 / 540
We now need to get the known quantities on one side and the unknown
quantity (length) on the other as we did above. First, we multiply 0.1 and 0.6
on the LHS and then will 30 by 540 on the RHS. This gives us:
0.006 L = 0.0555
L = 0.0555/0.006 = 9.259 = 9.26 m

Conversion of Density into Different Units
In vessel operations, we need densities in kg/m³ or t/m³ and perhaps

occasionally in g/cm³ (or g/cc). Fresh water (FW) is usually considered to
have a density of 1000kg/m³ (In fact it depends on how ‘fresh’ the water is
and on its temperature). Since there are 1000kg in 1 tonne the density may
also be written as 1 t/m³. Converting into g/cm³ takes a little more thought.
There are 1000 gm in a Kg and therefore 1,000,000g in a tonne.
1m³ is a cube with each side of 100cm. The volume of this cube is thus:
100cm x 100cm x 100cm or 1,000,000 cm³.
The density of FW is thus
 1 000 000 g/1 000 000cm³ or

 simply 1 g/cm³ or
 1000kg/m3 or
 1 t/m3
Figure 2.4 Relationship between a Kilogram to a gram

Relative Density is the density of a substance compared to the density of
FW.
Relative Density = RD =
Mathematically this results in Density of substance being divided by 1000.

(This means the decimal point is moved 3 numbers to the left.)
/
e.g. Relative Density of Saltwater = = 1.025
/
Note in this expression the density of the substance and FW must have the
SAME units. Relative density thus has no units.
Relative Density is a ratio and therefore has no units.
SW Density 1025 kg/m³ RD 1.025

FO Density 850 kg/m³ RD 0.850
FW Density 1000 kg/m³ RD 1.000
Relative Density is also known as Specific Gravity (SG).
In practice the density of sea water will vary with many factors. A
standard value is thus adopted of 1025 kg/m³ or 1.025 t/m³ or RD 1.025
and this should always be used unless told otherwise. Ship stability booklets
are often written assuming this density which can then be corrected for the
actual density being experienced by the vessel.
Thus, if we know the RD of a substance we can get its density in

whatever units we require by putting the density of FW in those units in the
above expression.
Example
A substance has an RD of 0.72. What is the density in kg/m³ and in t/m³?
RD 0.72 X 1000 kg/m³ = 720 kg/m³

RD 0.72 X 1 t/m³ = 0.72 t/m³

For the exam - Understand the difference between Density and Relative
Density, how to recognize each in a statement giving information about a
substance and be aware of which formula uses which.
Density Density Relative Density

Liquid
(kg/m³) (t/m³) no units
Salt Water (SW) 1025 1.025 1.025
Freshwater (FW) 1000 1.000 1.000
Fuel Oil (FO) 850 0.850 0.850
HYDROMETER
A Marine Hydrometer measures the RD of a liquid.
Figure 2.5 Hydrometers
To use a Hydrometer:
 get a bucket of water from over the side of the yacht (a metal bucket
is useful as trying to get water in a plastic bucket from any height can
be tricky)
 lower the hydrometer into the water, spinning it gently to break the
water tension
 once it is settled from spinning and bobbing up and down, read the RD
off the scale
 take the average from 3 readings
Remember - do not mix up Hydrometer and Hygrometer (covered in the

Meteorology module).

2.2 THE ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE AND THE LAW OF FLOTATION
Archimedes Principle
Archimedes was a Greek mathematician and inventor born in 290 BC

in Sicily (modern day Italy).
Among the many things, he discovered (in this case with the help of a
royal crown and taking a bath if legend is to be believed) was that:
“Any body, completely or partially, submerged in a fluid (liquid

or gas) at rest is acted upon by an upward, or buoyant, force
the magnitude of which is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body.”
This is known as the Archimedes Principle (and is also referred to

as the Hydrostatic Principle and the Physical Law of Buoyancy).

FLOTATION
The Law of Flotation is an application of the Archimedes Principle and it

states that:
“For a vessel to float, it must displace a weight of water equal

to its own weight.”
When a body is placed in a liquid, the immersed portion of the body

will displace its own volume of the liquid. If the body displaces its own weight
of the liquid before it displaces its own total volume, then it will float in that
liquid, otherwise it will sink.
Figure 2.7 Law of Flotation
From this Law, we can see that whether an object floats or sinks, is
based on not only its weight, but also the amount of water it displaces. That
is why a very heavy ocean liner can float. It displaces a large amount of
water.
Archimedes principle works for any fluid, but as mariners we are

mainly concerned with two different fluids: fresh water, and salt water. We
need to think of fresh water and salt water as two different fluids because
equal volumes of fresh water and salt water do not weigh the same.

Thought Experiment
You may like to try the following experiment. Take

an empty bucket and keeping the open end above
water, push the bucket into a bath of water. You will
discover that it requires quite an effort to push the
bucket below the water. The greater the immersion
of the bucket the greater the force you have apply.
Once the bucket fills up and goes under the situation
changes considerably. The upthrust of the water
virtually disappears. This is because the bucket is
displacing less volume now.
When a ship is floating at rest on the surface, the weight of the vessel
acting downwards must be equal to the upthrust, or as we usually call it the
force of buoyancy, acting upwards. Otherwise the vessel would move up or
down. As it is usually more convenient to use mass units than force units, we
can quote the Law of Flotation, thus:
“When a vessel is floating freely, the mass of the vessel is equal to the
mass of liquid displaced by the vessel”.
Ships are too big to put on a pair of scales and ‘weigh’. We can,
however, use the above law to find the mass of the ship by measuring the
volume it displaces and multiplying this by the density of the water it is
floating in.

VOLUME OF DISPLACEMENT AND DISPLACEMENT
Take a box-shaped vessel.
The Dimensions are Length x Breadth x Depth: LxBxD
Now float this box-shaped vessel in water. If the underwater volume or

“volume of displacement” is multiplied by the density of the water in which
the ship is floating, the weight of the ship (her displacement tonnage) can be
found.
Figure 2.8 Underwater Volume
Underwater Volume (V) = Volume of Displacement = L x B x d

Displacement (Δ) = Underwater Volume x Relative Density
= V x RD
= L x B x d x RD
Unit of Displacement is tonne (t)
Displacement can also be referred to as Weight and as Mass

Displacement
Remember!
It is the underwater volume not the volume of the entire vessel so you must
use draft not Depth.
Also make sure you know if you are being given Density or RD and convert
accordingly if required.

Example
A box shaped vessel has the following dimensions:
length of 40 m, breadth of 8 m and a depth of 4 m.
Calculate the displacement if it is floating in salt water of RD 1.025 at a

draft of 1.8 m.
Displacement = Length x Breadth x draft x RD

= 40 x 8 x 1.8 x 1.025
= 590.400 t
Answer Displacement = 590.40 t
RESERVE BUOYANCY
Reserve Buoyancy is the enclosed/watertight volume of the vessel

above the waterline.
Figure 2.9 Reserve Buoyancy
Reserve Buoyancy = L x B x Freeboard in m³
It can also be expressed as a percentage of the total volume of the vessel.

CHANGES IN DRAFT
Remember that a vessel will sink to a deeper draft when in less dense water.
We have the equation: Δ = L x B x d x RD
If we wish to find draft d =
Length (L), and beam (B) are both constant Therefore draft will change with
a change in:
 Displacement (Δ)
 Relative Density (RD)
Δ increases (e.g. loading additional weight aboard)

→ draft increases.
RD decreases (e.g. going from SW to FW)

→ draft also increases.
For a vessel keeping the same displacement but changing water density this
formula can also be useful:

TPC (TONNES PER CENTIMETRE IMMERSION)
If weights are loaded or unloaded, the draught will change.
The TPC is the number of tonnes needed to change the draft by one
centimetre.
It is calculated by the Naval Architects and given in the Stability Data.
It will vary with draft and trim.
TPC =
When calculating TPC the RD is always 1.025 i.e. SW
The formula you will use in calculations is:
𝐰𝐞𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐫 𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞𝐝

Change in Draft = cm
𝐓𝐏𝐂
You will either be given TPC in the question or you will extract the value from
the Hydrostatic Tables.

TPC (TONNES PER CENTIMETRE IMMERSION)
Further explanation
How is it calculated?
YOU ARE NOT REQUIRED TO LEARN THIS PROOF

but it may help you understand TPC a little better.
Take the area of the water plane
Give it a depth of one cm
It now has a volume
Figure 2.10 TPC
W = Volume of Displacement x RD
w = weight to load to change draft 1cm = Vol of Displacement x RD

= L x B x Cw x d x RD
= L x B x Cw x 1cm x RD
= Area x 0.01m x RD
Area x RD
=
100
WPA x RD
TPC =
100
When calculating TPC the RD is always 1.025 i.e. SW

FRESH WATER ALLOWANCE
The Summer Load Displacement is the weight of the vessel when she
is loaded to her Summer Load Line in SW.
If she is floating in FW with the same displacement (weight) she will

have a deeper draft.
However, this would mean that her Summer Load Line would be
submerged, and it would look like the master was breaking the Load Line
Regulations and loading the vessel too heavily. For cargo vessels this would
mean that loading in FW ports would mean carrying less cargo.
To allow a vessel to load to her correct SW displacement in FW the

Naval Architect calculates an allowance called the Fresh Water Allowance
(FWA). It is the distance the vessel can be submerged over
the Summer Load Line whilst floating in FW.
It is calculated as Summer Load Displacement divided by four times the TPC.
𝑺𝒖𝒎𝒎𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

FWA = mm
𝟒 𝐓𝐏𝐂
Alternatively, it can be calculated as:
FWA = 1 48th of the Summer Load Draft
It is not usually calculated in this manner but just as an alternative if

Displacement or TPC are not available.
Why 1 48th?
It is from before metric was introduced and the allowance was a quarter inch
per foot of the summer load draft.)
FWA is stated in the hydrostatic particulars for a vessel.
FWA is in millimetres (mm).

Calculation Examples:
Question Type 1: Calculate the displacement of a box shaped vessel for a

given draught and relative density.
1. A box shaped vessel has the dimensions 90 m x 20 m x 8 m depth.

Calculate the displacement if it is floating in salt water of RD
1.020 at a draught of 6.2 meters.
W = L x B x d x RD
W = 90 x 20 x 6.2 x 1.020 W = 11383.2 t
Answer Displacement = 11,383.2 tonnes
Question Type 2: Calculate the draught and freeboard for a box-shaped

vessel given the displacement and relative density.
2. A box shaped vessel has the dimensions 20 m x 8 m x 4 m Depth.

Calculate draft and freeboard if it has a displacement of 492
tonnes and is floating in salt water of RD 1.025.
W = L x B x d x RD
W 492
d= d=
L x B x RD 20 x 8 x 1.025
492
d= d = 3.0 m
164
Freeboard = Depth - draft

= 4.0 - 3.0
= 1.0 m
Answer Draft = 3.0 m Freeboard = 1.0 m

3. A box shaped vessel has the dimensions 90 m x 20 m x 9 m depth.
Calculate the draft and freeboard if it has a displacement of
14998.5 tonnes and is floating in salt water of RD 1.010.
L x B x d x RD = W
90 x 20 x d x 1.010 = 14998.5
1818 x d = 14998.5
d = 14998.5 / 1818
d = 8.25 m
Freeboard = Depth - Draft

= 9.0 – 8.25
= 0.75 m
Answer Draft = 8.25 m Freeboard = 0.75 m
ALWAYS INCLUDE A DIAGRAM IN THE EXAM!

4. A box-shaped vessel is floating in a port where density of water is
1.018 t/ m³ at a draft of 3.6 m. L: 39.2 m B: 10.8 m
Summer Load Draft: 3.96 m
Calculate the following:

a) Present volume of displacement
b) Present mass displacement
c) Summer displacement volume
d) Summer displacement mass
Solutions:
Volume Displacement V =LxBxd

= 39.2 x 10.8 x 3.6
= 1524.096 m³
Weight displacement W = L x B x d x RD
= 1524.096 x 1.018
= 1551.529 t
Summer Displacement Volume V =LxBxd

= 39.2 x 10.8 x 3.96
= 1676.506 m³
Summer Displacement W = L x B x d x RD (SW)

= 39.2 x 10.8 x 3.96 x 1.025
= 1718.418 t
Answers
a) Present volume of displacement = 1524.10 m³
b) Present mass displacement = 1551.53 t
c) Summer displacement volume = 1676.51 m³
d) Summer displacement mass = 1718.42 t

THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTS
If a weight (which is a force) is applied to a lever, a “Moment” is generated.

It is a measure of the turning effect of the force about a point.
Moment = force x distance
A distance alone or a weight alone does not make up a moment - it is the

combination of the two.
 Weight being applied is measured in tonnes (t)
 Length of the lever or distance from the pivot is measured in meters

(m)
 Resulting compound unit=tonnes x meters or tonne-meters (t-m)
2 meters 1 meter
Figure 2.11 Moments
For the beam to be in equilibrium, it must be balanced.
Moments on Left-Hand Side (LHS) must equal moments on Right-Hand Side

(RHS).
Example above:
Moments of Left-Hand Side: 1 tonne x 2 metres = 2 tonne-metres

Moments on Right-Hand Side: 2 tonnes x 1 metre = 2 tonne-metres
Hence, the beam is in equilibrium.
A force can be represented graphically by a vector:
 length of the vector represents the magnitude of the force

 direction of the vector represents the direction in which the force is
applied

Two forces of equal magnitude acting upon a body in opposite
directions, but offset, will create a rotational moment (or couple) which will
tend to rotate the body.
Figure 2.12 Rotational Moment
HYDROSTATICS AND STABILITY REVIEW
You have now completed most of Topic 9: Basic principles of hydrostatics and
related terms.
a) Define density and relative density of a substance.

b) State a marine hydrometer is used to measure Relative Density of
dock water.
c) State the Law of Flotation and Archimedes Principle.
d) Define the terms:
 light displacement,
 load displacement,
 deadweight,
 buoyancy,
 reserve buoyancy
 TPC
 KM
e) State that Displacement (∆) is equal to the Underwater Volume x
relative density of the liquid displaced. ∆ = V x RD
f) Calculate the displacement of a box shaped vessel for a given draught
in liquid of a given relative density.
The following will be included in the next topic after you have been
introduced to Transverse Stability:
g) Can extract the displacement, TPC and KM for a given mean draught
using a hydrostatic table.
h) Can calculate the displacement, change in draught and GM from
tabulated hydrostatic data.

2.3 INITIAL STABILITY
THE CONCEPT OF INITIAL STABILITY
What is the most important thing to know about the stability of a

vessel? Is it the angle at which it will capsize? Is it the angle at which it will
have most righting force if heeled over? Or is the behaviour of the vessel
when heeled over by a very small amount?
All of these, of course, are important but if you think about this in
terms of your everyday life, you will readily see the answer. How often is
your vessel heeled over to its capsizing angle? Hopefully not very often. It
may be that your vessel has a maximum righting force at around 30º. How
often do you get pushed over that far? How often do you get pushed over by
1º?
Every day probably! It is the behaviour of the vessel at or near the

upright which determines how it will behave in a seaway. This is the initial
stability. The angle at which capsize occurs is obviously very important but
the sea conditions in which the Champagne glasses fall over are also
important in a yacht. This is what we are exploring in this section.
SIMPLE HULL SHAPE
Standard notation for lettering for diagrams and equations is that

Capital Letters refer to the ship and small letters refer to a weight
loaded/discharged/moved.
Please have a template or block shape to draw around for your

stability review and the exam. You want to produce big, bold, and very neat
diagrams.
We use a simple hull shape to show the transverse plane (slice through
the ship running athwartships through midships) with the Centre Line
running vertically in the middle of it. The Keel is a constant in this diagram
and is indicated by “K”.

Figure 2.13 Basic Shape for Stability
We now know that ships float because of the Law of Flotation and the
force of buoyancy being equal and opposite to the force of gravity.
Figure 2.14 Force of Gravity
Figure 2.15 Force of Buoyancy

In stability, we combine all the forces of buoyancy into one vector
and we combine all the forces of gravity into another vector giving a
centre through which each is acting.
B is at the centroid of the underwater volume.
Figure 2.16 CoB in an Upright Vessel
The position of B will change with draft and if the vessel is inclined.
Figure 2.17 CoB with change of draft and inclination

G would be at the centre of the volume for an empty box-shape body.
Figure 2.18 CoG in an Empty Box
In a real working vessel, it is the sum of all the vectors of the

weight acting downwards which include the ship itself (W) and the all the
weights on board (w). This means that G will move up or down the CL on
an upright vessel and off the CL on an inclined vessel (more of that later
in this module) depending on the weights onboard.
Figure 2.19 CoG in an Upright Vessel

For an upright vessel, the forces can be shown as:
Figure 2.20 Gravity and Buoyancy Forces
K The keel (fixed and therefore used as a reference point)

G Centre of Gravity (sometimes referred to as CoG) is the centre of
all downward acting forces.
KG Distance from the keel to the vertical centre of gravity is known.
B Centre of Buoyancy (sometimes referred to as CoB) is the centre
of all upward acting forces, or the centre of the immersed portion of the
vessel. This is easily calculated by the Naval Architect.
KB Distance from the keel to the centre of buoyancy.
For the ship to float at rest, the downward force due to gravity must be
opposed by an equal but opposite force acting upwards in the same
vertical line. The combined forces, due to buoyancy, acting upwards
through the Centre of Buoyancy (B) cancel the downward forces due to
gravity.

3.2 HEEL VERSUS LIST
If a ship is inclined from the upright, this may be due to:
 external forces, such as wind or wave action

Ship is said to be Heeled.
 internal forces or an asymmetrical distribution of internal weights

Ship is said to be Listed.
It is important to distinguish these two effects, Heel and List.
Heel is external forces and List is internal.
3.3 HEIGHT OF THE METACENTRE VERSUS METACENTRIC

HEIGHT
As we saw earlier when a vessel is heeled over the underwater volume

alters.
As a result, B moves to the new centre of underwater volume and
becomes B1.
Figure 2.21 Movement of B with Inclination

Figure 2.22 Metacentre
The force of Buoyancy is still acting upwards and where the vertical line
through B1 crosses the CL is another important point in stability – M – the
Metacentre (also referred to as MT, the Transverse Metacentre).
Figure 2.23 Metacentre components

M Metacentre and is the point around which a vessel inclines.
 Position is largely defined by the WPA and varies with
displacement, heel and trim.
 Known for each draft.
 For small angles of inclination (< 10°) it remains on the CL and
vertically above the Centre of Buoyancy. “Small Angle Stability”.
 naval architect provides the vessel with a table or graph of KM
against draft and this is given in the Hydrostatics.
KM – Height of the Metacentre above the keel.

Calculated by the Naval Architect for different drafts and listed in the
Hydrostatics
GM – Metacentric Height, the distance between the Centre of Gravity and

the Metacentre. GM is used as an assessment of initial stability.
Of the four points we use in Transverse Stability (K, B, G, M), the only
one that you as OOW or Master have control over is G.
As a result, the way you load your vessel with fuel, ballast, and toys can
affect the stability of the yacht.
Important – know the difference between Height of the Metacentre and

Metacentric Height. Confusingly very different things!

4.1 HEEL AND THE RIGHTING LEVER
As we saw above the effect of an external force on a vessel is that

she heels over. The angle of inclination depends upon the force causing
the heel and the resistance of the ship to being heeled. The angle of
inclination is usually indicated by θ° (Greek Theta).
When a vessel is upright the forces of Gravity and Buoyancy are

equal and opposite to each other and the vessel is said to be in
equilibrium.
When the vessel is heeled due to an external force such as a wave,

the centre of buoyancy will shift to starboard as the vessel heels. The
buoyancy force vector will shift to starboard as well.
Since the centre of gravity of the vessel (G) does not shift (no
weights have been moved/loaded/discharged), the weight vector acting
down through G is now offset from the buoyancy vector acting upward
through B1.
“G” remains on the centre line, but “B” takes up a new position at
the new centre of the new transverse underwater cross section. This is
“B1”. Vertically above B1 is “M”.
 The downward force acting through “G” remains unchanged, but

the upward force is now through “B1”.
 The value of the forces remains the same, but they are no longer
acting in the same vertical plane.
 This is the force resisting heeling and working to bring the vessel
back to the upright.
 Hence a rotational moment is created which tends to right the

vessel.
Statical Stability (as opposed to Dynamical Stability) is the ability of a

vessel to return to her initial position after being forcibly inclined.

