1 Utilization of Alternative Aggregates for Roller Compacted Concrete Pavements ̶ A

2 State-of-the-Art Review

3 M. Selvam1, Solomon Debbarma2, Surender Singh3, and Xijun Shi4

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5 Research Scholar, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
6 Chennai – 600036, India. Email: ce19d759@smail.iitm.ac.in
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7 Postdoctoral Research Associate, Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San
8 Marcos, TX 78666, USA. Email: sdebbarma@txstate.edu
9 3
Assistant Professor, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai – 600036, India. Email:
10 surender@iitm.ac.in (Corresponding Author)
4
11 Assistant Professor, Ingram School of Engineering, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX
12 78666, USA. Email: xijun.shi@txstate.edu
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18 Please cite this article as: Selvam, M., S. Debbarma, S. Singh, and X. Shi. Utilization of
19 Alternative Aggregates for Roller Compacted Concrete Pavements – A State-of-the-Art Review.
20 Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 317, No. November 2021, 2022, p. 125838.
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22 Orginal Link to the document: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125838.
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44 Abstract
45 In the last few decades, much attention has been given to Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavement
46 (RCCP) technology for highway applications due to its numerous advantages over other
47 conventional paving materials; lower life-cycle cost, lesser shrinkage, early opening to traffic, and
48 reduction in the urban heat island are the main benefits associated with RCCP. Efforts have been
49 made in the recent past by researchers to inculcate sustainable practices in RCCP by incorporating
50 alternative materials. The present study is a state-of-the-art review of the studies published
51 between 1997 to 2021 on the use of alternative materials for RCCP. The alternative aggregates
52 that have been considered are recycled concrete aggregates, reclaimed asphalt pavement
53 aggregates, crumb rubber, and electric-arc furnace steel slag aggregates. The potential of these
54 alternative aggregates has been critically assessed based on the fresh (optimum moisture content,
55 maximum dry density, Vebe time), mechanical (compressive strength, flexural strength, split
56 tensile strength, abrasion resistance, modulus of elasticity), and durability properties (porosity,
57 water absorption, and freeze-thaw) of RCCP. Consequently, the fundamental parameters of these
58 materials affecting the behavior of RCCP and the ways to address them are also summarized.
59 Based on the extensive survey, the optimum proportion of these alternative aggregates for the
60 production of sustainable RCCP have been identified and reported. Various gaps that need to be
61 bridged through scientific as well as field understandings are also highlighted in this paper, along
62 with outlining the possible future research scopes.
63
64 Keywords: Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement; Alternative Aggregates; Recycled Aggregates;
65 Review
66
67 Word count: 15672 (including references)
68
69 Table of Contents
70 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 3
71 2 Research significance and methodology ................................................................................. 5
72 2.1 Research significance .................................................................................................................. 5
73 2.2 Research methodology ................................................................................................................ 6
74 3 Characterization of alternative aggregates .............................................................................. 7
75 4 Influence of alternative aggregates on RCCP properties ...................................................... 10
76 4.1 Fresh properties ......................................................................................................................... 10
77 4.1.1 Optimum moisture content .................................................................................................................. 10
78 4.1.2 Maximum dry density .......................................................................................................................... 10
79 4.1.3 Vebe and hammer time ........................................................................................................................ 11
80 4.2 Mechanical properties................................................................................................................ 14
81 4.2.1 Compressive strength ........................................................................................................................... 14
82 4.2.2 Flexural strength .................................................................................................................................. 15
83 4.2.3 Split tensile strength............................................................................................................................. 17
84 4.2.4 Modulus of elasticity ........................................................................................................................... 17
2
 85 4.2.5 Abrasion resistance .............................................................................................................................. 18
86 4.3 Durability properties .................................................................................................................. 19
87 4.3.1 Porosity ................................................................................................................................................ 19
88 4.3.2 Water absorption .................................................................................................................................. 19
89 4.3.3 Freeze-thaw.......................................................................................................................................... 20
90 5 Factors affecting the strength and durability of RCCP containing alternative aggregates ... 20
91 5.1 Recycled concrete aggregates .................................................................................................... 20
92 5.2 Recycled asphalt pavement aggregates ..................................................................................... 22
93 5.3 Rubber tire aggregates ............................................................................................................... 23
94 5.4 Electric arc furnace EAFSS aggregates ..................................................................................... 24
95 6 Strength improvement techniques......................................................................................... 24
96 7 Optimal RCCP mix proportions............................................................................................ 29
97 8 Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 30
98 9 Future scope of research ....................................................................................................... 31
99