If a horizontal line is drawn from G to intersect the line B1M it will meet
this line at right angles. This point is designated as Z.
Figure 2.24 Righting Lever GZ
 The perpendicular distance between the weight vector and the

buoyancy vector is known as the righting arm or righting lever
 Denoted as GZ
 This is the lever that the vessel uses to return to equilibrium
 i.e. To return to the upright with the forces of buoyancy and gravity
equal and opposite
 The longer the righting arm, the greater is the tendency for the
vessel to return to an upright equilibrium

The Righting Moment is equal to the vessel’s displacement (W) multiplied
by the length of the righting arm:
Righting Moment (tm) = Displacement (t) x Righting Lever (m)

RM = W x GZ
GZ is used as a measure of stability at all angles of inclination. The

longer the righting arm, the greater is the tendency for the vessel to return
to an upright equilibrium.
The vessel must be designed and loaded so that she can withstand
such inclining moments without heeling to excessive angles and so that she
will return to the upright on removal of the heeling forces.
It will be appreciated from the sketch that if the vessel were heeled to
a slightly greater angle a larger wedge would move through a greater
distance creating an increased righting lever. As larger angles of heel are
reached the changing shape of the volume displaced will be such that the GZ
reaches maximum at a certain angle and decreases thereafter.
A graph of righting levers plotted against angle of heel for a vessel at a

given displacement and KG reveals useful information and such a graph is
called a curve of statical stability or GZ curve.
Figure 2.25 GZ Curve

The angle at which the curve cuts the axis indicates the angle at which
B has moved far enough to become vertically beneath G again. At this point
there is no righting lever. Further inclination would cause the vessel to
capsize. In practice, it is the part of the curve up to the maximum GZ which
is of the greatest interest.
It must be remembered that GM on its own is only a measure of the

initial stability of a vessel. However, the shape of the first part of the GZ
curve is very dependent on the metacentre height and thus, for a given
vessel, the value of the GM is a useful measure of stability. However, what is
a satisfactory GM for one vessel may not be so for another.
TENDER VERSUS STIFF
The Metacentric Height (GM) is a measure of the ship’s transverse

stability. For a given condition of loading (displacement) GM remains
constant.
In the triangle GZM GZ varies with both the angle of inclination (θ°)
and with the location of G. GZ gets longer with an increase in GM or an
increase in θ°.
Figure 2.26 Increase in GZ

A reasonable GM is required for as large a range of heel as possible.
However, a large initial GM is only part of the picture.
If the GM is excessive, the forces trying to right a vessel can become

dangerous. The roll will be short and sharp, and the ship is said to be stiff
and may suffer structural damage in extreme cases.
It is normal to start a long voyage in a slightly stiff condition since fuel

and stores stowed low in the ship will be consumed, causing the Centre of
Gravity to rise, reducing GM and therefore the stability. It is important to
ensure that the ship will have an adequate margin of stability in the arrival
condition.
Stiff Condition Tender Condition
Figure 2.27 Stiff and Tender Conditions
Certain vessels, such as cruise liners and yachts, prefer a tender

condition. This is a short GZ which returns the vessel to the upright position
in a slow and gentle motion giving a very comfortable ride for the
passengers. However, the Master and Officers must be careful that GM
is not too short as to make the vessel become unstable.
What is considered a “normal GM”?

Kemp and Young in “Ship Stability” suggest Tankers 0.3m – 1.0m, Container
ships 1.5m, and Bulk-ore carriers 1 – 3m as typical GMs when fully loaded.

Figure 2.28 GZ Curve
Large GM (Stiff Condition)

Advantages
1. More safety in case of flooding after damage or in case of a shift of
cargo or ballast
2. Less tendency for water to break over weather decks
Disadvantages
1. Fast period and large amplitude of roll with consequent rapid angular
acceleration
2. Severe racking stresses and discomfort to passengers and crew
3. Greater tendency to synchronize
4. More likelihood of cargo or ballast shift
Small GM (Tender Condition)

Advantages
1. Slow period and small amplitude of roll, with consequent slow angular
acceleration
2. Racking stresses minimised; greater passenger and crew comfort
3. Less tendency to synchronize
4. Less likelihood of cargo or ballast shift
Disadvantages
1. Less safety in case of flooding after damage or in case of a shift in
cargo or ballast
2. More tendency for water to break over weather decks
3. Dangerous rolling if synchronization does occur

STABLE, NEUTRAL & UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM
The GM of a vessel is a measure of its transverse stability and the

position of G in relation to M, whether below, on or above it, dictates whether
the vessel has positive, neutral, or negative stability and whether it is in
stable, neutral or unstable equilibrium.
“Equilibrium” is a state of rest or balance due to equal action of

opposing forces.
A vessel has heeled over due to an external force. What happens once
that external force has been removed is dependent on the GM and resulting
GZ. In mechanics we say that if, when the vessel is disturbed from her initial
position by external forces, she tends to return to that position then she is in
STABLE EQUILIBRIUM.
If this disturbance produces a tendency to move further away from the

initial position on removal of the disturbing forces, then the vessel is said to
be UNSTABLE EQUILIBRIUM
Is the vessel able to return to upright?

Stable Equilibrium
Figure 2.29 Stable Equilibrium
When G lies below M the vessel will possess positive stability. The
righting moment GZ will have a tendency to right the vessel until G and M
are once again in vertical alignment in stable equilibrium. The vessel is said
to have a Positive GM and a Positive Righting Lever
Neutral Equilibrium
Figure 2.30 Neutral Equilibrium
For Small Angle Stability (when Initial Metacentre exists on the C/L) if G and
M are in the same place, or nearly so, the vessel will have neutral stability.
It has a GM of Zero and no Righting Lever.

Unstable Equilibrium
Figure 2.31 Unstable Equilibrium
If G is above M, the vessel has negative stability and a negative

Righting Moment or “Capsizing Moment” is generated.
This means that the lever will rotate the vessel to a further incline and
eventual capsize.
ANGLE OF LOLL
Figure 2.32 Angle of Loll
How does it come about?
 It starts with a vessel in unstable equilibrium with G very slightly above

M i.e. ready to produce a small negative righting lever
 If an external force is applied, the vessel will heel over, and this small
capsizing lever will start to incline the vessel still further
 At some degree of heel, the vessel will leave the realms of initial
statical stability and B will no longer be acting through the initial
metacentre
 The vessel will incline until B moves under G. This angle of inclination is
known as the Angle of Loll.
 With any further heeling beyond this point, B will move out further
away from the centre line and more importantly, further away from G
creating a small righting lever. This will return the vessel to the Angle
of Loll
 If the initial negative GM is too great there is a risk that B will never
reach the point where it is under the G and the vessel will capsize

Loll versus List (come back to this after reading Module 2.5)
It is important to distinguish between Angle of Loll with starting with

an initial condition of negative stability and Angle of List with positive
stability.
A listing ship with positive stability is relatively safe.
A ship at an Angle of Loll with no positive stability is in a very

precarious condition and positive stability must immediately be developed.
Before taking corrective action confirm the situation. It is list or loll?

Remember that with loll, the vessel can take up the same angle of heel on
the other side but cannot if listing. List is due to an off-centre G and will
always oscillate about the list angle. It is therefore important to recognise
whether the angle of heel is due to list or loll as taking the wrong action
could cause capsize.
The danger with loll is that a suddenly applied moment to the high
side may cause the vessel to lurch beyond the upright, gain momentum and
roll to the other side. This sudden movement may cause a shift of weights
within the vessel creating a greater angle (combined list & loll) that could
cause deck edge immersion, impair stability and possible capsize. Failure to
recognise the situation and thinking the vessel is listed and employ the
wrong corrective action could aggravate the situation with the same results.
As loll is caused by KG being above KM then the aim is to reduce KG and
restore a positive GM, but any action taken must avoid creating a sudden or
dynamic movement.
The immediate measures must lower G even if this means a

temporary increase in inclination.
This is an extremely dangerous condition!
Remove top weight from the high side or increase bottom

weight by filling low or double bottom tanks on the low side.

Figure 2.33 Loll Stability Graph
How to correct Loll
To achieve a reduction in KG under a controlled manner the following can be

considered:
 Check the state of the tanks and reduce free surface to the narrower
width tanks.
 Lower weights in the vessel; remove weights from above G taking care
to remove those from the high side first.
 Add weights below G and add to the low side first.
The reaction to the foregoing will create a greater angle and might
appear to be contradictory but this will not induce any sudden motion and
the situation will be kept under control.

Ballasting
Reducing KG by ballasting a sub-divided double bottom tank is

probably the most practicable action to take but note that the heel angle will
be increased even further due to the of free surface effect. A reduction in GM
is caused as the tank fills and the free surface width increases but once it
strikes the tank top causing a reduction in the free surface width, the ‘solid’
effect of ballasting will become more pronounced and override the virtual rise
in G. The high side can then be filled to make the vessel upright with
(hopefully) a positive GM is albeit small. Further action can then be taken to
improve the situation.
Neutral Equilibrium
It should be mentioned that a vessel can be in a situation of neutral

equilibrium which occurs when GM = Ø, i.e. KG = KM. Whilst it is possible for
a ship form to be in this condition in the upright it will, on heeling to an angle
greater than that where the metacentre remains constant, generate positive
righting moments.
Homogeneous bodies of circular cross section (e.g. a drum or a log)

floating with half its volume submerged will be in neutral equilibrium at all
angles.

LIST
What is the Centre of Gravity?
The behaviour of our vessel in different sea conditions discussed above

is partly determined by the position of the vessel’s ‘centre of gravity’. We
need to know not only the magnitude of the forces acting on the vessel (i.e.
the weight of the ship and force of buoyancy for the static vessel) but their
points of application in order to assess what rotational effect they will have.
It is important to appreciate the direction which the vessel’s centre of

gravity moves when a weight is loaded, discharged, or moved. Consider a
homogenous cube. The centre of gravity of the cube is at its geometric
centre, i.e. at half height. Now add an identical cube on top of the first.
The centre of gravity of the new total body will be at the centre of its
volume which is now at half height and half breadth of the new volume. From
this we can see that the centre of gravity of the body has moved directly
towards the centre of gravity of the added part. Similarly, if the upper cube is
removed, the centre of gravity returns to its original position.
Consider the two cubes one on the top of the other. Now move the
upper cube and place it alongside the lower cube.
The centre of gravity of the moved cube thus moves from g to g1.
Also, the centre of gravity of the system moves from G to G1. Now, either by
scale drawing or geometry, satisfy yourself that the movement of G to G1 is
parallel to the movement of g to g1.

G will move:
 towards a weight loaded
 away from a weight discharged
 parallel to a weight moved
Applying the principle of moments to a ship:
 The weight of the ship is acting through the transverse centre of

gravity of the ship
 Each piece of material in the ship has a weight, which acts downwards
 This is the force due to gravity
 It is convenient to combine all these forces into one for the whole ship
and this is the Centre of Gravity, defined as the point through which all
the individual forces of gravity can be said to act.
 If a ship is upright, the sum of the moments on the port side is equal
to the sum of the moments on the starboard side
 When the distribution of weights is asymmetrical, and the port side

moments do not equal the starboard side moments the vessel will be
inclined.
 As this is due to internal forces this is an Angle of List

The Movement of the Centre of Gravity
For the ship, the CoG is represented by the capital letter “G”.
For individual weights on the ship, the lower-case letter “g” is used for
the CoG.
Figure 2.34 Asymmetrical Weights about CL
In the figure above, weight has been shifted laterally from the
centreline outboard, causing a shift in the vessel’s centre of gravity from
G to G1.
This creates a rotational moment which causes the vessel to list to the
heavy side.
When the vessel inclines toward the heavy side, the centre of buoyancy B
shifts to the low side.
The vessel will incline until it reaches an equilibrium level of list where B 1
and G1 are vertically in line, as illustrated in the figure below.
The vessel will roll about this equilibrium angle of list.
If C of G is not on the centre line, the vessel will be LISTED, not

heeled.
The structure of a ship is constant and the “KG” in the light
condition will have been established by the inclining test. In a passenger
ship or a yacht, the only variables will be passengers, crew, fuel, fresh
water, and stores.
An assumption is made for the number of people per tonne and

how they are likely to be distributed between the various decks. In
general cargo ships, the problem is far more complex and involved.
However simple or complex, the working process remains the same in all
cases.
The largest weight is the ship “W” and “KG” is the distance.
Each individual weight “w” will have its own “Kg”. (Distance from K to g
and NOT kilograms).
G will move:
 towards a weight loaded
 away from a weight discharged
 parallel to a weight moved
Figure 2.35 Movement of G off Centreline resulting in Angle of List

2.4 SUSPENDED WEIGHTS
Whenever weights are moved using cranes or derricks, the centre of

gravity of the ship is affected.
The instant the weight is hoisted by the crane, the effective centre of
gravity (g) of the weight moves to the head of the crane or derrick (g1). This
point is known as either the 'apparent’, ‘effective’ or ‘virtual’ centre of gravity
of the weight.
This is called the Point of Suspension (POS).
It has no relevance to the actual height of the weight. Once the weight
is hoisted, its centre of gravity moves to the Point of Suspension.
This applies to weights which are free to swing. This does not apply to
weights which are constrained such as lifts, elevators, or ramps.
Thus, the effect of lifting a weight is to increase KG and reduce GM, reducing
the vessel’s stability. It is wise to assess the stability condition before lifting a
weight.
In the example below, a weight (g) is being lifted from the deck amidships
and landed to the quay.
 As the weight is hoisted, g rises to the point of suspension. The ship’s

own centre of gravity also rises, from G to G1.
 As the weight is slewed out, g moves outboard and, again G follows

(points g2 and G2, respectively).
 When the weight is released from the crane, G returns to the centre
line, but somewhat lower in the ship at G3, since when originally on
deck g was above G.

Figure 2.36 Suspended Weights
Before lifting heavy weights with a crane, it is essential to ensure that:
 The ship has adequate stability

 Free Surface (to be discussed later) is reduced to a minimum
 Maximum angle of list during the operation has been calculated in
advance
 It is known whether it is possible to counter ballast the ship to reduce
this angle
 The task is properly planned, and appropriate equipment and
personnel are available
 Moorings are tended and adequate fendering is available
Questions in the exams have been asked on loading, offloading, and moving
a weight from the portside to starboardside. Make sure you can draw and
explain all versions.

2.5 FREE SURFACE EFFECT
If water or any fluid is free to move transversely across a ship, the

effective transverse stability of the ship will be reduced due to “Free Surface
Effect”.
This is considered as a virtual rise in G leading to a reduction in GM or
increase in KG.
Figure 2.37 Free Surface Effect

Referring to the sketch and considering small angles of heel only, the
actual position of the vessel’s centre of gravity after the liquid has moved is
G1 and the actual righting lever at this angle of heel G1 to Z. Now we would
get the same value for the righting value if the vessel’s centre of gravity was
anywhere in the vertical through G1. So, if we assume the vessel’s centre of
gravity to be at Gv, the righting lever measured there i.e.
Gv-Zv, is equal to the vessel’s actual righting lever G1-Z.
Thus, the vessel may be said to behave as if her centre of gravity,

instead of moving from G to G1 is raised from G to Gv. G can be termed the
‘solid’ centre or gravity or Gs. The effect of free surface can then be assessed
in terms of an increase in KG or a loss of GM.
Note that we use an imaginary point Gv in order to assess what is

actually happening and so, having assumed that the vessel’s centre of
gravity is raised from Gs to Gv we can then ignore the movement of liquid in
the tank.
Unfortunately, terminology in this topic tends to vary somewhat with

different authorities. Thus, the metacentric height corrected for the effect of
free surface may be referred to as: the corrected metacentric height, the
apparent metacentric height, the effective metacentric height, the virtual GM,
or the fluid GM. All these terms mean the same thing. Similarly, the vessel
may be said to have a solid or fluid KG or an actual, apparent or effective KG.
In practice, the free surface correction FSC is computed and subtracted from
the solid GM:
GM Virtual = GM Solid – FSC
 If water is allowed to accumulate in a ship at sea, it will move towards

the low side, increasing the roll and reducing stability
 Position of tank in the vessel makes no difference to the free surface

effect. Whether the tank is on the vessel’s centreline or to one side, or
whether the tank is above or below the vessel’s centre of gravity.
 Tanks which are full are said to be pressed up, are not subject to Free
Surface Effect and are not a problem
 Empty tanks are not subject to Free Surface Effect and are not a
problem

 A tank is generally considered to be slack if it is between 5% and 95%
full. Slack tanks are subject to Free Surface Effect
 Slack tanks (partially filled tanks) can cause problems whether the
contents be water or oil
 Density of liquid. For a given angle of heel, the more dense the liquid,
the greater the mass that moves and hence the greater the heeling
moment caused. Thus, free surface effect, FSE, varies directly as the
density of the liquid in the tank.
 Vessel’s displacement. A given moment applied to a vessel will cause a

greater effect as the vessel’s displacement decreases. Thus, FSE varies
inversely as displacement.
 Depth of liquid. In a rectangular tank the same volume of liquid will be

moved whatever the depth of the liquid in the tank, providing the
liquid surface does not intersect the tank top or bottom, and the tank
is heeled to the same angle.
 The construction of the tank usually includes measures to reduce free

surface effect
 In the design stage, free surface can be minimized by fitting more and
smaller tanks instead of having few large ones
 The length of the tank is not the major issue
 It is the beam of the tank (actually the cube of the beam). If the
breadth of the tank is doubled not only does the mass of liquid moved
change, but also the distance through which it moves. It may be
shown that FSE varies proportionately with the breadth of tank cubed.
 Therefore, reducing the beam of the tank is the most effective

measure in reducing Free Surface Effect.
 Effective management of tanks, keeping partially filled tanks to a

minimum will reduce free surface effect.
Uncontrolled free surface effect has caused the loss of many ships.

Swimming Pools on Yachts – special caution required!
These are often located high in the ship and the weight of water in the
pool coupled with the free surface effect can cause a serious reduction in the
stability of the ship.
Even relatively small hot tubs and whirlpools will adversely affect
stability. If there is any doubt about the stability, these should be drained
down.
All pools, hot tubs and whirlpools should have quick acting drain
valves. If the ship is in heavy rain or is shipping spray, water can accumulate
and reduce the stability. There is no point in keeping pools filled in rough
weather, as they cannot be used.
There have been two recent incidents of passenger ships applying

large rudder angles at speed. The resulting heel caused water to spill out of
swimming pools and injury to passengers who were washed out of the pools.
FLUME TANK STABLIZERS
Ships can benefit from Free Surface Effect when it is used in the Flume
Tank Stabilizer System. Water is allowed to flow across the ship but is
delayed by a series of baffles. As the ship roll to port, the water also flows to
port, but is delayed. By the time the water reaches the port side, the ship
has rolled to starboard. The water is delayed and is acting opposite to the
roll, thus reducing the amount of roll.

2.6 STABILITY DATA
Stability Data and Displacement
Ships are required to carry stability information. It must be in a language and

format readily understood by ship’s officers.
 This indicates that all deck officers must be familiar with the stability
data supplied to ships.
 Information may be a series of curves on a graph or graphs or it may
be in tabular form.
 Often, the various items are given for various sample conditions of
loading such as departure fully loaded, arrival fully loaded, and ballast
departure and ballast arrival
 In either graph or table form, the draft is the vertical coordinate.
The most important items at a given draft are as follows:
 Displacement
 KMT - Transverse Metacentre (Keel to Transverse Metacentre)
(There is a Longitudinal Metacentre, but it is not used for stability
calculations.)
 KB - Transverse Centre of Buoyancy
 TPC - Tonnes per Centimetre
 MCTC – Moment to Change Trim by One Centimetre
 LCF - Longitudinal Centre of Flotation
 LCB - Longitudinal Centre of Buoyancy
The stability book will also state which openings must be secured
before putting to sea.
The minimum GM will also be stated. This is calculated to give the ship
positive stability in the worst case of damage condition (See Reserve
Buoyancy).

Consider a box shaped vessel 25m long x 4m beam x 3m depth. The
displacement graph can be plotted as shown for the vessel in salt
water.
The displacement curve is a graphical presentation of draught against

displacement and forms part of the ‘hydrostatic data’ supplied to all ships.
The curve usually commences at about light displacement (see definition
above) and is drawn to just above deep displacement. Unless told otherwise,
it is assumed that the vessel is floating in salt water and so if this is not the
case the displacement taken directly from the data should be corrected.
Draught (m) Submerged Volume (m³) Displacement (t)

0 0 0
1 100 102.5
2 200 205
3 300 307.5
What we have here is a displacement graph and table for the barge.
Every vessel for which stability data is produced has such a graph or table
(sometimes both) – they are useful because they can tell us the ‘weight’ or
displacement of a vessel for any draught. In this case, we can tell that the
vessel is box shaped because of the shape of the graph; a straight line. On a
real vessel with an aqua-dynamic hull shape the line would curve upwards
because the shape of the underwater hull varies greatly with draught.
Hydrostatic Particulars
DRAFT DISPLACEMENT TPC KM
Meters Tonnes Tonnes Meters

1.25 49.13 0.85 3.66
1.30 53.49 0.87 3.59
1.35 57.94 0.88 3.47
1.40 62.39 0.89 3.39
1.45 66.90 0.90 3.31
1.50 71.46 0.91 3.25
Hydrostatic particulars are developed for vessel lying on
an even keel in salt water (RD 1.025)
Examples for Calculations
1. Extract the Displacement, TPC and KM from the hydrostatic data

for a given mean draught using a tabulated presentation.
Example: Find the Displacement, TPC and KM for the fast motor yacht if it
has a draught of 1.40 meters.
Answer: Displacement 62.39 t, TPC 0.89 t, KM 3.39 m
If we need to, then interpolate the tabulated information. (Halfway

mean draught will be acceptable).
Example: Find the Displacement, TPC and KM for the fast motor yacht if it
has a draught of 1.45 meters.
Answer: Displacement 66.90 t, TPC 0.90 t, KM 3.31 m

2. Estimate the change in draught and displacement from
displacement and TPC scales using a tabulated presentation.
Example: The fast motor yacht has a draft of 1.30 meters and then loads
10.44 tonnes. Find the new draft and displacement.
From Table:
Draft of 1.30m gives:
 Displacement = 53.49 tonnes
 TPC = 0.87
.
Change in draft = = = 12 cm = 0.12 m
.
New Draft = Old Draft + Sinkage

= 1.30 + 0.12
= 1.42 m
New Displacement = Old Displacement + Load

= 53.49 + 10.44
= 63.93 t
Answer
New Draft = 1.42 m
New Displacement = 63.93 t

Hydrostatic Data can also be supplied in the form of curves

INITIAL STABILITY REVIEW
You have now completed Topic 9 and Topic 10. Initial stability. During your
review, you should make sure you can:
a) Define the terms:
 centre of gravity,
 centre of buoyancy,
 transverse metacentre,
 metacentric height,
 righting lever
 righting moment
b) Draw a diagram for a vessel in stable equilibrium, heeled to a small
angle to show:
 The positions and forces through the centre of gravity and
centre of buoyancy.
 The development of righting and capsizing moments.
 Describe the creation of the righting lever and the transverse
metacentre.
c) state that righting moment (RM) = GZ x displacement.
d) State that metacentric height (GM) can be used as an assessment of
initial stability.
e) Describe the motion of stiff and tender vessels and state the
f) Identify, using diagrams, the difference between stable, neutral, and
unstable equilibrium.
g) Describe the effect on GM due to adding, removing, and transferring
weights including fuel and water.
h) State the effect on GM of a suspended weight.
i) State that the effect of free surface can be considered as a reduction in
GM or a rise in KG and this change is known as the Free Surface
Correction.
j) Describe the importance of draining swimming pools.
From Topic 9
g) Extract the displacement, TPC and KM for a given mean draught using
a hydrostatic table.
h) Calculate the displacement, change in draught and GM from tabulated
hydrostatic data.

MODULE 3: METEOROLOGY

1. Draw a diagram showing the general global pressure distribution.
2. Describe, with the aid of a sketch, the general circulation of wind over
the earth’s surface.
3. Describe the modifying effect of large landmasses on the general
4. Describe the modifying effect of large landmasses on the general
5. State and describe the practical use of Buys Ballot’s Law.
6. Define the ITCZ.
7. Describe the conditions associated with the ITCZ, Trade Winds and
Subtropical Anti Cyclones
8. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the formation of land and sea
breezes.
9. Describe katabatic winds and the associated dangers.
10. Describe how local effects may modify winds caused by pressure
11. Define dew point and relative humidity.
12. Describe the formation of cloud.
13. Describe the formation of Advection fog, Frontal fog, Radiation fog.
14. Describe the operation and use of the aneroid barometer.
15. Outline the function of the barograph and its practical use in
16. Describe the use of wet and dry bulb thermometers (Masons
Hygrometers).
17. Demonstrate how the information obtained from a hygrometer can be
used for predicting advection fog as described in the Mariner’s
Handbook (NP 100).
18. Describe the formation of a frontal depression as in NP100.
19. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, a frontal depression showing
20. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, a warm front, cold front and
21. List the published sources of information and sources of broadcast
weather information.
22. Describe a surface analysis chart and a forecast chart and identify the
synoptic features.
23. Determine from a surface analysis chart the strength and direction of
the wind.
3.1 GLOBAL WIND DISTRIBUTION
DEFINITION OF METEOROLOGY
Meteorology may be defined as the study of movements and

phenomena in the earth’s atmosphere, especially with regard to weather
forecasting. Meteorologists obtain information from a wide range of different
sources including manned and unmanned weather stations, radar
installations, weather buoys, ocean weather ships, commercial shipping
airplanes weather balloons, dedicated weather satellites, and so on. This
information is the basis from which, using a combination of skill, experience
and massive computer systems, meteorologists produce weather predictions
or forecasts. Despite the sophisticated equipment and techniques, the
forecaster’s expertise still plays a very significant part in the forecasting
process.
When we use the term ‘weather’ we mean the atmospheric conditions

existing at a specific place over a relatively short period of time. The
conditions of general interest to us normally are whether it is warm or cold,
raining, or dry, sunny, or cloudy, foggy, or clear, windy, or calm and so on.
Yachtsmen are interested principally in wind strength and wind direction as
these are usually the two single factors which have the most effect on
anyone taking a small boat to sea, both from the point of view of safety and
of enjoyment.
Nowadays we are lucky to have easy access to many different sources

of high quality weather forecast information; the aim of this section is to help
you to fully understand these forecasts so that you can form an intelligent
picture of the changes likely to occur in the weather and the sea conditions in
a particular area.
It is important to appreciate that even a basic understanding of

atmospheric conditions and how they interact will help immensely when
trying to decide how the actual weather and sea conditions will develop in a
specific area. In some instances, the following explanations have been
simplified where a full understanding of a complex subject is not required.

ATMOSPHERE
Surrounding the Earth’s surface is a layer of gases, water vapor and

particles which make up the Earth’s atmosphere. This atmosphere has five
very distinct layers each with its own physical and chemical characteristics.
For our needs, we only need to concern ourselves with the first two layers.
The Troposphere is the layer closest to the Earth’s surface. It extends

upwards to approximately 16 km. Within this layer is found all of the global
wind and weather systems making this a very well-mixed and dynamic layer.
This is also the densest part of the atmosphere accounting for most of the
atmospheric pressure found at the surface. As you move upwards through
the layer, the temperature decreases with increasing height. All our weather
occurs in the troposphere.
The next layer is the Stratosphere. Found from approximately 16

kilometres to 48 km this layer is distinctly different from the troposphere.
The stratosphere is very calm virtually no wind at all. There are no weather
systems. What is important about the stratosphere is that this is where the
ozone layer is found. Ozone traps ultraviolet b radiation, allowing for life to
exist at the surface.
The Troposphere is considerably higher at the equator than the poles

the lowest temperature occurs in the Stratosphere in the equatorial region,
despite the high surface temperatures.
Dry air is composed of nitrogen (78% by volume), oxygen (21%)

argon, (1%) and the remainder is made up of trace gasses, which include
ozone (at high altitudes), hydrogen and carbon dioxide. Pollutants are
present in air as well; these include carbon dioxide and various sulphur
dioxides. Air also contains a quantity of water in the form of either water
vapor or droplets of water; the actual percentage of water contained in the
air varies from less than 1% to about 4%. These gases have no effect on the
weather but the other substances such as water vapour, salt and certain
products of combustion have a considerable effect. The amount of water
vapour in the atmosphere varies constantly, increased by evaporation, and
decreased by rain and dew, which accounts to some extent to the variations
in weather in any one place.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The gases and moisture found in the atmosphere give it mass. This
weight of the atmosphere measured at the surface is known as atmospheric
pressure. At sea level one square centimetre of atmosphere weighs about
1.04 kilograms.
Atmospheric weight or pressure can vary depending on the physical

changes to the atmosphere. Changes in temperature, moisture content and
altitude all affect pressure at the surface.
A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
 Measurement is in either millibars (mb) or hectopascals (hPa)
 Both measurements have the same value so 1 mb = 1 hPa
Atmospheric pressure varies throughout the world, very roughly

between 970 millibars and 1030 millibars. Standard or average atmospheric
pressure taken at sea level is considered to be 1013mb.
Most substances, including gasses, expand when they are heated and
contract when they are cooled. Air behaves in this manner; its volume
increases when it is heated and decreases when it is cooled.
This means that when air is heated, it becomes lighter and when it is
cooled it becomes heavier. A place, which has warm air above, it will be
subject to low atmospheric pressure whereas an adjacent place which has
cold air above it will be subject to high atmospheric pressure.
 Low Pressure: Rising, warm air. Tends to be moist

 High Pressure: Falling cool air. Tends to be dry.
The horizontal movement of air is known as wind. Air flows from an

area of high-pressure to an area of low pressure so the wind will blow from
the high-pressure area towards the low-pressure area. The greater the
difference in the pressure between the two places the faster the air will
move, the faster the air moves the stronger will be the wind.
A car or bicycle tire is pumped up to a high pressure; if the tire is

punctured, the air will flow out of the tire (high pressure area) into the
surrounding air (low-pressure area) until the pressure in the tire and the
surrounding area is the same. The higher the initial pressure in the tire the
faster will be the rush of air when the puncture occurs.

ATMOSPHERIC HEATING
There are two major factors that directly influence the formation and
behaviour of wind and weather systems:
1. The tilt of the Earth on its axis and its orbital path around the Sun.
2. The unequal heating and cooling of the Earth’s surface.
Depending on your geographic location, the surface receives between

150 and 300 watts of solar energy per m 2 (think of the heat generated by a
100-watt light bulb). This variation is directly linked to your latitude. Since
the Earth is “tilted” on its axis in relationship to the sun, the equator will
receive more direct sunlight and the Polar Regions receive more indirect
sunlight (think of the temperature variations between the poles and the
equator). As the Earth revolves around the sun the northern and southern
hemispheres take turns tilting more toward the sun, accounting for the
reversal of the seasons between the two hemispheres.
The second most important influence on weather is the unequal

heating and cooling of the Earth’s surface. 71% of the Earth’s surface is
water mostly ocean. As solar energy strikes the land and water it causes both
to heat up. However, they do not heat up at the same rate. Imagine putting
a piece of metal and a piece of wood side by side in the sun. After a few
minutes, you place one hand on each. Are they the same temperature?
Figure 3.1 Solar variations with the seasons

This is known as the Heat Capacity of a substance. It is defined as
the amount of energy required to raise 1 gram of a substance 1 degree
centigrade. Water has a much higher heat capacity than the land, meaning
that it can absorb much more solar energy than the land without raising its
temperature. Think of when you go to the beach barefoot. The sand is very
hot, so you run to the water. The water is much cooler, yet the sand and
water are receiving exactly the same amount of solar energy. The sand has
a lower heat capacity the water a higher capacity.
This heating of the land and water then radiates this heat upwards
causing the air just above it to warm. As air warms it expands, becomes less
dense and rises. As it rises, it cools in the atmosphere and cooler air
increases in density and “sinks” back to Earth.
When you boil a kettle, you put heat into a quantity of water, it boils
and evaporates into ‘water vapour’. This is not tiny droplets of water in the
air; it is atomic particles of water, in other words, it is a gas. If the reverse
process takes place and water vapour is condensed into liquid water this heat
is released. The amount of water vapour than can be held in a given body of
air is determined by the temperature of that air; warm air can hold more
water vapour than cold. When the air is at the maximum saturation for its
temperature it is said to be at its ‘dew point’. From this point one of two
things must happen; either the temperature of the air is increased so that
more water vapour can be held OR it will start to condense into liquid water
and latent heat will be released.
Figure 3.2 Heat Transfer

AIR CIRCULATION
As was explained above when air is heated it becomes lighter and

being lighter than the surrounding air, it will start to rise upward. A hot air
balloon makes a good example, the air trapped in the balloon is heated with
a gas flame so that it expands and becomes lighter than the air surrounding
the outside of the balloon. The “bubble” of light air rises lifting the balloon
with it.
Air, which is heated, will become unstable and rise upwards but as it
ascends through the atmosphere, it will begin to cool until it loses its heat.
When it becomes cold and heavy it will start to descend back to the Earth’s
surface where it will once again be warmed and start to rise again, thus a
continuous system of circulation is set up.
The Bonfire Analogy
A bonfire is often used as an example of how heat begins, and

maintains, a circulation system. When the bonfire is burning, you can clearly
see smoke and sparks being carried upward by the rising air, which has been
heated by the flames. The air which rises up must be replaced and so cooler
surrounding air flows into the base of the fire, causing a draught, or “wind”.
The hot air is cooled and becomes denser as it ascends until it eventually
stops rising and starts to sink back down to ground level.
Finally, it is drawn into the base of the fire where it is heated thus
continuing the cycle until the fire, which is the heat source providing the
energy keeping the circulation going, dies.
Figure 3.3 Bonfire Analogy

WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Water is constantly evaporating from the oceans, seas and lakes and is
absorbed by the air in the form of water vapor. The warmer the air is the
more water vapor it can absorb. This absorption process can be clearly seen
as “steam” after a shower of rain on a hot day. Energy, supplied by the sun
in the form of heat, is required to convert water into water vapor. If the
moist air becomes cooled, the water vapor condenses back into water
droplets causing clouds, fog, and rain; at the same time, the energy
contained in the water vapor is also released back into the atmosphere. This
release of energy is responsible for much of the active weather we
experience.
LAPSE RATE AND ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
The reduction of temperature of the air with height is called the Lapse,
and the rate of fall is called Lapse Rate.
Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) (average 6.5ºC per 1000 metres.)

This is the actual lapse rate at a given location at a given time.
When a parcel of air moves vertically it will change its temperature at

a greater rate because of the energy required to push aside the surrounding
air and is the Adiabatic Lapse Rate which will release latent heat into the air.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is 10.0ºC per 1000 metres is

the rate when the air is dry.
Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) is 5.0ºC per 1000 metres.

(If the air is saturated, it will cool more slowly as more energy is needed to
cool the air.)
On board ship, there is no way of knowing the actual lapse rate (ELR),
but this is very important to weather forecasters and meteorologists.
The lapse rate is a good indicator of the stability or instability of
the atmosphere. An unstable atmosphere suggests formation of clouds and
the probability of precipitation.

Atmospheric Stability
If a small parcel of unsaturated air moves upwards, its temperature

will fall at its Adiabatic Lapse Rate. As it rises, its temperature will get closer
and closer to the surrounding air temperature until it becomes the same,
when it will stop its movement. The atmosphere is said to be Stable for Dry
Air, as rising currents of air will be damped out.
If the surrounding Environmental Lapse rate is such that the rising

parcel of air never reaches the temperature of the surrounding air, it is said
to be Unstable for Dry Air.
Identical processes occur with saturated air and results in atmospheres

referred to as Stable or Unstable for Saturated Air.
A parcel of air between Saturated and Dry will change its temperature
at the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate until the parcel cools sufficient to become
saturated, it reaches what is called its Condensation Level, and then will
change temperature at the Saturated Lapse Rate.
In practical terms, the actual lapse rate will not be known on board a
ship. The normal method used to find it is to launch a meteorological balloon
to which instruments are attached. There are other more sophisticate
methods in use today, such as Doppler radar and weather satellites, but none
of these will be available in a ship. Knowledge of the lapse rate is essential to
meteorologists for weather forecasting. The stability or otherwise of air
masses has a fundamental effect on weather, especially cloud formation and
precipitation.

THE WORLD’S AIR CIRCULATION
As discussed earlier, the heating and cooling of the Earth’s surface and
atmosphere causes air to raise and fall. In a theoretical approach the air
would rise over the equator (the warmest area) and fall over the poles (the
coolest areas). The air would then travel along the surface of the Earth (as
wind) from the poles to the equator, where it would warm again and rise.
However, other factors cause this rising and falling to occur before the
Polar Regions. The air heated over the equator falls back to earth at around
about latitude 30°N and 30°S. As the air rising off the equator is warm,
the atmospheric pressure near the equator will be low; and as the air
descending at 30°N and 30°S is cool, the pressure at these latitudes will be
high. Each hemisphere has two more similar circulation systems giving
a total of three systems or “cells” for each hemisphere. The Hadley Cells are
either side of the Equator, the Polar Cells around the Poles, and the Ferrel
Cells in between.
The figure below shows how areas of high and low pressures would
appear if there were no Coriolis Effect and no large landmasses on
the surface of the earth. However, Coriolis Effect does exist and there are of
course large landmasses, and these have a great effect on the general
weather patterns of the World.
Diagram drawn in class, World winds North /South

CORIOLIS EFFECT
The Earth is revolving continuously around its own axis, completing

one revolution in 24 hours. This spinning causes anything which moves freely
over the Earth’s surface to be deflected to the right of its path in the northern
hemisphere and to be deflected to the left of its path in the southern
hemisphere.
A moving air mass is affected by this force, which is known as Coriolis

force, and air flowing from an area of high pressure to an area of low
pressure will not move in a straight line but will in fact be deflected to
the right of its path in the northern hemisphere. For example, the winds
blowing out of the subtropical high-pressure cell to the equatorial low, in
theory a flow from the north, become north-easterly (the Trades).
Figure 3.4 Global Air Circulation patterns.

Looking at Figure 3.4 above, it can be seen that there are belts of high
and low pressure around the world. If it were not for Coriolis force, the wind
would blow directly from the high-pressure areas to the low-pressure areas.
The wind blowing from the high-pressure belt at 30°N to the low-
pressure area at the equator would be a north wind, that is it would blow
from the north towards the south but Coriolis force deflects it to the right of
its path and so the wind actually blows from the north east. Likewise, the
wind blowing from the high-pressure belt at 30°N to the low-pressure area at
60°N would be a south wind but being deflected to the right of its path it
becomes a west wind. Large, landmasses generate areas of high and low
pressure and large cold landmasses generate areas of high pressure.
So, this rising and falling air along with the Coriolis force, create these
bands of winds (prevailing winds) that travel around the Earth.
The high temperature at the equator creates the Low surface pressure.
The High pressures over the oceans in about 35° Latitudes creates a wind
blowing steadily towards the equator known as the Trade Winds. Owing to
the deflection of the geostrophic force, they will blow from the NE in the
northern hemisphere and from the SE in the south. The main features of the
Northeast and Southeast Trades are their steadiness and persistence. They
blow permanently throughout the year and vary but little in direction. Their
average strength is about force 3-4 Beaufort scale, though at times they may
freshen to force 5 or 6 and at others lull to force 1.
Apart from occasional squalls, winds of gale force are rare, and when
they occur are usually associated with tropical storms. It should be noted
that the Trade winds do not blow in the northern part of the Indian Ocean, or
the western part of the North Pacific, in which areas their place is taken by
the monsoons.
The Doldrums or Equatorial Trough, also known as the

Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The characteristic features of
this zone are calms and light variable winds alternating with squalls, heavy
rain, and thunderstorms. Apart from these short-lived squalls and tropical
cyclones, gales do not occur in this zone.

Variables
In each hemisphere, between the poleward limit of the Trades and the
low latitude limit of the Westerlies, there exists a belt of mainly light or
moderate winds. These winds are known as the Variables and the areas in
which they occur as the Horse Latitudes. These areas are centred
approximately in latitude 30°. Towards the Equator they merge gradually into
the Trades, while poleward they merge into the prevailing Westerlies of
higher latitudes.
The high-pressure area in Northern latitudes above the Trade Winds

are called the Horse Latitudes areas and are also where the winds are light to
calm and variable.
The Horse Latitudes are so named because when early sailing ships left
Spain for the new world, they often carried horses. The ships would enter
this area of little wind and make little or no progress. As water became low
aboard ship, the horses were the first to go without and would soon die. They
were then thrown overboard.
Westerlies
On the polar side of the Variables westerly winds prevail. These

westerly winds, however, are not permanent in the same way as are the
Trade winds; although prevailingly westerly in direction, the constant
passage of depressions across the zone causes much variation in both the
direction and force of the wind, and on individual days, winds from any
direction may be experienced. Gales are common, especially in the winter
months, and in the southern oceans their high frequency south of about
latitude 40°S has earned for this region the name of the Roaring Forties.
The zones shown in the diagram above oscillate according to the

seasons; they reach their most northerly position in about July or August and
their most southerly in January or February. The amount of oscillation
generally averages only some 5 degrees of latitude.
Subtropical anticyclones
Usually warm and quasi permanent features of the Earth's general

circulation (e.g. the Azores High).

Figure 3.6 Winter Wind Patterns
Figure 3.7 Summer Wind Patterns

EFFECTS OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF LAND AND SEA
The effect of large landmasses is to modify considerably the 'planetary'

distribution of pressure and wind shown in the diagram. The belts of high
pressure in latitudes about 30°N and 30°S are split up into separate cells of
high pressure (or anticyclones) situated over the eastern part of each ocean.
The belt of low pressure in latitude about 60°N is likewise modified into
separate areas of low pressure situated in the vicinity of Iceland and the
Aleutian Islands.
In the Southern Hemisphere, there is little land in the area covered by

this low- pressure belt, and consequently it extends almost uniformly around
the Earth.
Superimposed on the above modifications of the general planetary

system are the seasonal changes in pressure distribution caused by the
summer and winter temperatures of great landmasses. It is these changes
that establish seasonal winds such as monsoons.
Monsoons
Where the land masses undergo extreme heating and cooling with the
changing seasons, seasonal winds are created. These are important in certain
areas where they are known as Monsoons; the main ones being the SW and
the NE Indian Monsoons, but there are others in West Africa, Brazil,
Australia, and Eastern USA.
Monsoon winds occur in the North Atlantic, North Pacific and Indian
Oceans, but they are most closely associated with the Indian Ocean. The
cause is the same in each location. It is the heating of an adjacent land mass
in the summer. The result is that air over the land mass is heated causes a
reduction of air pressure. Hot air rises, causing an influx of colder air.
In the North Atlantic Ocean, the heating of the North African land mass
causes a lowering of atmospheric pressure over the heated land. This distorts
the Equatorial Trough towards the North. The South-East Trade Wind is
drawn across the Equator and the rotation of the Earth causes the wind to
veer. The wind reaches the coast of West Africa between the Equator and
about 15°N as a Southwesterly wind. The weather is usually cloudy with rain
and the monsoon lasts from June to October. During the rest of the year, the
winds are usually Northerly and light in the Northern part of the West African
Coast and South and West in the Gulf of Guinea. Between November and

February, a dry dust laden wind called the “Harmattan” may be encountered.
Visibility is often reduced by dust haze.
In the North Pacific Ocean, during the Northern winter, the cooling of
the Asiatic land mass causes a large area of high-pressure over Mongolia and
Eastern Siberia. This high-pressure area causes an anti-cyclonic wind
circulation, South of about 30°N, resulting in Northeasterly winds in the Bay
of Bengal. The actual North-East Monsoon season varies with latitude,
starting in September in the North and November close to the Equator. The
season ends around April.
In the Northern summer the heating of the Asiatic landmass causes an

area of low- pressure centred over Northwest India. The South-East Trade
wind is drawn across the Equator and deflected to the right by the rotation of
the Earth, resulting in a Southwesterly wind, known as the South-West
Monsoon.
The winds pattern in the North of the Indian Ocean is seasonal and
dominated by changes in air pressure caused by the heating and cooling of
the Asiatic landmass. In the northern summer, from June to September, a
low-pressure area forms over the heated land. The South-East Trade wind is
drawn across the Equator and deflected to the right by the rotation of the
Earth. It joins the area of cyclonic wind circulation around the low-pressure
area.
This results in a Southwesterly wind in the North of the Indian Ocean

in the Bay of Bengal and in the Arabian Sea. This is the Southwest Monsoon.
From November to March, the wind is generally Northeast.
Figure 3.9 The Indian Ocean Monsoon

Jet Streams
Jet streams are narrow bands of high velocity winds located high in the
Troposphere. Travelling from west to east in both hemispheres, their paths
can be meandering creating ridges and troughs along their paths
Jet streams are generally found between 6,100 and 9,144 meters in
height. They form at the borders between hot and cold air, so they are
greatly influenced by the seasons and pressure systems. The greater the
variation in temperature, density, or pressure between the air masses, the
stronger the wind speed. Wind speeds in jet streams have been measured
between 90 km/h (50 knots, 57 mph) to over 400 km/h (215 knots, 250
mph).
Though the jet streams are generally narrow, their meandering nature
can cover wide latitudes, pushing air masses around. Each hemisphere has a
polar (between 50° and 60°) and subtropical (between 20° and 30°)
streams.
THE EFFECT OF FRICTION ON THE WIND
Normally the winds in the Southern Hemisphere are stronger than the
North because there is less land friction to restrict them.
The wind below 600 meters is subject to friction from both the land
and the sea as it moves over the surface of the earth. The surface of the land
is composed of mountains, valleys, forests, and so on and is much rougher
than the sea. The wind is therefore subjected to more friction as it passes
over the land than when it passes over the sea.
Friction affects the wind in two ways, firstly it slows the wind down and
secondly it changes the direction of the wind.

PRESSURE SYSTEMS
As air rises and falls it changes the atmospheric pressure at those

locations. The heating and cooling of the air masses causes the expansion
and rising of air or the condensing and falling of air. These areas are known
as pressure systems. These systems can affect large areas hundreds or
thousands of square kilometres. These systems directly cause the flow of
wind in a region, as well as potential for precipitation. Pressure systems
move across the continents and oceans, driven by the global wind systems
and the movement of air masses.
High Pressure
High pressure systems, also known as anticyclones, are large scale

circulations of wind around a central region of high pressure. The wind blows
outward from the centre and is turned by Coriolis, clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
Anticyclones are formed of (relatively) cold, stable air, which is slowly

sinking, thereby giving the outward flow of air from its centre. Cold air
contains only a small amount of moisture and therefore cold air does not
generate clouds. In summer, anticyclones usually give clear skies and sunny,
warm weather, although nights can be cool. Anticyclones can deflect
depressions so that they pass to the north of us; however, when this
happens the isobars between the two systems may become noticeably
compressed giving strong winds. In winter, high-pressure systems give cold
days with frost at night and the possibility of fog over warm seas.
Low Pressure
Low pressure systems, also known as cyclones and depressions, are

large scale circulations of wind around a central region of low pressure. The
wind is drawn inward to the area of rising air at the centre and is turned by
Coriolis, anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the
southern hemisphere.
Cyclones are formed of (relatively) warm, moist, unstable air, which is

slowly rising, thereby giving the inward flow of air to its centre. Warm air
tends to contain significant amounts of moisture and therefore these systems
tend to produce clouds, precipitation, and other bad weather conditions like
tropical storms.

Isobars and Wind
The term isobar comes from “iso” meaning equal and “bar” meaning
barometric pressure. Isobars are lines that are drawn on a meteorological
chart joining places of equal pressure. These lines never cross one another.
They are in effect similar to contour lines drawn on a map showing hills and
valleys. The closer isobars are together the steeper will be the atmospheric
pressure gradient between them and the stronger will be the wind. Isobars
far apart indicate calm conditions; isobars close together indicate strong
winds. i.e. Wind speed is inversely proportional to the distance between the
isobars.
Wind is the horizontal movement of air over the earth surface. It is

specified by the direction from which it originates. If the wind direction
changes clockwise it is said to “veer” and if it changes anticlockwise it is said
to “back”.
The air will move under the influence of pressure gradient, Coriolis
force, Centrifugal force, and friction. It only settles into a steady motion
when all the forces are in equilibrium.
For GSK you have to be aware of three types of wind:
Geostrophic Wind: exists theoretically when the isobars are straight and
above the frictional effects of land and sea.
Gradient wind: also exists above 600m where there is no friction but in
reality, where the isobars are curved.
Surface Wind exists at the earth’s surface accounting for friction.
In a theoretical situation without friction (>600m) and where

the isobars are straight the forces affecting the wind are:
1. Pressure gradient force driving the air towards the lower pressure,
perpendicular to the isobars.
2. Coriolis force is the force tending to deflect air particles at right angles
to the line of motion. This is to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to
the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The force is zero at the equator and
increases toward the poles. The stronger the wind the more effect it has.

This situation results in the Geostrophic Wind that runs parallel to the
straight isobars.
However, the isobars are normally curved around a high or low-

pressure system. The wind curves with the isobars but on a large scale
(there are also smaller-scale wind events that are subject to the same
physics). A third force must now be considered - Centrifugal force.
3. Centrifugal force (or Cyclostrophic force) is the force that throws

particles outwards from the centre of the small circular path in which the
particles are moving. This is the force of an object spinning around a fixed
centre that wants to move the object away from the centre. Think about a
rock on the end of a string. You stand in place and swing the rock in a
circular motion above your head. If you let go of the string, the rock would
fly away from you – that is a Centrifugal force. As you move closer to the
centre, the Centrifugal force increases as the speed of rotation increases (the
diameter becomes smaller). As you move away from the centre, speed of
rotation decreases so the Centrifugal force weakens as the diameter of
rotation increases.
Around a Low the Centrifugal force counters Coriolis and decreases

wind speed. Around a High Centrifugal force adds to Coriolis and increases
wind speed.
This results in the Gradient Wind.
4. As seafarers we need to know about the wind at sea level and must
now consider the effect of friction due to the Earth’s surface.
Friction slows the wind by 30% over sea and 50% over land.
In pressure systems the fact that friction slows the wind means that it
lessens the effect of Coriolis resulting in the pressure gradient force gaining
more influence and altering wind direction slightly so that it turns in towards
a low and out from a high-pressure area.
The different reduction in speed over sea and land means that the
surface wind is backed by roughly 15° over the open sea and by up to 30°
over the land. This means that the wind blowing off land will in effect be
veering through as much as 15° perhaps, for a few miles out to sea.
Now we have the Surface Wind that affects us at sea.

Northern Hemisphere Surface Circulation
For this course you do not need to go into depth in the above
explanation but you do need to be able to describe wind speed and direction
in a frontal depression plus give direction and measure the wind at different
locations on a weather chart.
BUYS BALLOT’S LAW
The circulation patterns of wind around these high- and low-pressure

systems directly impacts the wind conditions at any specific location. The
strength of the wind id determined by the level of pressure. This can be
illustrated on a weather map by the proximity of isobars within a system. If
the isobars are close together this represents significant pressure changes
over a short distance producing stronger winds. If the isobars appear further
apart the pressure gradient is less, and the winds are lighter. So, your
location within the pressure system and the level of atmospheric pressure will
determine the direction and force of the wind.
Buys-Ballot, a Dutch professor, gave us this simple rule to locate the

centre of a low-pressure system:
“If you stand with your back to the true wind in the northern
hemisphere the centre of low pressure will be about 90° to
130° on your left-hand side”.
(It follows that in the Southern Hemisphere if you stand with your back
to the true wind the centre of low pressure will be about 90° to 130° on your
right-hand side.)

The wind felt at ground level is not the true wind; the direction of the
true wind can be seen from the direction in which the low clouds are
travelling. This allows the mariner to determine the direction of the pressure
fields and relate to the weather forecasts, etc.
Figure 3.12 Buys Ballot’s Law
Global Wind Distribution Review
You have now completed Topic 11: Understanding of Global Wind

Distribution. During your review, you should make sure you can:
a) Draw a diagram showing the general global pressure distribution.

b) Describe, with the aid of a sketch, the general circulation of wind over
the earth’s surface.
c) Describe the modifying effect of large landmasses on the general
d) State and describe the practical use of Buys Ballot’s Law.
e) Define the ITCZ.
f) Describe the conditions associated with:
 the ITCZ,
 Trade Winds
 Subtropical Anti Cyclones


3.2 CAUSES OF LOCAL WINDS
SEA AND LAND BREEZES
The local heating and cooling of the land and water also results in local
winds similar to the global system.
The land is heated by the sun during the day and loses heat at night
relatively quickly and therefore the adjacent surface air changes temperature
accordingly. Hot air rises and therefore the pressure drops, similarly cold air
falls and the pressure increases. The sea temperature however changes very
little and therefore throughout a 24-hour period will be relatively hotter or
colder to the adjacent land. The changes of pressure over the land causes on
and off shore winds to blow. The sea breezes may reach force in places, but
land breezes are normally not as strong.
Figure 3.13 Sea Breeze Circulation
A sea breeze is a wind, which blows locally from the sea towards the land
during the daytime. If the sun heats the land during the day, the air contact
with the land is heated and rises upwards. Cool air flows in from the sea to
replace the air rising off the land and so a circulation system is set up.
Usually sea breezes begin about half a mile offshore around about
1000 to 1100, reach their strongest by 1400, and have stopped by 2000.
If there is no appreciable gradient, the sea breeze will initially flow

from the sea directly towards the land but as the day passes the wind will be
deflected to the right and will end up blowing more or less parallel to the
shore.
Sea breezes are common during weather associated with high-
pressure systems. A sea breeze will modify the wind direction and strength of
the gradient wind that is the wind associated with the isobars of the
prevailing weather system. Sea breezes can be as strong as force 4 and if
this combines with an onshore gradient wind, the overall wind will be strong.
A sea breeze will not develop if the gradient wind is 25 knots or more.
If the sea breeze and the gradient wind are in opposition one may cancel out
the other, giving calm conditions. Sea breezes here seldom extend more than
10 miles offshore and are strongest near the coast.
Figure 3.14 Land Breeze Circulation
At night, the land cools and the air in contact with it is cooled and
flows down and out to sea. Contact with the sea, which is relatively warm,
heats the air, which rises up and flows back towards the land where it is
cooled, and a circulation is set up. A land breeze starts at the land and works
its way out to sea. Land breezes are not as strong as sea breezes and they
are not felt as far out to sea as a sea breeze might be. It may not amount to
more than 5 knots. However, when aided by katabatic winds (see below) of
coastal hills it becomes a nocturnal wind of as much as 10 knots. With
mountains backing the coast (like Corsica and the Cote d’Azur) the nocturnal
wind can become fresh to strong or even gale force. This is particularly likely
if the peaks are snow capped

KATABATIC AND ANABATIC WINDS
On clear nights, the slopes of mountains radiate out their heat and the
temperature falls. The adjacent air in contact with the ground becomes
heavier and rolls down the slope. Normally as it descends it would warm at
the Adiabatic Lapse Rate (variation of air temperature with height, see later
notes), but because it is still in contact with the cold ground, this effect is
reduced and the air increases it flow down the hill. The speed of the wind
down the slope and beyond can reach high speeds and are known as
Katabatic Winds. The Anabatic Winds are the mild uphill reverse of the
Katabatic Winds.
The increased surface heating during summer days may cause

increased local winds and a tendency for the winds to veer (in the NH)
between sunrise and sunset. There is also an increase of turbulence and
gusting of the winds. These winds generated over the land can spread out to
sea and affect the sea conditions. The wind in a particular place is never
steady and will gust and vary in direction slightly.
In the British Isles Katabatic Winds are not very strong, but in the
summer, they do tend to drift radiation fog off the land onto the rivers,
harbours, and coastal waters.
Katabatic winds are usually much stronger than Anabatic Winds and as
already explained, in some parts of the world, with mountains close to the
sea, can be quite turbulent and gusty, reaching up to Force 5 or 6. If this is
added to a gradient wind it can cause strong gale force winds locally. The
Mistrals and Boras in the Gulf of Lyon and the North Adriatic are common
examples and constitute a considerable threat to local shipping, especially
small craft.

Figure 3.15 Katabatic and Anabatic Winds
LOCAL EFFECTS
Surface Wind: the surface wind is what you actually experience at the
surface on land or sea. It is not quite the same as the wind at the low cloud
level because friction prevents an exact balance between pressure gradient
and Coriolis. As a result, the wind near the surface is slowed down and blows
at an angle across the Isobars towards low pressure. The greater the friction
the more it is slowed and the larger the angle. Over the sea, the surface wind
is normally about 15 degrees backed from the gradient wind and 30%
lighter. Over the land the difference is some 30 to 40 degrees and as much
as 50% less in strength
CAUSES OF LOCAL WINDS REVIEW
You have now completed Topic 12: Understands the causes of Local Winds.
a) Describe, with the aid of a diagram, the formation of land and sea
breezes.
b) Describe katabatic winds and the associated dangers.
c) Describe how local effects may modify winds caused by pressure

3.3 WATER VAPOR IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Air masses normally contain invisible water vapor, which may reach up
to 4% by volume. The water vapor contributes to the air pressure. A mass of
air that holds the maximum water vapor it can contain, at a certain
temperature, is called saturated. If the temperature rises, it will be able to
hold more water vapor, but if the temperature falls, condensation (the
transfer of invisible water vapor into visible water droplets) will take place.
This water vapor can lead to the formation of clouds, fog, and precipitation.
An air mass becomes saturated by cooling or by adding extra water

vapor to it. When this air is cooled, it will result in condensation and the
formation of fog. Fog is defined by meteorologists as <1 kilometre of
visibility. Fog is composed of droplets of water, formed when air is cooled to
its dew point.
CLOUDS - FORMATION
When warm air is cooled, it can no longer contain the water vapor it is
has absorbed and the water vapor condenses into droplets of water that are
visible in the form of clouds. Air can become cooled in a variety of ways; it
will be cooled if it is forced to rise, for example, and warm air will be cooled
where a cold and warm air mass meet at a front.
If an air parcel is cooled to a temperature when it becomes saturated

and this cooling continues, then water vapor will condense out to form a
cloud. Each water droplet requires a particle of dust/soot or salt nuclei to
form round and then it is held in suspension by light up draughts of wind.
Relative Humidity is the mass of water vapor contained within an air

mass compared to the maximum quantity it could hold at that temperature.
Expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount (needed for saturation
to occur).
Dew Point is the temperature that an unsaturated parcel of air must

fall to, before it becomes saturated and condensation will take place.

The air parcel is cooled several ways:
1. Radiation - Water vapor radiates heat and cools the layer without
vertically moving upwards. This forms layers of cloud of the stratus
type.
2. Thermal Convection - A parcel of air is heated by conduction with
the earth’s surface and rises as convection current. It will cool and
reach its Dew Point, producing clouds of the Cumulus or
Cumulonimbus type.
3. Frontal - Where the air is forced to rise in association with a frontal
depression.
4. Orographic - When a hill or mountain obstructs the path of the air
and forces it to rise, there will be different types of cloud dependent on
the strength of uplift. A strong uplift could cause cumulous cloud while
a moderate uplift could result in Stratus.
5. Turbulence - Moist air being carried up by the turbulence, caused by
the Earth’s surface, creating a cloud layer.
CLOUD TYPES
Clouds have different shapes depending on their physical properties

and the conditions, which caused their formation. The altitude and the
shapes of clouds can give a good indication of what type of weather may be
expected. Cloud shapes and altitudes are named using Latin words in a
system devised in 1803 by Luke Howard, a chemist. Clouds are white when
the sun illuminates them, if they are in shadow they appear black, the colour
is of no significance.
Cirrus - high
Cirrus means “hair”, cirrus clouds are thin wispy or feathery clouds, at a very
high altitude. The word “cirro” is used as a prefix to denote high altitude
clouds.
Alto – mid level

Middle level clouds ate prefixes “alto”, thus Altocumulus refers to middle level
heaped up clouds.
Nimbus - rain
Nimbus means “rain” or “storm” and the word is used in conjunction with
the term above, thus a layer of low cloud giving rain is called “Nimbostratus”
and heaped up rain clouds are called “Cumulonimbus”.

Stratus - layers
Stratus means a “layer” and the term is used to define a uniform flat sheet of
cloud cover. Cirrostratus is thus a layer of thin, uniform, high altitude cloud.
Cumulus - heap
Cumulus means a “heap”. Cumulus clouds are clearly outlined heaped up
cloud.
Height of
Classification Name Description
Base
Detached, delicate
Cirrus
appearance
High 6 – 12 km Small white flakes in
Cirrocumulus
groups, lines, or ripples
Cirrostratus Thin whitish veil
Layer or patch of
Altocumulus
flattened globular mass
2 – 6 km
Middle Striated or fibrous veil
Altostratus
grey or bluish
Nimbostratus Surface to 3 km Dark shapeless mass
Heavy masses with great
Cumulonimbus 600m to 1500m
vertical development
Thick with vertical
Cumulus 300m to 1500m development and
horizontal base
Low
Large globular mass, of
Stratocumulus 300m to 1350m grey with dark patches in
groups, lines, or waves
Uniform layer, resembling
Stratus Surface to 600m
fog but not on the ground
Figure 3.16 Characteristics of Clouds

Cirrus
Light, airy, wispy.
Resembles a mare’s tail.
Cirrocumulus
Sometimes called a “mackerel
sky”.
Cirrostratus
Appear to glow with halo around
the sun or moon. Precipitation is
likely in 1-20 hrs.
Altocumulus
Mid-level, cumulus. Parallel
bands in advance of a warm
front.
Altostratus
Mid-level clouds in a layer
Nimbostratus – Dark
grey with a ragged base,
associated with continuous
precipitation.
Cumulonimbus From a base

of 600 – 1500m extending up
to 14km - 20km thunderheads
Cumulus
Means “heap”. Clearly outlined,
fluffy/heaped.
Stratocumulus
Layer of heaped up clouds.
Stratus
“Layered”, lowest uniform
flat sheet of cloud cover.
Figure 3.17 Types of clouds

Fog
A thick cloud of tiny water droplets suspended in the atmosphere at or

near the Earth’s surface. It obscures or restricts visibility to less than 1000
m.
1. Radiation Fog (land fog) - Saturated air cooled by radiation from the
cold land surface. Radiation fog is a land-based fog that occurs during
cold clear nights when the land radiates the heat it absorbed during the
day. The warm land cools after sunset. The boundary air in contact with
the ground cools, causing dew to develop. If there is a breeze, it will
spread the cooling effect through a greater depth of air and fog may form.
Fogs that develop on land this way can drift out the sea. Radiation fog is
most likely to occur during anticyclones in the winter months. Industrial
areas are especially prone to radiation fog due to higher concentration of
dust particles in the air. Radiation can be dense but is usually of limited
vertical extent.
2. Advection Fog (sea fog) - Transport of warm moist air from the ocean
over a colder surface (land or water). Advection fog occurs when warm
moist air flows over a colder surface. This condition is more likely to arise
in the late spring, or early summer before the sea has warmed fully. This
can cover large ocean areas such as the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.
3. Frontal Fog - Evaporation of warm water into a cold air mass causing
rapid saturation and condensation. Frontal Fog may occur where two air
masses of different temperatures meet. If both air masses have high
moisture, content fog will form at the front between them. Frontal fog will
usually be less than 50 miles in width. When it rains, after descending
through a layer of warm air aloft, falls into a shallow layer of colder air at
the earth’s surface, there will be some evaporation from the warm
raindrops into the colder air. Under certain conditions, this will raise the
water vapor content of the cold air above the saturation point and frontal
(called rain, or precipitation) fog will result.
4. Sea Smoke - Very cold polar air moving over warmer sea. May also be
referred to as Arctic Smoke.

The Dissipation of Fog
If the sun warms the air, enough the water droplets will be reabsorbed
as water vapor and the fog will disappear. During our winter months, the sun
may not generate sufficient heat to clear the fog and it may remain for some
days. Wind can clear fog by mixing the layers of air. Fog should clear with a
change of wind direction bringing air from a different source, such as occurs
at the passage of a front.
PRECIPITATION
The water droplets at a height will probably be so cold they are in form
of ice crystals. When the water droplets become too large to stay suspended
in the air, they will begin to fall. If the air currents are not strong, they will
continue to fall, warming as they descend and reach the surface as rain. If
strong uprising air currents force the ice crystal/water droplets up again, the
droplets will continue to grow until they large enough to fall as heavy rain. If
this process continues and the ice crystal continues to grow, it can form a
large ball of ice, which may reach the surface before it melts, as hail. If the
ground temperature is low, they may reach the ground surface as snow.
Falling raindrops meet wind resistance. At some point, the wind resistance
limits the rate of descent. This is the terminal velocity. Fine raindrops fall at
about 2 miles per hour, medium drops at about 15 miles per hour and large
drops at about 18 miles per hour.
Haze - Restricted visibility caused by solid particles in the air, normally

associated with low relative humidity.
Mist - Restricted visibility greater than 1000m, caused by water droplets in

the air, normally associated with high relative humidity.
Rain - Clouds are formed of minute droplets of condensed water vapor.

When this vapor is further condensed, by cooling as the cloud rises for
example, it will form into larger droplets of water. These droplets of water
amalgamate and increase in both size and weight as the cloud ascends until
finally they are too heavy to remain airborne and the drops of water fall
down in the form of rain.
Hail - Strong air currents within a cloud may carry raindrops upwards where
they freeze before falling to earth as hailstones.

Snow - If the air is cold enough to freeze condensed water vapor the vapor
will form into ice crystals, which fall as snow.
Cumulonimbus Clouds and Thunderstorms
The first step in the formation of a thunderstorm is the appearance of

small, harmless looking, cumulus clouds. These steadily increase in size and
density and then develop separate, towering peaks. The clouds develop a
rapidly darkening tint and the sky may take on a dull yellow colour. The
thunderheads will continue to increase fairly rapidly, both vertically and
horizontally. From the ground, all that might be seen is a low altitude dark
cloud base, but the vertical extent can reach over 6,000m. As the storm
closes, lightning flashes may be seen behind the banks of cloud.
The air in the lower 3,000m must be very moist and unstable. Through
convection, the strong uprising air currents produce cumulonimbus clouds.
The raindrops supported by the rising air grow to a critical size and are then
disintegrated by the rising air. The broken-up raindrops gain a positive
charge and the rising air gain an equal negative charge, which is taken up to
the middle regions of the cloud. In the upper regions, the ice crystals are
rubbing together producing by friction a negative charge, with the
surrounding air obtaining an equal positive charge. The ice crystals drop into
the middle regions of the cloud resulting in a cloud positively charged at the
bottom and top, with a negative middle region. These charges build up until
the air resistance breaks down and lightning flashes either internally or from
cloud to cloud. The air expands rapidly with the lightning owing to the
tremendous heating and the resultant sound waves produce thunder.
As a raindrop rises, it bumps into other raindrops and becomes larger

and heavier. When it is too heavy to be supported by the rising air mass, it
will start to fall. As it falls, friction will cause it to break up into smaller
droplets, which may be carried up on the rising air currents. Each time the
raindrop rises, it becomes more positively charged. As the rain droplets
become more positively charged, the difference in electrical charge may be
sufficient to cause a discharge of lightning, either from cloud to cloud or from
cloud to ground. The lightning is in the order of 100 million volts and the
discharge takes about one millionth of a second.
There are two types of thunderstorm. The more common one occurs,
usually within a warm air mass and when the Earth’s surface has become
heated, which will cause the air above it to rise. This type of storm is

sometimes called a summer storm and will occur in both tropical and
temperate regions. The other, sometimes called a winter storm, forms along
the edge of strong cold front. These can form at any time of the year. The
most severe storms are usually to be found in tropical regions and the most
severe occur when the two types combine.
Thunderstorms can lead to super-refraction and sub-refraction and the

effect of these conditions can affect optical and radar ranges. You will cover
this in OOW Nav and Radar.
WATER VAPOUR IN THE ATMOSPHERE REVIEW
You have now completed Topic 13: Understands the effects of water vapour
in the atmosphere.
a) Define dew point and relative humidity.

b) Describe the formation of cloud.
c) Describe the formation of:
 Advection fog
 Frontal fog
 Radiation fog

3.4 AIR MASSES, FRONTS AND DEPRESSIONS
AIR MASSES
Air masses are large volumes of air defined by its temperature and
water vapor content. They tend to take on the characteristics of the land or
water area around which they were formed. They can cover very large areas
of thousands of square kilometres and can control the weather for relatively
long periods of time. Air masses can last for periods of days to months.
They can also remain relatively localized or they can travel long distances.
There are four general air mass classifications:
1. Continental (c): located over large land masses; dry.

2. Marine (m): located over the oceans; moist.
3. Polar Latitudes (P): located poleward of 60° North and South.
4. Tropical Latitudes (T): located within about 25° of the equator.
By combining these classifications, we can define the air mass.

As examples:
cP: Continental Polar - cold, dry air mass formed over the polar land
mT: Maritime Tropical - warm, wet air mass formed in the tropics
Since these air masses can move, mostly driven by the global wind
system, one air mass can run into or overtake another.
The boundary or transition between two air masses is known as a front.
Weather at a front can be very active.

Figure 3.18 Air masses of the world and their source regions
mT maritime Tropical
mTs maritime Tropical subsiding
mE maritime Equatorial
mP maritime Polar
cP continental Polar
cT continental Tropical
A Arctic
AA Antarctic
The Weather Zones of the Northern Hemisphere
The maritime Polar (mP) air masses blow out of the polar high as
mainly NE wind, to meet the maritime Tropical (mT) air masses along the
polar front. The result is a factory for the creation of depressions interspersed
with ridges of high pressure or traveling anticyclones.
Continental Air Masses
Continental air masses are usually extreme in their characteristics.

They are often very dry, very cold, or very hot depending on the history of
the airflow. In Atlantic Europe, the dry warm southeasterly (or southerly)
comes from a continental Tropical (cT) source over North Africa. This
produces un-seasonally high temperatures in spring and autumn and heat
waves in summer. It also leads to falls of Saharan dust, usually in showers.
The bad European winter comes with extensions of the Siberian

continental. Polar (cP) source region as a ridge over Scandinavia. The
resulting NE wind is very cold and fronts merging into it bring extensive
snowfall.
The North American continental Polar source exists over Canada and
so lies close to the centres of population. Because of this proximity
unnaturally cold plunges of air can occasionally sweep down to devastate
southern states
FRONTS
Line of separation between cold and warm air masses.
Warm Front
The boundary line between the warm air of a warm sector and the cold air in
front of it. In other words, there is warm air behind a warm front.
Cold Front
The boundary line between the warm sector and the cold air following behind
as the depression moves along its path. In other words, there is cold air
behind a cold front.
Occluded Front
In a depression, the cold front moves faster than the warm front. When the
cold front catches up with the warm front they combine, and the result is
called an occluded front.
Stationary Front
When two air masses meet and neither is strong enough top
Ridge
A ridge is an area of high pressure, which lies between areas of lower
pressure. As the pressure is high, the weather will be good.
Trough
A trough is a valley of low pressure or the opposite of a ridge.

Figure 3.19 Symbols for Fronts
THE POLAR FRONT
In particular, the band of low pressure along latitude 60°N, within this low-
pressure belt lies what is called the polar front. The polar front is where the
air from the Polar Regions and the air from the temperate regions meet. An
important feature of the polar front is that the two air masses do not
gradually mix with each other. Rather the boundary between the two air
masses is clearly defined. The polar front is of great importance because the
depressions or “lows” very often form initially along this front.
WIND TERMINOLOGY WITH FRONTS
As a front passes, the wind will change direction. Remember that wind is
named for the direction is comes from. So, a south wind is a wind that is
blowing from the south to the north.
Backing Wind: A wind that is changing in a anti-clockwise direction (such as

west > south > east > north).
Veering Wind: A wind that is changing in a clockwise direction (such as

south > west > north > east).

DEPRESSIONS
As stated earlier, depressions (also known as low pressure systems or

cyclones), are areas of rising, warm air that generally brings unstable
weather conditions. Depressions can form a number of ways but must always
be carefully monitored by mariners.
Frontal Depressions
A front is where two air masses with different properties meet. There
is a clearly defined boundary between the two air masses. If the warm air
mass pushes into the cold air mass, or vice versa, a kink or wave appears
along the front.
Figure 3.20 Frontal Depression
The pressure starts to drop at the bulge because warm, unstable air is
replacing the cold stable air. As the warm air in the wave rises up, it is
replaced by more warm air rushing in behind it, and the Coriolis force
deflects this wind to the right of its path setting up a cyclonic (counter
clockwise) wind circulation around the centre of low pressure. Heavy clouds
develop as the moisture, which is contained in the rising warm air, condenses
with height. The warm front is shown by “bumps”, the cold front by “spikes”.
The deepening depression moves off in a northeasterly direction

(roughly in the direction of the isobars in the warm front) driven by the wind
above it. It may move at any speed up to 50 knots or even more.

Figure 3.21 Deepening Frontal Depression
As the depression matures, it enters its Mid Life. The pressure at the
centre of the low falls, so does the pressure difference or gradient, causing
stronger winds. Cold air moves faster than warm air and so the cold front
begins to catch up on the warm front gradually reducing the size of the warm
sector. The depression has expanded and may spread over thousands of
miles.
Figure 3.22 Mid-Life of a Depression
The cold front has by now caught up with the warm front over some of
its length. Because cold air is heavier than warm air, the cold air pushes
underneath the warm air starting from the centre of the depression.
Eventually, the whole of the warm sector is raised up and as warm air
can no longer feed the depression, it dies. An occluded front is shown by
having both bumps and points drawn on it.
Figure 3.23 Occluded Front
Figure 3.24 Formation of fronts in the Northern Hemisphere

Figure 3.25 Temperate Latitude Depression

Figure 3.26 Plan view and Profile View of a Frontal Depression
CHANGES IN CONDITIONS AS A DEPRESSION PASS
Depression Passes to the North of Your Location
When a depression approaches and passes to the north of your

position, there will be definite change in wind direction and strength, cloud
type, barometric pressure, precipitation and perhaps temperature.
Figure 3.26 shows two views of a depression; the top figure shows the
depression from above, the lower drawing shows a section through the
depression. The depression is moving in a NE direction, passing over the
yacht at A. Initially the yacht at A is experiencing light winds from the SW.

As the depression approaches the yacht, the wind will back SE and
begin to freshen, thin wispy cirrus (mare’s tails) will appear high in the sky,
followed by cirrostratus. The barometer will start to fall. Small, puffy,
cumulus clouds will become more frequent giving way to low dark
nimbostratus clouds at the warm front, B, where the yacht will experience
rain together with a decrease in visibility.
The wind will veer to the SW as the warm front passes and the rain will
give way to drizzle, perhaps fog, the wind may increase, the barometer will
steady, and the temperature may increase. The atmosphere will be damp
and humid with low clouds.
In the warm sector, the yacht at C will have low cloud, perhaps
clearing to bright spells before the approach of the cold front. The barometer
will be steady, or fall only slowly, and the wind will remain from the SW.
At the cold front, D, the wind will veer to the NW and increase,
becoming strong and possibly squally. There will be heavy rain with big
cumulonimbus clouds perhaps accompanied by thunder and hail. The
barometer will start to rise quickly, and the temperature will drop. After the
depression has passed the rain will turn to showers, and the wind will
moderate.
How conditions may be expected to change when a typical depression,

with warm and cold fronts, passes to the north of you.
Depression Passes to the South of Your Location (Northern

Hemisphere)
If a frontal depression passes to the south of you, the fronts will not
pass over your position. You will not therefore experience the sudden
changes of wind direction associated with the passage of fronts or the
temperature changes. As the low approaches the barometer will fall, cloud
cover will thicken, the wind will begin to back continuously and there will be
rain. After the centre of the low has passed to the south of your position, the
barometer will start to rise, the wind will have backed through NE to NW and
the rain should become lighter. Large cumulonimbus clouds along the cold
front to the south of you will be visible.

Figure 3.27 Typical weather experienced with a depression
approaching from the west and passing between observer and farther pole.

OCCLUSIONS
Looking at the section through the depression in figure below, it will be

seen that the warm front is not vertical but at an angle; the curved cold front
is also at an angle. The cold front travels faster than the warm front, which
means that the cold front will eventually catch up with the warm front. When
this occurs, the heavy cold air pushes under the warm air ahead of it, like a
wedge, lifting the warm air off the surface of the sea or land. This is called a
cold front occlusion and it gives rain at the occlusion, followed by weather
conditions similar to those normally experienced with the passage of a cold
front.
A warm occlusion can also occur when the air mass overtaking the
warm front is not as cool as the cold air ahead of the warm front. Thus, it
rides over the colder air mass.
Figure 3.28 Occlusions

General Characteristics of Depressions
No two depressions are the same, but in general:
1. Depressions usually move from SW to NE in the North Atlantic.
2. A depression usually moves along a track parallel to the isobars in the

warm sector.
3. If a depression has been moving steadily in the same direction for 12

hours, it will probably continue on the same track for the next 12
hours, as long as it does not encounter land.
4. If two similar-sized depressions are close to each other, they will often
rotate around each other and combine.
5. If a depression encounters land, it will lose its primary source of

energy (warm, humid air) and may weaken
Other Sources of Depressions
Depressions form in areas other than on the polar front. The most common
of these are:
1. Polar Lows: cold air warmed when a cold air mass moves over warm
seas.
2. Heat (or Thermal) Lows: air heated intensely by hot land masses.
3. Lee Lows: a low-pressure area can form in the lee of a mountain

subjected to a flow of air.
REVIEW OF FRONTAL DEPRESSIONS
You have now completed Topic 15 Frontal Depressions. In your review, make
sure you can:
1. Describe the formation of a frontal depression as in NP100.

2. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, a frontal depression showing
3. Describe, with the aid of a diagram, a warm front, cold front and
Intentionally Blank

3.5 METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS
ANEMOMETER (WIND SPEED)

The wind speeds are given in knots but the wind seldom, if ever, blows
at a steady rate, particularly near land. For this reason, the Beaufort scale is
useful because it indicates average wind strength. The instrument used to
measure wind velocity is the anemometer. It is important to remember that
any reading will be the relative wind and so a correction must be applied for
course and speed to obtain true wind.
In 1808, Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort devised a numerical system of

defining average wind strength by visual reference to the sea state. That
scale, known as the Beaufort Scale, is illustrated below. Though the Beaufort
scale gives wind speed in knots, continental forecasts often give wind speeds
in kilometres/hour or miles per hour.
BEAUFORT GENERAL
SEA STATE WIND WAVES
FORCE DESC
0 CALM 0 - 1 KTS
1 LIGHT AIR SM RIPPLES WITHOUT FOAM CRESTS 1 - 3 KTS
LT SM WAVELETS, SHORT, BUT MORE PRONOUNCED,

2 4 - 6 KTS 1/2 FT
BREEZE CRESTS, BUT WITHOUT A BREAK
GENTLE LG WAVELETS, CRESTS START TO BREAK, 7 -1 0
3 2 FT
BREEZE SCATTERED WHITE KTS
MODERATE SM WAVES, BECOMING LONGER, FAIRLY 11 - 16
4 3.5 FT
BREEZE FREQUENT WHITE HORSES KTS
FRESH MODERATE WAVES, BECOMING LONGER. MANY 17 - 21
5 6 FT
BREEZE WHITE HORSES, SOME SPRAY KTS
STRONG LG WAVES, EXTENSIVE WHITE FOAM STREAKS 22 - 27
6 9.5 FT
BREEZE BLOWN IN WIND DIRECTION KTS
SEA HEAPS UP,
NEAR 28 - 33
7 WHITE FOAM STREAKS BLOWN IN WIND 13.5 FT
GALE KTS
DIRECTION
MODERATELY HIGH WAVES, CRESTS BREAK OFF, 34 - 40
8 GALE 18 FT
VISIBILITY AFFECTED KTS
STRONG HIGH BREAKING WAVES, DENSE STREAKS OF 41 - 47
9 23 FT
GALE FOAM KTS
VERY HIGH TUMBLING WAVES, SEA LOOKS WHITE,
48 - 55
10 STORM LARGE PATCHES OF FOAM, VISIBILITY BADLY 29 FT
KTS
AFFECTED.
Figure 3.29 Beaufort Scale

BAROMETER AND BAROGRAPH (PRESSURE)
Knowledge of the atmospheric pressure is fundamental to most

weather forecasting, weather routeing and anticipating the proximity of
adverse weather.
The measurement of atmospheric pressure can be achieved by the use

of a Barometer.
The most accurate barometer carried on ships was the Mercurial

Barometer, where the atmospheric pressure supported a column of mercury
in a vertical tube. This type of barometer was delicate, required a certain
amount of proficiency and the application of a series of corrections. It is
seldom found on board a modern vessel.
The most common barometer now found at sea is the Aneroid

Barometer, where a thin metal box, partially exhausted of air, will change
shape due to the changes in the atmospheric pressure. The disc-shaped
corrugated box is distorted by the atmospheric pressure and is prevented
from being completely collapsed by a control spring. The control spring
transfers movement of the box to a pointer by a series of levers. Changes in
temperature are compensated by the temperature expansion/contraction of
the remaining air inside the box and by a one of these levers constructed as
a bi-metallic strip. There is an adjustment screw at the back of the box to
remove any index error and synchronize the reading with a known correct
standard reading.
Aneroid barometers have the advantage of being relatively easy to

read and require no corrections for change in temperature or latitude. The
instruments are compensated for temperature changes by leaving a
calculated amount of air in the metal box or by means of a bimetallic lever.
The principal of the instrument does not involve the force of gravity, so
latitude corrections are not necessary. In general, however the aneroid does
not retain its accuracy over as long a period as the mercury barometer. It is
therefore necessary to compare its readings with a standard barometer at
fairly frequent intervals (at least once every three months is recommended),
to ensure that changes in the elasticity of the metal have not altered its
readings. The other correction required for this type of barometer is for
height above sea level. A table for these can be found in the Marine
Observers Handbook. In order to identify the true trend on the barometer it
may be necessary to correct for diurnal variation in tropical regions.

Precision Aneroid Barometer
Some ships carry a precision aneroid
barometer which works on exactly the same
principle except that the mechanical linkage
between the aneroid cell and the display is replaced
by an electronic link. By turning a wheel on the
side a needle moves in towards the diaphragm of
the cell, as soon as it makes contact an electrical
circuit is completed which is shown by a small neon
strip light. The movement of the wheel is calibrated
so that very small movements of the diaphragm in
response to air pressure can be recorded. The
display is a simple number display in response to
the movement of the wheel.
The Barograph
A single reading of barometric pressure gives no worthwhile
information. The rate of change of pressure is what matters. This can only be
seen from a series of readings. It is important to record the barometer’s
reading in the ship’s logbook. If you do not have a barograph, a graph of
barometric trend can be drawn by recording pressure and time.
Figure 3.30 The Principle of the barograph
The barograph is a recording aneroid barometer where the pressure is

continuously recorded onto a moving paper chart (called a barogram).

The advantage with a barograph is that it shows pressure tendencies
that are impossible from a barometer without making a series of readings. It
normally consists of a number of disc shaped drums partially exhausted of
air, connected together and to a recording pen.
The barograph has to be corrected in the same way as other aneroid

barometers but because of the mechanical linkage it does not have the same
absolute accuracy. The value of the instrument is that it shows the trend
which can be very useful indeed in predicting rough weather.
It should be positioned athwart ships across the vessel to avoid the

pen continually leaving the paper as the vessel rolls. The paper chart
normally records one week’s changes and rotates by clockwork.
The importance of weather forecasts is normally the pressure changes

and not the instantaneous pressure, which makes the barometer such a
useful instrument.
WET AND DRY HYGROMETER (DEW POINT)
A Hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the amount of

moisture in the atmosphere. The wet and dry bulb hygrometer uses two
identical thermometers, one normal “dry” thermometer and the other with its
bulb enclosed in a muslin cap with a cotton wick dipped into a vessel
containing pure water. This keeps the muslin cap moist and allows water to
evaporate from the material.
The act of evaporation requires heat energy, which it takes from the
thermometer bulb. This lowers the temperature of this thermometer in
comparison to the “dry” thermometer. The “depression of the wet-bulb” is a
measure of the humidity of the atmosphere, saturated air surrounding the
instrument would show no depression, however dry air could show a
difference of up to 9°C.
There is a special table, found in the Mariner’s Handbook, where

entering with the values of the dry-bulb reading and the “depression of the
wet-bulb” the value of the Relative Humidity and the Dew Point can be found.
See next page.

Figure 3.31 Dew Point Table

A comparison of seawater temp and dewpoint will tell you if there is
going to be sea fog. If the sea water temperature is lower than the dewpoint
then it is likely that the air above it will be cooled to below the dewpoint,
causing the water vapour in the air to evaporate and cause fog.
If the Wet and Dry Bulb Temperatures are close together it is likely
that FOG will occur in temperate climates.
If the muslin is coated with ice, evaporation will still take place, but
not at the same rate. The table has a section where evaporation takes place
from ice surface and gives the appropriate values of Relative Humidity and
Dew Point.
If the wet-bulb reads higher than the dry-bulb, it could be inadequate

ventilation, wet-bulb too dry, too wet, or just inaccurate readings.
A Stevenson Screen is louvered-sided box, through which the air can

freely pass, normally placed on the rear of the bridge. The wet and dry bulb
hygrometer is placed inside the screen, with the dry bulb to windward of the
wet bulb, if possible.
Figure 3.32 Stevenson Screen enclosing the Hygrometer

Whirling or Sling Psychrometer
The operation of a sling psychrometer is the simplest instrument for

measuring atmospheric moisture.
The rate of evaporation is partially dependent on the airflow passing

over the wet bulb. If there is constant humidity, the “depression of the wet-
bulb” will increase up to a wind speed of 4 knots, after which it is constant.
A sling or whirling psychrometer is a rotatable board on which is

mounted the wet and dry bulb thermometers. The rotation of the board will
provide the correct level of ventilation and a desired 4-knot wind-speed. This
is another type of hygrometer which works on exactly the same principle as
the marine screen except that the two thermometers are fixed on a piece of
wood attached to a handle so that it can be swung around. There is no
reservoir on this device, the wet bulb wick is dipped into the distilled water
before use. The advantage of this system is that it gives a rapid response
though slightly less accurate than the marine screen
A separate table should be used to determine the Dew Point and

Relative Humidity using a psychrometer, meters per second rather than in
knots. To convert m/sec to knots multiply by 2, thus 10 m/sec=20 knots and
m/sec=10 knots. Contrary to some opinions, the “whirling psychrometer” is
rarely found on board ships. If it is used, it is normally to assess the humidity
of cargo spaces or air-conditioning outlets. Yacht crew can use it to assess
conditions for painting.
Figure 3.33 Sling Psychrometer

COMMON METEOROLOGICAL INSTRUMENTS REVIEW
You have now completed Topic 14: The practical use and care of common
meteorological instruments
a) Describe the operation and use of the aneroid barometer.

b) Outline the function of the barograph and its practical use in
c) Describe the use of wet and dry bulb thermometers (Masons
Hygrometers).
d) Demonstrate how the information obtained from a hygrometer can be
used for predicting advection fog as described in The Mariner’s
Handbook (NP 100).

3.6 SOURCES OF WEATHER INFORMATION
WEATHER FORECASTS
Weather forecasts for the coastal waters of USA are available from
various different sources but NOAA weather on VHF radio WX channels are of
a very high quality. For cruises away from US coastal waters, a SSB MF/HF
radio receiver is required; sometimes it can be difficult to catch all the
forecast information – a small handheld tape recorder is a great help in this
case.
The National Weather Service publishes a book entitled Selected

Worldwide Marine Weather Broadcasts. This publication contains weather
broadcast schedules, both US and foreign, from all over the planet, covering
radiotelephone, radiotelegraph (Morse code), and radio facsimile
transmissions. The schedule list broadcast times and geographic areas
covered by the broadcast information, as well as station call letters,
transmitting frequencies, and station locations. Those who expect to sail
outside of the areas covered by VHF transmissions should consult this book
to determine what radio weather information will be available to them.
FORECAST FORMAT
The shipping forecasts are given in three parts, each part being of equal
importance. Terminology is also standardized.
1. Gale Warnings
Storm warnings are issued before the main forecast. Note carefully the time
that the warning was issued, it may have been issued some hours before you
heard it and it could therefore be quite close.
2. The General Synopsis

The forecast starts with the general synopsis, which gives the details and
positions of the systems which are causing, or will affect, the weather. For
example, the synopsis may give the position of a depression, the direction in
which it is moving and how fast it expected to move. It may also tell where it
is expected to be in so many hours’ time.
3. The Sea Area Forecast

The sea area forecast follows the synopsis and a forecast is given for each
area covering wind strength, wind direction, wave height, weather, and
visibility for the next 24 hours.

Figure 3.34 Weather Forecast Symbols
INTERNATIONAL WEATHER MAP SYMBOLS
An international system of pictorial shorthand is used to show details

of weather on a weather map. Many marinas and harbour offices have
dedicated television monitors with a continuous display of the forecast using
these symbols. Although the international convention is to draw a feather for
each increment of 5 knots there will be little inaccuracy if you take º a
feather as indicating one Beaufort force.
Note that wind strength of force ten is shown by an arrow with a

triangle at the end rather than five feathers; as the strength increases single
feathers are added to the triangle. A triangle with a single feather in front
indicates hurricane force 12: “Air filled with foam and spray. Sea completely
white with driving spray; visibility very seriously affected. Probable wave
height 45 feet”

Figure 3.35 Wind Speed Symbols
MARINER’S HANDBOOK
Compliments both Sailing Directions and Ocean Passages. This is a
book first published by the British Admiralty service in 1967 to draw together
some information about meteorology and oceanography and seamanship in a
form readily accessible to an Officer of the Watch. It contains information
about tropical revolving storms, causes and avoidance, formation of frontal
depressions in temperate latitudes, fog, ice, heavy weather ship handling. It
also has information on the IALA buoyage system, reporting dangers to
navigation and hydrographic notes.
ADMIRALTY LIST OF RADIO SIGNALS (ALRS)
Volume 1 - Maritime Radio Stations

Lists all coastal radio stations handling marine radio traffic
Volume 3 – Maritime Safety Information Services
Provides details of Weather Services, Safety Information Broadcasts,
NAVTEX & SaeftyNET information and Weather Fax stations,
Frequencies & weather map areas.
Volume 4 - List of Meteorological Observation stations.

ADMIRALTY ROUTEING CHARTS AND OCEAN PASSAGES OF
THE WORLD
Contains details of ocean climatic conditions, currents, ice and TRS’s

for the main ocean areas of the world. They provide recommended routes
between principal ports of the world for both winter and summer passages
together with respective differences. Routeing charts are published for the
main ocean areas of the world and are produced for each month of the year.
They contain a wealth of information on winds and currents etc.
ADMIRALTY SAILING DIRECTIONS
This publication amplifies charted detail and contains information

necessary for safe navigation that is not available from the chart or other
hydrographic publications. In particular, navigational advice is given for the
area concerned, weather details, tidal or current information, information on
submarine and fishing activities etc. All of which assist the navigator in
selecting suitable safe courses. These Sailing Directions are kept up to date
by means of supplements and corrections via Notices to Mariners (Weekly).
A list of such notices is published in the weekly edition of Notice to Mariners.
WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION (WMO) VOLUME D, PUB.

NO. 9
RADIO WEATHER FORECASTS FOR SHIPPING
Transmissions broadcasted several times a day. See Annual Summary

of Notice to Mariners.
Weather faxes can be obtained from a number of sources, both official

government services and private subscription services. The British
Metrological Office, the US National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), Meteo France, and many other are mentioned in
ALRS Vol. 3 (see above)
The faxed information can be presented in a number of different

formats, surface analysis, synoptic chart, prognostic chart etc. These
different presentations are examined below. Most coastal area now have a
NAVTEX service and regular forecasts and gale warning are broadcast in this
way for GMDSS fitted vessels.

RADIO NAVIGATIONAL WARNINGS
Long-range weather warnings are broadcast on the Safety NET Service

along with NAVAREA navigational warnings as part of the World-Wide
Navigational Warning Service (WWNWS). These provide the mariner with
early warning of important incidents that may constitute a danger to
navigation. Many navigational warnings are of a temporary nature, but others
remain in force for weeks and may be succeeded by Notices to Mariners.
There are three types of radio navigational warnings:
1. NAVAREA warnings.
2. Coastal warnings.
3. Local warnings.
Navarea Warnings
The World-Wide Navigational Warning Service of long-range
navigational warnings comprises 16 geographical sea areas, termed
NAVAREAS, identified by Roman numerals. The authority responsible for
collecting and issuing warnings to cover the whole of an area is known as an
Area Coordinator. The limits, Area Coordinator and transmitting station of
each NAVAREA are shown in diagrams in the Annual Summary, Mariners
Handbook and ALRS. The Area Coordinator for NAVAREA 1 is the UK. Full
details of transmission methods and times are given in ALRS in the
Navigational Warning Section. Usually transmitted at least twice daily in
English or in one of the official languages to the United Nations. Methods of
transmission include WT, RT., Telex Navtex and facsimile. The text of the
week’s warnings, together with those in force, is included in Section ii of the
Weekly Notices to Mariners.
Coastal Warnings
Coastal warnings for all parts of the world are broadcast from the
country of origin. They are issued for information that is of importance only
in a particular coastal region i.e., in the area surrounding the hazard. They
are transmitted through the network of national Coast Radio Stations, more
frequently than NAVAREA warnings, and will often supplement the
information contained in NAVAREA warnings. The information is primarily to
assist the mariner in coastal navigation and between ports as far as the port
outer limits. They are broadcast in English and in the national language.
Details of transmission methods (WT, RT, VHF, NAVTEX) and also the times
are given in ALRS.

Local Warnings
Local Warnings supplement the coastal warning service by giving
detailed information on matters that the ocean-going ship normally does not
require. They usually refer particularly to inland waters and are often
originated by the Coastguard, port, or pilotage authorities. Local warnings
are only issued in the national language; full particulars are given in ALRS.
NAVTEX
This is a navigational telex service, developed by IMO to form an
international marine safety information service, broadcasting safety
messages on 518 kHz. Transmissions can be received by a ship’s radio telex
installation but to gain full benefit from the service dedicated equipment,
containing a receiver fixed-timed to the broadcast frequency and automatic
direct print-out, is required. The equipment should be switched on
continuously and may be programmed to receive automatically only selected
stations and/or categories of message. Urgent traffic, however, will always be
printed, regardless of the programming of the receiving equipment. A
microprocessor control ensures that a routine message already received will
not be reprinted on subsequent transmissions, and also that messages will
not be printed unless the received signal is strong enough to guarantee a
reasonable copy. All messages are prefixed by a four-character group. The
first character provides the identity letter of the transmitting station
(enclosed in square brackets after the station name in ALRS).
The second character indicates the category of message, whilst the

third and fourth characters are serial numbers, from 01 to 99 and then
starting again at 01. A serial number 00 denotes urgent traffic.
The following subject indicator letters are used to show the category of
message:
A. Navigational Warnings (See also L)
B. Meteorological Warnings
C. Ice Reports
D. Initial Distress Information
E. Meteorological Forecasts
F. Pilot and VTS Service Messages
G. AIS Messages
H. Loran Messages
J. GNSS Messages
L. Navigational Warnings Other
Z. No messages to hand

A, B, D, & L Categories are mandatory, and your receiver cannot reject
them.
Details of the Navtex Service are given in ALRS and in the Mariner’s
Handbook.
THE INTERNET
Satellite imaging has revolutionized weather forecasting and in the age

of the internet this information is much more widely available than before.
There is a wealth of weather information available on the web and some of
the more interesting sites are listed below.
British Met Office http://www.met-office.gov.uk/
UM Weather http://cirrus.sprl.umich.edu/wxnet/
Meteo France (English) http://www.meteo.fr/meteonet_en/index.htm
NOAA National Weather Service http://www.nws.noaa.gov/
Organised Weather links http://weather.communitycomputing.com
However, the UK Met Office posts this warning on their website regarding
weather forecasts:
“In the UK, the Maritime & Coastguard Agency (MCA) is responsible for
the provision of Maritime Safety Information (MSI) to ships at sea,
which includes the broadcast of warnings and forecasts. The Met Office
initiates warnings and prepares routine forecasts for dissemination on
behalf of the MCA.
Caution: The internet is not part of the Maritime Safety Information

system and should never be relied upon as the only means to obtain
the latest forecast and warning information. Access to the service may
be interrupted or delayed from time to time, updates may also be
delayed. Please refer to GMDSS services, INMARSAT SafetyNET or
international NAVTEX for the latest information. When using these web
pages, always check that the page on your screen is not from your
cache. Use the Refresh or Reload button if in any doubt.”

PLANNING A VOYAGE WITH SIMPLE WEATHER ROUTEING ADVICE
Coastal passages are not normally suitable to consider weather

routeing; however, trans-ocean voyages should always determine
the advantages of weather routeing. Consideration should also be made to
the access of a safe haven in the event that bad weather cannot be avoided.
The prevailing currents should also be considered as an important factor in
making the correct decision.
Use routeing, weather and wave charts and any other relative
information that can be obtained. Obtain the latest weather forecasts at the
start of the voyage and continue to observe the changes of the prognosis
throughout the voyage. The prime objective is avoiding the worst of the
waves, which obviously is associated with the wind strength. Waves can
endanger smaller vessels, cause structural damage, increase fuel
consumption, and extend the voyage time. Efforts should also be made to
avoid the possibility of fog, though this is not as easy to predict or avoid.
WEATHER ROUTEING INFORMATION
Sources of information are the same as those just covered but should
also include Admiralty Weather Routeing Charts and information.
The US Naval Authorities and some commercial meteorologists in the

USA provide weather routeing advice via Coast Radio Stations (CRS) for N.
Atlantic and N. Pacific. The UK and the Netherlands Meteorological Services
also provides N. Atlantic weather routeing bulletins.
The US and UK issue Facsimile maps giving analysis and forecasts of

surface weather over the N. Atlantic every six hours. Similarly, the US
produces facsimile wave condition maps every 12 hours.
In addition to the normal passage planning, consideration of routeing

for yachts and smaller craft taking into account the prevailing weather is
essential. The possibility of strong winds and heavy seas should be balanced
with the availability of safe havens en route. The risks of fog and poor
visibility within heavy shipping lanes should be evaluated and avoided. The
dangers of hurricanes and the ability to take sufficient avoiding action is part
of the passage planning exercise.

A ‘risk assessment’ of the dangers to yachts and smaller craft on a
long ocean passage should form an essential part of the evaluation procedure
within the normal passage planning procedure. Active weather routeing can
improve safety, reduce the time on passage and reduce fuel consumption.
Weather Routeing
Weather routeing services suggest an optimum track for ocean
voyages based on forecasts of weather, sea conditions, and a ship's
individual characteristics for a particular transit. The weather router aims to
achieve maximum safety and crew comfort, minimum fuel consumption,
minimum time underway, or any desired combination of these factors. As we
have seen, the mariner's first resources for route planning in relation to
weather are the Pilot Chart Atlases and the Sailing Directions. These
publications give climatic data, such as wave height frequencies and ice
limits, for the major ocean basins of the world. They recommend specific
routes based on probabilities, but not on specific conditions.
Role of the Routeing Agency

The ship routeing agency, acting as an advisory service, attempts to
avoid or reduce the effects of specific adverse weather and sea conditions by
issuing initial route recommendations prior to sailing, recommendations for
track changes while underway (diversions), and weather advisories to alert
the master about approaching unfavourable weather and sea conditions
which cannot be effectively avoided by a diversion.
Voyage Monitoring
The ship's progress is continually monitored, and, if adverse weather
and sea conditions are forecast along the ship's current track, a
recommendation for a diversion or weather advisory is transmitted to the
ship. By this process of initial route selection and continued monitoring of the
ship's progress for possible changes in the forecast weather and sea
conditions along a route, it is possible to maximize the ship's speed and
safety. In providing optimum sailing conditions, the advisory service also
attempts to reduce transit time by avoiding the adverse conditions which
may be encountered on a shorter route, or if the forecasts permit, diverting
to a shorter track to take advantage of favourable weather and sea
conditions.

When to use a weather routeing service
The greatest potential advantage for using ship weather routeing
exists when the passage is relatively long, about 1,500 miles or more and the
waters are navigationally unrestricted, so that there is a choice of routes
weather is a factor in determining the route to be followed.
Responsibility of the Master

Use of this advisory service in no way relieves the Master of
responsibility for prudent seamanship and safe navigation. There is no intent
by the routeing agency to inhibit the exercise of professional judgment and
prerogatives of masters.
Presentation of Weather Information

A weather fax service will provide several analysis charts to allow
mariners to fully understand the weather around them

WEATHER CHARTS
The sequence of the production of a weather chart is firstly to plot all

the information reported from all the land and ship observation stations.
Then to plot the analysis associated with that information.
Synoptic Chart is a chart showing the weather conditions over a large

sea area at a given instant in time. The word "synoptic" is derived from the
Greek words “syn” meaning the same or together and "optic" meaning
visible; hence, seen together.
Synoptic weather analysis requires the simultaneous observation of

the weather at many widely located sites using standardized instruments and
techniques. By international agreement all meteorological observations are
taken at the same time according to Universal Coordinated Time (UTC) or Z
time. You should look at the title of the chart to determine the time of the
chart. Most of the charts will list the UTC or Z time when the observations
were made. The weather data that are plotted on many of these surface
weather maps are based upon the hourly surface observations that are made
at many airport weather stations. These observations are made within 5
minutes of the top of the hour. The frontal analysis that may appear on the
surface chart are usually produced at 3 hourly intervals (0000 UTC, 0300
UTC and so forth).
Prognostic Chart is a chart showing the forecast positions of the

pressure canters, isobars and fronts some hours ahead (24, 36 or 48 H) of
the most recent main synoptic hour chart.
Surface Analysis Chart is a chart showing a summary of the general

synoptic situation in the area concerned and often an indication of the
movement of the pressure systems. This is a type of synoptic chart which
shows the distribution of atmospheric pressure. Pressure systems -
depressions (LOW pressure regions, L) and anticyclones (HIGH pressure, H)
are marked along with their central pressure value (CPV). Isobars are drawn
on the chart to link areas with the same pressure and are represented by
solid lines. Isobar lines are drawn at 4mB interval (4hPa) and weather frontal
systems are marked using standard symbols.
Wind direction and some indication of strength can be deduced from

the pressure chart. In the Northern Hemisphere, winds blow in an anti-
clockwise direction around a depression (LOW) and in a clockwise direction

around an anticyclone (HIGH). The closer the isobars are together, then the
greater the pressure gradient and the higher will be the wind strength.
High pressure is usually associated with settled weather while low

pressure is normally associated with unsettled weather.
Pressure charts are a useful help in interpreting satellite images. The

satellite image shows the pattern of cloud cover and with the help of the
pressure chart, frontal systems can be identified and tracked over a period of
time. Typically, rain will be associated with the passage of a front -
identifying and tracking the fronts can allow the forecast of rain, changes of
temperature, wind direction and speed etc.
All these charts are important to effective weather routeing and the
safety of smaller vessels.

SURFACE ANALYSIS CHART WIND STRENGTH AND DIRECTION
Figure 3.37 Surface Analysis Chart

(Source UK Met Office)

On the corner of a Surface Analysis Chart is a scale with which you can read
off the wind strength.
Figure 3.38 Geostrophic Wind Scale
To use it you take your dividers and fix them to the distance between
the isobars in the position on the chart you are interested in.
Go to the Geostrophic Wind Scale, put one leg of the divider on the Y-
Axis on the latitude of the position. Lay the other leg horizontally across and
read off the wind speed from the curves.
The wind at the Earth’s surface is less than the Geostrophic Wind.
Over sea reduce it by 30%
Over land reduce it by 50%
Example
Geostrophic Wind is 21 knots over sea Surface Wind 21 – 7 = 14 knots
(30% of 21 is approx. 7)
As we can see this confirms that the wider apart the isobars are, the calmer
the conditions.

Wave Period Forecasts
Figure 3.36 Wave Period Forecast
For many years, the Met Offices have used very high-powered
computers to produce ‘models’ of what wave conditions will be like. The sea
state at any point may be thought of as the sum of many individual waves,
each of a particular direction and frequency. Long wavelength waves travel
much faster than those with a short wavelength. The UK Met Office is a
leader in this field.
The wave models account for growth of waves due to the wind,
dissipation of energy by breaking waves, and the transfer of energy between
waves from different sources. They also allow for the topography of the land
and friction and refraction caused by different types of sea bed. There are
three models used in the UK, a UK model, a European model, and a global
model. The global model takes into account information from specialized
satellites which are designed to measure wave height and movement very
accurately. In the future models will become even more sophisticated as the
use of these satellite systems increases. It may become possible to predict
the likelihood of freak waves and tsunamis. It should be remembered that
this type of information is basically highly sophisticated statistics and is a
guide to the master to help him avoid the worst wave conditions.

REVIEW OF SOURCES OF WEATHER INFORMATION AVAILABLE TO
SHIPS
You have now completed Topic 16: The sources of weather information
available to ships.
During your review, you should make sure you:

a) List the published sources of information, including:
 The Mariner’s Handbook,
 Admiralty List of Radio Signals Vol.3, NP 283 (1 & 2),
 Routeing charts,
 Admiralty Sailing Directions
 Ocean Passages of the World
b) List the sources of broadcast weather information, including:

 weather facsimile,
 satellite pictures,
 text messages,
 NAVTEX
 the internet
c) Describe a surface analysis chart and a forecast chart and identify the
synoptic features.
d) Determine from a surface analysis chart the strength and direction of

the wind.

MODULE 4: SEAMANSHIP
1. State the duties of the OOW when embarking and disembarking a pilot
as stated in the Bridge Procedures Guide (as amended) and COSWP.
2. Describe the importance of the completion of pre-sailing checklists.
3. Describe the importance of maintaining watertight integrity including
the fitting of storm shutters.
4. Describe the requirement to secure heavy or bulky items such as
tenders, jet-skies, and helicopters.
5. State the importance of maintaining access to emergency equipment
at all times.
6. List and name the MARPOL annexes applicable to Large Yachts. Annex
1,4,5 & 6)
7. Can state the requirements for the prevention of pollution by oil under
MARPOL for large yachts with regard to Carriage of Oily Water
Separator, Limitations for discharge outside Special Areas, and
Limitations for discharge inside Special Areas
8. State that MARPOL Annex 1 requires the carriage of the International
Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate, Oil Record Book and Shipboard Oil
Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP).
9. Can outline the requirements for the prevention of pollution by Sewage
under MARPOL including requirements for discharge of untreated
sewage and for discharge of treated sewage
10.Can state that MARPOL annex 4 requires the carriage of the
International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate
11.State that the MARPOL requirements for the prevention of pollution by
garbage apply to large Yachts and include the Garbage Record Book
and Garbage Management Plan.
12.State that the MARPOL requirements for the prevention of pollution by
sewage apply to large Yachts and include the International Sewage
Pollution Prevention Certificate.
13.Can list the items of garbage that may be discharged overboard under
MARPOL Annex V Garbage Placard Outside Special Areas and Inside
Special areas.
14. State that the MARPOL requirements for the prevention of air pollution
apply to large Yachts and include the International Air Pollution
Prevention Certificate and Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) record
book.

15. Define Emission Control Area (ECA) and Environmentally Sensitive Sea
Areas (ESSA).
16. State that yachts over 500 GT must comply with the relevant chapters
of SOLAS and yachts under 500GT comply with the Large Yacht Code
(as amended).
17. Outline the contents of the Code of Safe Working Practices for
18. Describe the process of risk assessment.
19. State the purpose of a Permit to Work.
20. Outline the process for the correct completion of “Permits to Work”.
21. State the precautions to be observed when using lifting equipment.
22. Describe the precautions to be observed when engaged in mooring.
23. Describe the dangers involved and state the precautions necessary to
prevent injury to personnel when moving around the ship with special
regard to safe means of access.
24. Describe the precautions necessary for clearing away and letting go
the anchor.
25. State the dangers of excessive loads on the mooring ropes and the
dangers involved should a rope part.
26. Describe the correct procedure for securing to a mooring buoy.
27. State the precautions to be observed when passing and connecting a
towline to another vessel or tug.
28. State the precautions to be observed if involved in a dangerous or
enclosed space entry.

4.1 RESPONSIBILITIES IN RELATION TO A PILOT
THE PERSONAL LIABILITY OF THE MASTER FOR THE SHIP
The Master of a UK registered vessel has a personal responsibility to

the owner, crew, and passengers for the safety of the ship, crew,
passengers, and cargo. If the Master fails in this responsibility, he/she could
be personally liable to pay damages. In this context, the Master is required to
make sure that the vessel is at all times navigated by a competent person
with the knowledge and skill required under the prevailing circumstances.
Failure to obtain the services of a pilot, whether or not compulsory, could be
regarded as a breach of duty and could constitute civil negligence.
COMPULSORY AND NON-COMPULSORY PILOTAGE
There are two circumstances whereby pilots are employed these are in
a compulsory and non-compulsory service. The implications for the Master
are different under each. In an area where compulsory pilotage is required
the Master has a duty to arrange for the vessel to have a qualified pilot for
that area on board before navigating the vessel within it. Navigating in such
area without a qualified pilot is a criminal offence. Notwithstanding this, the
fact that the vessel is navigated in such an area with a pilot does not relieve
the owner or Master of their liabilities under the law in the event of damage
or loss caused by the vessel or resulting from the way it was navigated. The
pilot is, of course, responsible for his/her actions, but even under compulsory
pilotage the Master retains responsibility for the safety of the ship. The
Master is in no sense relieved of any aspect of his command. This is, despite
the fact, that most pilotage agreements require the Master to hand over the
navigation to the pilot (meaning the direction of course and speed and
control of tugs and any required signalling.)
The owner remains liable for any damage whether caused by the
negligence of the Master or Pilot or both - in law they are both regarded as
the servants of the owner.

EMBARKING & DISEMBARKING A PILOT
Although nearly all pilot cutters are fast, highly manoeuvrable, and
well fendered, all the precautions which apply to small boat operations, must
apply to embarking and disembarking pilots. Port authorities have vested
interest in the safety and well-being of their pilots and pilot cutters. If the
boarding arrangements are not satisfactory, the pilot may refuse to board,
and the ship will be unable to enter port. There are standard regulations
governing pilot ladders and if these are not followed, fines may be imposed.
The pilot ladder must be continuous. There must be no joins in it. The treads
must conform to the requirements and the ropes must be either natural fibre
or of approved man-made fibre. Manropes must be available, and the area
must be properly lit. A lifebuoy with a light must be available and a heaving
line should be available in case the pilot has a bag to bring on board. The
whole operation, from rigging the ladder to receiving the pilot on board, must
be supervised by an officer. As always, reliable communications are essential.
Before rigging the ladder, contact with the pilot or pilot station should
be established. Often the choice of which side to rig the ladder will be
obvious, but it pays to confirm with the pilot the side on which it is to be
rigged. Some pilots will ask for the ship to be on a particular heading at a
particular speed for the transfer. The pilot should be escorted to the bridge
and not left to find his/her own way there.
When disembarking the pilot, the bridge team and the pilot ladder
party must keep a careful watch on the proceedings, at least until the pilot is
safely on board the cutter and it is well clear of the ship. If, for any reason,
the pilot cannot be disembarked safely, he/she will have to be carried to the
next port and the ship will be liable for his accommodation, pay and transport
costs back home.

Figure 4.1 Required Boarding Arrangements for Pilot

REVIEW OF THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE OFFICER OF THE WATCH
IN RELATION TO BOARDING A PILOT
You have now completed Topic 17: Understands the precautions to be taken
when boarding a pilot
During your review, you should make sure you can state the duties of the
OOW when embarking and disembarking a pilot as stated in the Bridge
Procedures Guide (as amended) and COSWP.
Due to the changes in the Syllabus, we think that COSWP should be referred
to more than the BPG in this specific topic. The Bridge Watchkeeping aspect
of Pilotage, which is part of the BPG, is now in OOW Nav and Radar.

4.2 PREPARING FOR SEA
PRE-SAILING CHECKLISTS
As at many times in recent maritime history the industry has learned

hard lessons after disasters. We then often look to the airline and oil & gas
industries for ways of improving our procedures.
Checklists are an invaluable aid to ensuring that you are doing

everything required for times such as pre-departure and pre-arrival. They
become essential during emergencies when things can easily get forgotten.
The ICS Bridge Procedures Guide is a very useful publication which has
a range of checklists for use both during regular operations and emergencies.
Checklists are also a necessary part of ISM (International Safety

Management Code) and your company and ship SMS (Safety Management
System) as proof that you are following procedures. Port State Control, Flag
State and Class will ask to see your files of checklists during inspections and
audits. Ensure that everything is completed correctly and signed by the right
people at the right time and filed logically. All watchkeepers should know how
and where to file the paperwork so as to appear professional and
knowledgeable when dealing with officials.
Pre-Sailing Checklist is one of the checklists that you will complete

most regularly. It is essential to know that all your equipment on the Bridge,
in the ER and at mooring stations is fully operational. Pulling away from the
berth and realizing that your bridge telegraph is not communicating with the
engine is not safe!
Security checks would also be part of the checks. Has your Stowaway
Search been completed? Finding refugees onboard once at sea leads to
security, medical and legal issues that should be avoided.
SECURING ARRANGEMENTS
The watertight integrity of the ship is essential to her continuing to

float. British law in general and the Load line regulations in particular lay
down stringent requirements governing the watertight condition of the vessel
on proceeding to sea. If the vessel is ‘unsafe’ there are very stringent
penalties under the Merchant Shipping Act 1995. If the vessel does not

comply with the requirements of the Load Line Regulations this is an offence
in itself and may have repercussions for the vessel’s hull insurance.
The question of whether the yacht is safe is at the discretion of the

master and his based upon his knowledge of the condition of the vessel. The
question of whether the vessel complies with the Load Line Rules, requires, in
addition, an examination of the ‘conditions of assignment’ issued in
conjunction with the Load Line Certificate. This will specify whether certain
watertight doors must be kept closed at sea, if certain areas on the upper
deck must be roped off. Under certain conditions it may be necessary to fit
storm shutters over exposed windows. It may be specified that these should
be fitted ‘in heavy seas’ – in which they should be fitted if such winds are
forecast. It may say that these should be fitted on voyages more than x
nautical miles from a safe haven – in which case they should be fitted if such
a voyage is planned.
Prior to departure, a responsible officer should inspect the vessel. He

will check that all doors and hatches and other openings, listed in the
stability book, are secured weather tight or watertight. There may be a
requirement to fit storm shutters. This may be required by the flag state or it
may be a sensible precaution on the part of the ship. If heavy weather is
anticipated or likely on passage, storm shutters should be fitted. It is always
easier to fit them while the vessel is steady, but the operation can become
dangerous if the vessel is rolling or pitching heavily. It is sensible to protect
windows and doors in the bridge front.
All items of equipment such as tenders, jet skis and helicopters, which
are normally carried on board, should have dedicated securing arrangements.
Badly placed or tensioned lashings can damage the equipment, without
offering any real security. If dedicated securing arrangements are not
available, some thought as to the forces involved are required and suitable
lashings will have to be arranged. These may be rope, wire, and chain or
webbing straps (Span set).
Vent Pipes
More than a few ships have come to grief through ingress of water via
damaged or corroded or badly located vent pipes. In yachts, these are
required to be as close to the centre line as possible. Ideally, they will extend

to a reasonable height. In some cases, a valve may be fitted which allows air
to pass, but which prevents water entering the tank or space through the
vent pipe. These will be required if the vent pipes are in exposed positions.
Tank vent pipes will have some form of closure fitted to them to
prevent the ingress of water back into the tank. Sometimes this will take the
form of a one- way valve. Part of the routine maintenance of the vessel
should be to ensure that these are free to move. If they are jammed then the
vessel could be considered ‘unseaworthy’ Also some freeing port are
protected by metal flaps which are a type of one-way valve in that they resist
water entering but will open to allow water out. If these are jammed it
presents a considerable threat to the safety of the yacht in heavy seas. It
should not normally be necessary to check these items before each sailing
but there should be a general awareness of the importance of these devices
amongst the deck crew.
FREEING ARRANGEMENTS
If water is allowed to accumulate on upper decks, this will cause a

reduction in the stability of the vessel. It is equivalent to loading a weight
high in the ship and this, together with the free surface effect, will reduce the
stability. Scuppers and freeing ports should be inspected to ensure that they
are not blocked or damaged.
ACCESS TO EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT
All emergency equipment should be accessible at all times. Stores or

equipment should not obstruct access and lashings should not lead across
accesses to emergency equipment stowage, nor should they block doors.
With the ever-increasing importance being given to security, there is a
tendency to keep doors locked. This is entirely sensible, but some thought
must be given to emergency escapes as well as access to emergency
equipment lockers. Some ships have a pass key system, each authorized
member of the crew having a passkey. In modern ships, there is a tendency
towards electronic key systems or digital keypads.
SWIMMING POOLS – SEE MODULE 2

REVIEW OF THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN PREPARING A
VESSEL FOR SEA
You have now completed Topic 18: Understands the precautions to be taken
in preparing a vessel for sea
During your review, you should make sure you:
a) Describe the importance of the completion of pre-sailing check-lists.

b) Describe the importance of maintaining watertight integrity including
the fitting of storm shutters.
c) Describe the requirement to secure heavy or bulky items such as
tenders, jet-skies, and helicopters.
d) State the importance of maintaining access to emergency equipment
at all times.

4.3 SOLAS and MARPOL Conventions
At this stage of your career you should be familiar with international

conventions, how they become law in each country and what documents and
publications they are set out in.
If you do not already do so we advise that you follow the MCA Website
“Latest Documents” page. Read every new M Notice as it comes out. Get
familiar with all the M Notices that apply to you and your vessel. Not all they
word for word but a working knowledge.
Read SOLAS, MARPOL, STCW, REG LYC. Not cover to cover but those
sections that assist in your professional knowledge.
The “International Legal Tree” and “UK Codes of Practice” will be

discussed in class. You will not be asked about them in the exam but they
will help with your OOW Oral and Master Business and Law.
For this course, the MCA want you to know about SOLAS and MARPOL.
SOLAS AND THE LARGE YACHT CODE
The SOLAS (Safety of Life at Sea) Convention is an IMO

convention laying out regulations governing ship construction, fire and
lifesaving appliances, navigation, safety, security, and various other aspects
of the maritime industry.
The REG LYC (Red Ensign Group Large Yacht Code) is an industry
agreed code of practice offering an alternative method of compliance to
SOLAS for vessels that cannot comply with all the SOLAS requirements due
to lack of size or their restricted area of operation.
It is the current legislation that started life as the White Code. It was
amended to LY2, then LY3, before coming into force as the REG LYC in
January 2019. It is Part A of the REG Yacht Code. Part B is the Passenger
Yacht Code. This course deals only with Part A Red Ensign Group Large Yacht
Code.
Yachts over 500 GT must comply with the relevant chapters of

SOLAS and yachts under 500GT comply with the Large Yacht Code
(as amended).

MARPOL
Pollution is usually a result of a human or a mechanical failure. There

have been cases of deliberate pollution, resulting in prison sentences and
heavy fines. Ships have been fined for failing to maintain their oil record
books and garbage record books correctly. Ship and company standing
orders are occasionally used as evidence of failure to maintain correct
procedures following accidental pollution. Surveyors pay particular attention
to bunkering procedures and use of oily water separators.
The regulations are laid out in the MARPOL Convention:
MARPOL – International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution

from Ships, 1973
MARPOL has 6 Annexes:

I. Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil
II. Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances
in Bulk
III. Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Harmful Substances
Carried by Sea in Packaged Form
IV. Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships
V. Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships
VI. Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships
You should be able to list and name I, IV, V, and VI as the annexes that
apply to large yachts.
Many ports and port states have their own specific regulations covering
pollution and all officers and ratings should be aware of these as well as the
international regulations.
MARPOL applies to ALL VESSELS of whatever size, however the

requirement for documents and records may not apply. Some warships and
state-owned vessels are generally excluded although most governments have
stated that their warships will comply.
Each Annex specifies the certificates and documents which ships must
carry, associated surveys required and the rules for preventing pollution of
the marine environment by the substances identified in that Annex.

SPECIAL AREAS
Special Areas are identified in MARPOL as areas where for ecological

reasons the IMO has recognized the need for special measures to reduce or
restrict disposal of the various Annex substances. The selection in the
Convention may be because of one or more of the following:
1. The area is environmentally sensitive
2. There is a lack of movement of water
3. High traffic volume
4. An area of dense population.
Each Annex specifies different areas and not all the signatories
recognize all of these areas. As with other Conventions, each flag state has
limited freedom as to how it will give effect to the Convention requirements.
The UK has implemented the convention as follows.
In the UK we follow the M Notices related to MARPOL in the Merchant

Shipping Act. i.e. MSN 1807, MSN 1643, and the REG LYC.
REG LARGE YACHT CODE ON POLLUTION Annex L
L3 - Prevention of Pollution (MARPOL)

Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by
the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto, as amended (MARPOL);
(a) Vessels shall comply with all the requirements of MARPOL as prescribed
by the regulations of the Administration. For vessels under 400GT it is
the owner’s responsibility to comply with local Administration/port state
requirements and for dealing with oily bilge water retention etc.
(b) Every ship of 100GT and above, and every ship which is certified to carry
15 persons or more, shall carry a garbage management plan which shall
include the written procedures agreed for collection, storage, processing
and disposal of garbage; and a garbage record book recording disposal
and incineration, as outlined in regulation 9 of Annex V of MARPOL.
(c) Special local requirements may exist in national sea areas, ports and
harbours. The attention of owners/operators is drawn to the need to
comply with local requirements as appropriate

MARPOL ANNEX I OIL POLLUTION
Annex I specifically refers to petroleum products and much of the

impetus of this annex is aimed at oil tankers, but it does cover the machinery
spaces of all ships. The threshold is 150GT for tankers and 400GT for all
other ships.
International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (IOPPC)
MARPOL requires every non-oil tanker vessel ≥400GT to hold an

IOPPC. It is issued by Class and renewed every 5 years, subject to annual
and intermediate surveys
Oil Record Book
Vessels are also required to carry and maintain an approved Oil Record Book.
This book is in two parts, Part I to be kept by all ships, and additionally Part
II is for oil tankers.
The following must be recorded in Part I of the Oil Record Book
1. Ballasting or cleaning oil fuel tanks

2. Discharge of ballast or cleaning water from oil fuel tanks
3. Disposal of oily residue (sludge)
4. Discharge overboard of bilge water
Ports are now required to provide reception facilities for all oil residues.
In all cases a receipt should be obtained from the reception facilities
operator. The entry must be made as soon as possible, signed by the officer
and the master must sign each completed page. The Oil Record Book must
be kept on board readily available for inspection for three years from the
date of the last entry. If the vessel sold during this period the books are to
be kept, for the same time, at the selling owner’s office.
Oil Record Books may be inspected by the authorities of any

Convention country. Failure to make the required records available is an
offence for which the owner and master may each be liable on conviction to
fine.

Special Areas (Annex I) Oil
Antarctic Area Red Sea
Baltic Gulf of Aden
Black Sea Oman Area of the Arabian Sea
Mediterranean Gulfs Area
NW European Water Southern South African Waters
SOPEP Plan and Locker
Ships must carry an approved Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan

(SOPEP). In the US, this is known as a Vessel Response Plan (VRP). There
are 5 sections:
1. Preamble
2. Reporting
3. Steps to Control Discharge
4. National and Local Coordinators
5. Non-Mandatory Information
This document will cover all normal routines such as the transfer of oil
between tanks and bunkering. Action to the taken in the event of a spillage
and the authorities to inform are noted.
Action to be taken for Bunkering Operations:

 Risk Assessment and Permit to Work
 Bunkering Plan decided by C/E
 Tanks sounded
 Comms checked. Manifold to E/R, Manifold to Shoreside
 Emergency Signals agreed upon
 SOPEP gear by manifold
 Scupper Plugs checked and put in place
 Bravo Flag hoisted
Contents of SOPEP Locker

 Absorbent pads
 Absorbent booms
 Intrinsically safe shovels
 Rubber safety boots
 Rubber gauntlets
 Storage drums

Disposal of Oil Special Defences
If oil or oily mixture is discharged in circumstances where one of the

special defences can be pleaded an entry must be made in the ORB. Special
defences include any discharge made when:
1. Securing the safety of a ship
2. Saving life at sea
3. As a result of an accident such as after a collision
4. Any discharge of substances containing oil for the purpose of
combating specific pollution incidents.

MARPOL ANNEX IV SHIP SEWAGE
Annex IV covers the requirements to control pollution of the sea by

sewage. It applies to every vessel ≥400GT or carrying >15 persons.
INTERNATIONAL SEWAGE POLLUTION PREVENTION CERTIFICATE

(ISPPC)
The ISPPC is issued by Class, and renewed every 5 years, subject to annual
survey.
Discharge of Sewage Limits

1. Within 3 miles of land, no discharge except from an approved sewage
treatment plant.
2. Between 3 and 12 miles from land, no discharge except from an
approved sewage treatment plant or an approved system for
comminuting and disinfecting sewage.
3. More than 12 miles from land, discharges from an approved sewage
treatment plant or an approved system for comminuting and
disinfecting sewage, and discharges which are not comminuted and
disinfected if the vessel is proceeding at more than 4 knots at the flag
state approved rate of discharge.
Special Areas (Annex IV) Ship Sewage

Currently, the Baltic Sea area is the only Special Area under Annex IV.
In accordance with resolution MEPC.275(69), the discharge requirements for
Special Areas in regulation 11.3 of MARPOL Annex IV for the Baltic Sea
Special Area took/shall take effect on:
 1 June 2019, for new passenger ships;

 1 June 2021, for existing passenger ships;
 1 June 2023, for existing passenger ships en route directly to or
from a port located outside the special area and to or from a port
located east of longitude 28˚10' E within the special area that do not
make any other port calls within the special area.
Special Defences
May be claimed for the purpose of securing the safety of the ship
and/or those on board, saving of life at sea, or as a result of damage to
vessel or its equipment and all efforts were taken to minimize the escape.

MARPOL ANNEX V GARBAGE
Revised Annex V now generally prohibits the discharge of all garbage

into the sea except as provided otherwise in Regulation 4, 5, and 6 of the
Annex, which are related to food waster, cargo residues, cleaning agents and
additives, and animal carcasses.
Garbage Placard
Every ship of 12m in length or over are required to display placards

notifying passengers and crew of the disposal requirements of the Annex:
these placards should be written in the working language of the ship’s crew
and also in English, French or Spanish for ships travelling to other states’
ports.
Garbage Management Plan
All ships of 100GT and above, every ship certified to carry 15 persons or
more will have to carry a garbage management plan.
Matters which should be addressed in the Garbage Management Plan:

1. Designated person in charge of carrying out the plan
2. Procedures for collection garbage
3. Procedures for processing garbage
4. Procedures for storing garbage or reusable or recyclable material
5. Procedures of discharging of garbage
The IMO recommends that to achieve a cost effective and

environmentally sound result, many garbage management planners use a
combination of complimentary techniques to manage garbage, such as
follows:
1. Reduction at source
2. Re-using or recycling
3. Onboard processing (treatment)
4. Discharge into the sea in those limited situations where it is permitted
5. Discharge to a port reception facility
When requisitioning stores and provisions, shipping companies should

encourage their suppliers to remove, reduce all packaging at an early stage
to limit the generation of garbage on board ships.

Garbage Record Book
1. All ships of 400GT and above and every ship which is certified to carry 15
persons or more engaged in voyages to ports and offshore terminals
under the jurisdiction of another party to the Convention shall carry a
Garbage Record Book and record all disposal and incineration operations
2. The state, time, position of the ship, description of the garbage and the
estimated amount incinerated or discharged must be logged and signed.
The Garbage Record Book must be kept for a period of two years after the
date of the last entry.
Special Areas (Annex V) Garbage

 Baltic Sea
 Black Sea
 North Sea
 Wider Caribbean Region including Gulf of Mexico & Caribbean Sea
 Antarctic Area (South of 60° S)
 Red Sea
 Mediterranean
 Gulfs Area
Special Defences
May be claimed for the purpose of securing the safety of the ship
and/or those on board, saving of life at sea, or as a result of damage to
vessel or its equipment and all efforts were taken to minimize the escape.

MARPOL ANNEX V – Simplified overview of the Discharge Provisions (revised 2017) adapted from the IMO poster
Course Notes
All ships except platforms4
Within Special Areas
Offshore platforms
and Arctic waters
Outside Special Areas and Arctic waters and
Type of Garbage1 Regulation 6
Regulation 4 all ships within 500 m of such
(Distances are from the nearest
(Distances are from the nearest land) platforms
land, nearest ice-shelf or
nearest fast ice)
≥3 nm, en route ≥12 nm, en route
Food waste comminuted or ground2 Discharge Permitted
OOW General Ship Knowledge

and as far as practicable and as far as practicable3
Food waste not comminuted or ground

Discharge prohibited
5,6 ≥12 nm, en route
Cargo residues not contained in washwater
and as far as practicable
≥12 nm, en route
Cargo residue5,6 contained in washwater
274
and as far as practicable
(subject to conditions in Reg
Cleaning agents and additives6 contained in
6.1.2 and paragraph 5.2.1.5
cargo hold washwater
Discharge Permitted of Part II-A of the Polar Code
Cleaning agents and additives6 contained in Discharge prohibited
Discharge Permitted
deck and external surfaces washwater
Animals Carcasses Must be en route and as far from the
(should be split or otherwise treated to nearest land as possible. Should be
ensure the carcasses will sink immediately) >100nm and maximum water depth
All other garbage including plastics, synthetic
ropes, fishing gear, plastic garbage bags, Discharge prohibited
incinerator ashes, clinkers, cooking oil,
Discharge prohibited
floating dunnage, lining and packing
materials, paper, rags, glass, metal, bottles,
crockery and similar refuse
Discharge of all garbage into the sea is prohibited except provided otherwise. Violation of these requirements may result in penalties.
Footnotes on next page
© Bluewater Crew Training

v. May 2021
MARPOL ANNEX V – Simplified overview of the Discharge Provisions
(revised 2017)
1. When garbage is mixed or contaminated by other harmful

substances prohibited from discharge or having different discharge
requirements, the more stringent requirements shall apply.
2. Comminuted or ground food wastes must be able to pass through a
screen with mesh no larger than 25mm.
3. The discharge of introduced avian products in the Antarctic area is
not permitted unless incinerated, autoclaved, or otherwise treated to
be made sterile. In polar waters discharge shall be made as far as
practicable from areas of ice concentration exceeding 1/10; in any
case food wastes shall not be discharged onto the ice.
4. Offshore platforms located 12 nm from the nearest land and
associated ships include all fixed or floating platforms engaged in
exploration or exploitation or associated processing of seabed
mineral resources and all ships alongside or within 500m of such
platforms.
5. Cargo residues means only those cargo residues that cannot be
recovered using commonly available methods for unloading.
6. These substances must not be harmful to the marine environment.
For the full text of the respective discharge requirements, please refer
to the text of the revised MARPOL Annex V and the Polar Code or the 2017
Guidelines for the Implementation of MARPOL Annex V.

MARPOL ANNEX VI AIR POLLUTION
MARPOL requires every vessel ≥400GT to comply with Annex VI.
INTERNATIONAL AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION CERTIFICATE

(IAPPC)
The IAPPC is issued by Class and renewed every 5 years, subject to annual
and intermediate surveys.
It covers the following emissions:

 Ozone depleting substances from refrigeration plants and firefighting
equipment
 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) from diesel engines
 Sulphur Oxides (SOx) from diesel engines
 Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from cargo tanks of oil tankers
 Shipboard incineration
 Fuel oil quality
Ozone Depleting Substances Record Book
Vessels are required to keep a record of all ozone depleting substances

(ODS) kept on board, and when they are added and removed to/from plants.
Emission Control Areas and Environmentally Sensitive Sea Areas
Annex VI includes Emission Control Areas (ECA) and Environmentally

Sensitive Sea Areas (ESSA).
ECA - Emissions of sulphur oxide (SOx), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate
matter from ships are controlled within these areas. There are 4 ECAs
currently in place:
1. Baltic Sea
2. North Sea
3. North America
4. United States and Caribbean

REVIEW OF SOLAS AND MARPOL
You have now completed Topic 19: SOLAS and MARPOL During your review
you should make sure you can:
a) List and name the MARPOL annexes applicable to Large yachts.

Annex 1,4,5 & 6)
b) State the requirements for the prevention of pollution by oil under
MARPOL for large yachts with regard to:
 Carriage of Oily Water Separator.
 Limitations for discharge outside Special Areas
 Limitations for discharge inside Special Areas
d) State that MARPOL annex 1 requires the carriage of:
 International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate
 Oil Record Book
 Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP)
e) Outline the requirements for the prevention of pollution by Sewage
under MARPOL including:
 requirements for discharge of untreated sewage
 requirements for discharge of treated sewage
f) State that MARPOL annex 4 requires the carriage of:
 International Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate
g) State that the MARPOL requirements for the prevention of pollution
by garbage apply to large Yachts and include the:
 Garbage Record Book
 Garbage management plan.
h) List the items of garbage that may be discharged overboard under
MARPOL Annex V Garbage Placard.
 Outside Special Areas
 Inside Special areas.
k) State that the MARPOL requirements for the prevention of air
pollution apply to large Yachts and include:
 International Air Pollution Prevention Certificate
 Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS) record book
l) Define Emission Control Area (ECA) and Environmentally Sensitive
Sea Areas (ESSA)
m) State that yachts over 500 GT must comply with the relevant
chapters of SOLAS and yachts under 500GT comply with the Large
Yacht Code (as amended).


4.4 COSWP (CODE OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES FOR MERCHANT
SEAFARERS)
COSWP is a UK maritime industry agreed code of practice and

published by the MCA. It is required on all British flagged ships and private
yachts over 24 meters in length. It is a manual that guides anyone working
on board a ship to carry out their duties in a safe manner. A new edition was
published in 2015. Amendments have been issued towards the end of each
year since 2015. Electronic versions are now included as fulfilling the carriage
requirements for the publication on board. It is normal for the Master to hold
one copy and for copies to be in the crew mess, engineering, and deck
offices. The book is issued in loose-leaf format, which allows new pages to be
inserted as necessary and for redundant pages to be removed whenever
corrections are issued. Copies must be available to all the crew.
If you do not already have a copy of COSWP on your personal

computer we suggest you download it today. It is used the world over (not
just UK flagged vessels) as a guide for safety in the maritime industry. We
recommend building up your professional experience with COSWP as daily
your reference. You should be very familiar with the opening chapters
describing life on board ships, “Just Culture”, and risk assessment. You
should be reading the relevant chapter before carrying out any task on
board. Also read the relevant M Notice indicated in blue in the margins of
COSWP.
For this course and in preparations for your orals you should be
particularly familiar with the chapters on safe movement on board ship and
boarding arrangements, lifting plant & operations, and anchoring, mooring, &
towing operations and dangerous/enclosed space entry.
The International Safety Management Code (ISM) Code applies to all

ships over 500GT and COSWP must be viewed as part of this and pre-
existing safety legislation. It lays down the responsibilities of owners/
managers, masters, and employees (crew). Compliance with this Code will
normally be taken as satisfactory compliance with relevant safety
regulations. The composition of a ship’s safety committee and the duties and
appointment of a safety officer are also laid down.

RISK ASSESSMENTS AND PERMITS TO WORK
An important aspect of safety is the process of “risk assessment”.

Many tasks incur risk. Risk is an uncertainty about the effects of an activity
undertaken on board and its implications on crew, the vessel or the
environment usually being negative or with undesirable consequences. There
are two factors, likelihood of harm and consequence/severity of harm. If the
likelihood of something going wrong is high and the consequences will be
serious, it would be foolish to attempt the task. The “Permit to Work” system
is detailed along with safety factors and precautions. Most accidents are not
accidental. They are due to a combination of factors and the most common
are human failures such as bypassing safety procedures, taking short cuts,
operating at excessive loads or speeds and failure to use the correct tools
and safety equipment. Safety awareness does not occur by magic. There has
to be a culture of safety awareness, recognition of hazards and prompt
effective corrective measures.
Safety depends on every member of the crew, but senior officers can
do much by encouragement, training and by setting good examples.
Before any potentially hazardous task is attempted, a risk assessment

should be carried out and potential hazards eliminated or, at least, reduced,
to an acceptable level. The right equipment, in good order and repair, should
be available. Personnel involved should understand the task and be properly
trained. There must be proper supervision.
COSWP gives clear details of how a risk assessment should be carried

out. Detailed procedures are laid down for all tasks normally carried out on
board, which may carry an element of risk. The possibility of anything going
wrong is assessed and then the consequences of such a failure are
considered. If the likelihood of something going wrong is great and the
consequences are severe or fatal, it is obvious that no sensible person would
even consider starting the task. In most cases, simple precautions such as
adequate ventilation and lighting, proper tools, properly qualified personnel,
and safety equipment can significantly reduce the risk factor and bring the
value of the risk assessment down to an acceptable level.

LIFTING EQUIPMENT
Before starting any lifting operation, the equipment should be checked,

and the weight of the load assessed. Sufficient competent people should be
available, and a plan of action be decided. Often a “Permit to Work” system
in used. Only those people required for the operation should be in the area.
Obviously, the equipment used must be strong enough and in good condition.
The people involved should be briefed and be aware of the potential dangers.
Protective and high visibility clothing may be required. If the weight is
sufficiently heavy or the outreach of the crane or derrick sufficiently far, the
stability of the ship may become a factor.
The use, maintenance and certification of lifting appliances is covered

by legislation, but probably the most convenient reference is contained in the
COSWP. Included in the term “lifting equipment” are cranes, derricks,
winches, wires, ropes, sheaves, shackles, eyebolts, swivels, and hooks. All
must have an identifying number and be clearly marked with the SWL. All
must be inspected annually, and all must have a manufacturer’s certificate
and proof of annual inspection by a competent person. Unless an item has
the necessary certification, it should not be used in any lifting operation.
This means any fixed or mobile appliance for lifting and moving loads
from one place to another in a ship. Detailed guidance on the use of lifting
equipment is given in the Chapter 19. This equipment should always be in
date for test and never used for weights than exceed the safe working load.
This load is marked on the side of the appliance.
MOORING & ANCHORING
During the course of mooring operations, there will be strain on ropes

and wires. All those involved should be trained and aware of all potential
dangers. Yachts do not, as a rule, use mooring wires, but tugs may offer
them. A parting rope or wire can snap back and kill people. Nylon, because of
its inherent elasticity, is particularly dangerous if it breaks under load.
Chapter 26 of COSWP covers anchoring and mooring clearly and concisely. As
with any operation, good communications, between the bridge and
the mooring decks and between the ship and the tugs, are essential.

Anchors
Anchors should be available for any manoeuvre in port, both for
arrivals and departures. They should also be available at short notice
whenever the vessel is in a position in which a critical plant failure, main
engines, or steering gear, could cause the ship to ground or even hit port
facilities or anchored ships.
Before a long passage, it is normal to fit additional securing devices to

the anchors and possibly plug the spurling pipes. Before arrival all this will
have to be cleared. It is essential to ensure that the brakes are firmly on
before any of the additional securing devices are released. More than one
ship has inadvertently dropped an anchor, sometimes causing serious
damage.
One of the first things to be checked is the clarity of the

communication system. Generally, this will be by UHF or VHF radio, but there
may be a back-up telephone, which should also be tested. Straightforward
voice will suffice in small ships.
Precautions before Anchoring

On the bridge, it is obvious that the ship must be in the correct
position and that in this position it is both safe and legal to anchor. On the
forecastle, before the anchor can be let go (on command from the bridge), all
lashings must be cleared. It is a normal safety precaution to walk back the
anchors until they are clear of the hawse pipes, especially after a long
passage. This will save the embarrassment if they are stuck in the pipes. In
ships with pronounced bulbous bows, it is normal to lower them to below the
bulb. Before giving the order to let go, a look over the side is advised. An
anchor descending onto a sailing dinghy will upset the small boat fraternity.

Figure 4.2 Joining Shackles and Slips
Chain Lockers
Self-stowing chain lockers present no problems. If the lockers have to
be stowed by hand, great care is needed. Any tools taken into the locker
should be tallied to ensure that all are accounted for on completion of the
task. As the cable comes in it should be guided around the edge of the
locker. The rate of recovery depends entirely upon the speed at which the
chain locker team can handle the cable. The windlass should always be in
gear, to prevent any possibility of the cable running out and injuring or even
killing people in the locker. As always, good communications are essential.
Proper safety footwear is also essential. Overalls, gloves, and hard
hats are usually required. Lighting and ventilation should be adequate. On
completion, all equipment should be removed from the locker and the locker
secured.
Precautions During Mooring Operations

Mooring operations are potentially dangerous. Ropes can foul
propellers. Ropes can part or jump out of fairleads. The mooring parties
should be fully briefed prior to the operation and only those involved should
be on the mooring decks. The person in charge should maintain a good
overall view of the proceedings and not become involved in specific tasks.
The required manning on mooring decks depends on many factors and the
visibility from the control position for the winches or windlass is one. Your
attention is drawn to the MCA poster describing “snapback” zones.
When recovering ropes, they should be stowed, coiled, or flaked and

not allowed to pile up. The rate of recovery must be such that the available
manpower can keep up. When ropes are paid out either to tugs or to mooring
men, the paying out rate must be to suit those receiving the rope.
Spare heaving lines should always be available. Some ports are very
fussy about the “weight” on the end and only allow soft canvas sand bags.
Monkey’s fists containing old shackles are definitely out of favour. The
standard injuries on mooring decks include being caught by parting ropes,
hands being caught in warping drums and being struck by heaving lines. If
wires are used, heavy-duty gloves should be worn in case there are “snags”
or broken strands in the wire.
Operation of Winches
No member of the crew should be allowed to operate any machinery
without adequate training in its use. Many ships keep a record of training and
who is authorized to operate what equipment. This is particularly important
in the case of an accident or enquiry. If it can be shown that an
inexperienced or untrained seaman operated the equipment, it would be hard
to escape the conclusion that the ship was negligent. Proper training records
would be a good defence. This holds true for all machinery, cranes, tenders
and so on.

Use of Stoppers
Possibly the most potentially dangerous part of any mooring operation
occurs when ropes or wires under tension have to be transferred from the
warping drum to bitts.
Chain stoppers are used for wires and rope stoppers for ropes. In both
cases, the stopper temporarily holds the weight on the wire or rope while it is
being transferred to the bitts. There is a right way and a wrong way to rig a
stopper.
The West Country or Chinese stopper is easier to use and more

reliable. It consists of two ropes, which should be half the circumference of
the main rope and of the same material. Chain stoppers should incorporate
two half hitches in the form of a cow hitch.
Figure 4.3 Chain Stoppers
Dangers of Excessive Loads

Excessive loads may come onto moorings if the ship moves ahead or
astern while berthing or if the ship is caught by wind off the quay. Ropes
should be eased to reduce the strain, but the bridge must be advised. Heavy
hands on the throttles are often the cause of excessive loads. Manmade
fibres are more prone to jumping off warping drums or slipping on bitts than
natural fibre ropes. One danger associated with manmade fibre ropes on
warping drums is that heat from friction can build up when they are slacked
by surging around the drum. This can cause fusing of the strands and
damage to the rope. Manmade fibre ropes are usually far more elastic than
natural fibre ropes and will recoil with great force if they part under excessive
load.

A - Snap Back Zones for a Single Wire
B - when a wire is led around a pedestal roller (an old man)
Figure 4.4 Snap Back Zones for Traditional Lines
Figure 4.5 Focsle Mooring Deck (from COSWP)
Owing to the design of mooring decks, the entire area should be considered a
potential snap-back zone.
Modern lines used on yachts do not have such defined snap-box zones and
can cover a huge area when erratically ricocheting off mooring equipment
after breaking. The entire mooring station should be considered dangerous
and lines treated with the greatest respect during all mooring operations.
This includes when checking lines during deck rounds.
Modern lines danger area in red
This diagram is not in COSWP but we have used the COSWP Snap-back Zone
illustration as a base drawing for it.

Mooring Buoys
The easiest way to secure to a mooring buoy is for the ship to
approach head to wind and tide and then to lower a mooring rope to the
buoy. It the planned stay is of a short duration this may be sufficient.
Normally a man or men on the buoy feed the rope through the eye on the
buoy. Then the end is hauled aboard the ship and made fast around
convenient bitts. This doubles the rope and allows the ship to slip without
requiring a man on the buoy.
For a stronger mooring or for a longer stay, it is normal to use one of

the anchor cables shackled to the buoy after the initial mooring rope is fast.
The anchor is secured with additional lashings and the cable is split at the
first shackle. It is lowered to the buoy, usually through the bullring, if fitted,
and shackled on. The mooring rope is slacked, and the cable takes the
weight. If it is necessary to use the cable through the hawse pipe, the anchor
must be hung off using strong wire or rope.
Towing
Guidance on port towage operations is also given in Chapter 26. Read
the Chapter and the relevant M Notice.

ENCLOSED SPACE ENTRY
An enclosed space is one that has limited openings for entry and exit;
has inadequate ventilation; and is not designed for continuous worker
occupation. This includes fuel or ballast tanks, a void space, anchor locker or
even an enclosed bilge. Do not forget that work is carried out inside boilers
and that these are also small enclosed spaces.
It is essential that the Permit to Work Scheme and the requirements of

the Code of Safe Working Practice be followed whenever entering an
enclosed space.
The space must be thoroughly ventilated, and the atmosphere tested

and found safe. Rescue equipment must be kept near the entrance with a
responsible person in attendance. There must be communication between the
person at the entrance and those entering. People must be counted in and
out.
The commercial vessels that you work on will have a list of spaces that
are considered to be ‘enclosed’ and where use of the Permit to Work Scheme
is mandatory.
The following precautions should be taken as appropriate before

entering a potentially dangerous space. So as to make the space safe for
entry without breathing apparatus and to ensure it remains safe while
persons are within the space:
 A competent person should make an assessment of the space and an

authorized officer to take charge of the operation should be appointed
 The potential hazards should be identified
 The space should be prepared, vented, and secured for entry
 The atmosphere of the space should be tested
 The permit to work system should be used
 Procedures for preparation and entry should be agreed
 Emergency procedures should be in place

REVIEW OF THE CODE OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES FOR
MERCHANT SEAFARERS (COSWP)
You have now completed Topic 20: Code of Safe Working Practices for
Merchant Seafarers (COSWP)
During your review. you should make sure you can:
a) Outline the contents of the Code of Safe Working Practices for

b) Describe the process of risk assessment.
c) State the purpose of a Permit to Work.
d) Outline the process for the correct completion of a Permit to Work
e) State the precautions to be observed when using lifting equipment.
f) Describe the precautions to be observed when engaged in mooring.
g) Describe the dangers involved and state the precautions necessary
to prevent injury to personnel when moving around the ship with
special regard to safe means of access.
h) Describe the precautions necessary for clearing away and letting go
the anchor.
i) State the dangers of excessive loads on the mooring ropes and the
dangers involved should a rope part.
j) Describe the correct procedure for securing to a mooring buoy.
k) State the precautions to be observed when passing and connecting a
towline to another vessel or tug.
l) State the precautions to be observed if involved in a dangerous or
enclosed space entry.


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GENERAL SHIP

Antibes, Palma, Fort Lauderdale

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

These notes form part of a programme of study leading to command

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

This publication is a training aid - under no circumstances should it be used

© Copyright. Bluewater Yachting (Antibes, France; Ft. Lauderdale, FL). 2021

Purpose of this Book

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

Module 1: Basic Ship Construction 17

Module 2: Stability 119

Module 3: Meteorology 181

Module 4: Seamanship 255

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

This course is divided into four sections: Basic Seamanship, Meteorology,

Prerequisite: Yacht master Coastal Theory and Practical

Required Resources: Bluewater Yachting Course Notes

Attendance Policy: Students are required to attend all scheduled classes

Assessment: Assessment is by a written 2½ hour examination of 7

Certification: MCA OOW General Ship Knowledge. Expiration/Renewal

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

DAY HOUR LECTURE CONTENT / MODULE

2 Met - Global Wind Distribution

Met - Pressure systems + wind

4 Construction - Construction Terminology

5 Stability - Basic Principles

7 Review of Coursework and Homework Assignment

DAY HOUR LECTURE CONTENT / MODULE

2 1 Review Homework + Morning quiz

2 Stability - Initial Stability

4 Met - Water Vapour, Clouds and Fog

5 Met - Air Masses, Fronts and Depressions

6 Met Instruments + Information

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

DAY HOUR LECTURE CONTENT / MODULE

3 1 Review Homework + Morning quiz

2 Construction – Stresses, Construction Members

3 Construction – Construction Materials, Plans

4 Construction – Corrosion, IACS

5 Stability - List, Suspended Weights, Loll, FSE, Stability Data

6 Met - How to measure wind on a synoptic chart

7 Review of Coursework and Homework Assignment

DAY HOUR LECTURE CONTENT / MODULE

4 1 Review Homework + Morning quiz

2 Construction – Bilge systems

3 Seamanship - SOLAS & MARPOL Pilotage - safety responsibilities

Seamanship - COSWP – Brief overview, Enclosed Space Entry

5-7 Mock Exam

DAY HOUR LECTURE CONTENT / MODULE

2-3 Course Review

4-7 OOW GSK Examination

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

Module 1 - SHIP CONSTRUCTION

Topic 2: Longitudinal, Transverse and Local Stresses due to Static

Topic 3: Methods of Yacht Construction

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

Topic 4: Plans normally carried on board

Topic 5: The cause and prevention of corrosion

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

Topic 6: The functions of classification societies

Topic 7: Load lines, Reserve Buoyancy, and methods of damage

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training

OOW General Ship Knowledge © Bluewater Crew Training