100 1 Introduction
101 Roller-compacted concrete pavement (RCCP) is emerging as the next choice to the conventional
102 jointed plain concrete pavements (JPCP) due to its lower cost and fast construction [1–3]. RCCP
103 technology is a fusion of three different technologies ̶ soil compaction, asphalt pavement, and
104 concrete pavement technologies [4]. These combined features of soil, concrete, and asphalt
105 pavement technologies make RCCP a fast-to-design, construct, and low-cost paving option [2,5,6].
106 The material constituents of RCCP are similar to that of the JPCPs; however, they are blended
107 following the soil compaction approach and have a higher proportion of fine aggregates along with
108 lesser cement and water content than JPCP to achieve similar properties [2]. On the other hand,
109 RCCP follows the construction practices of asphalt pavement technology; RCCP is typically
110 placed with asphalt pavers and compacted using traditional vibratory drum/rubber-tired rollers
111 [2,5-7]. Fig. 1 shows the typical machines/equipment that is used to mix, place, and compact the
112 fresh RCCP mixes. Generally, RCCP can be used for both base-course and surface-course
113 applications; when used for base-layer, the cement requirement is almost similar to that of the
114 econocrete, and dry lean concretes but generally higher than that required for producing cement-
115 treated base [7–12] (Fig. 2). When RCCP acts as a surface layer, a higher compressive strength in
116 the range of 28-41 MPa is generally desired at 28 days of water curing ages.

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117
118 Fig. 1 Typical machines and equipment used for RCCP construction
119

Econocrete Cement treated base

• Low cement content (107 -
208 kg/m3)
• Compressive strength (7-14
MPa)
• Used as shoulder, subbase
and base course
• Low cement content (56 - 226
kg/m3)
• Compressive strength (1.2 - 11.7
MPa)
Used as subbase and base course

Dry lean concrete RCCP

• Low cement content (150
kg/m3)
• Compressive strength (14 -
17.8 MPa)
• Used as upper subbase and
subbase
• Medium cement content (150 -
350 kg/m3)
• Compressive strength (28 - 41
MPa)
• Used for wearing course,
subbase and base course

120
121 Fig. 2 Comparison between econocrete, lean concrete, cement-treated base, and RCCP [7–
122 12]
123
124 In recent years, there has been a growing interest in bringing sustainability to the highway
125 sector, mainly by lowering the consumption of non-renewable resources [13]. To a large extent,
126 sustainability could be induced in pavements by optimizing the mix design, adopting innovative
127 paving solutions, and reducing the need for virgin materials [13–15]. The most common practice
128 of pavement sustainability is to lower the consumption of virgin aggregates by partially or fully
129 replacing them with alternative aggregates. The most commonly used alternative aggregates for
130 RCCP are recycled concrete aggregates (RCA), Mixed RCA, reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP),
131 electric arc furnace steel slag (EAFSS), and tire rubber aggregate. The utilization of these recycled
132 aggregates has numerous enfolded benefits, such as reduction in the cost of natural aggregates,
133 reduction in the virgin materials related transportation costs, elimination of solid waste disposal
134 issues, and reduction in the carbon footprint [16,17]. However, there also exist some limitations to
135 the effective utilization of these recycled aggregates. For instance, RCA has a layer of porous
136 adhered old mortar, which may cause significant strength reductions [18]. Similarly, the interfacial
4
137 bonding energy between the asphalt-coated RAP aggregates and cement-mortar paste has been
138 noticed to be much lower, leading to drastic strength reductions [19–21]. Cross-recycling of RAP
139 is a common practice nowadays. Although RAP is reused in asphalt pavements, not all of it can be
140 recycled. About 88% (nearly 85.1 million tons) of excess RAP was reported by the US contractors
141 by the year 2015 [16]. Therefore, proper waste management and/or effective utilization of these
142 excess RAP in concrete pavements is often welcome. Singh et al. [22] observed that RAP could
143 be used for both the pavement types (concrete & bituminous), however, the optimum proportion
144 of the same need to be explored based on the fresh & hardened state behavior of the target mix.
145 Despite strength reductions, the use of RAP in concrete has several enfold benefits such as
146 improved ductility, cracking resistance, and impact resistance compared to conventional concrete
147 materials [17,21,23]. Likewise, the use of rubber tire aggregates could improve the toughness
148 despite the reduction in the strength of concrete [24–26]. On the contrary, the use of coarse EAFSS
149 aggregate may increase/decrease the concrete compressive strength based on its surface roughness
150 and angularity [27]. The plastic and hardened behavior of RCCP largely depends on the type and
151 size of aggregates, gradation of aggregates, cementitious content (cement and mineral admixtures),
152 and water content. Hence, this review paper would function as a single document addressing and
153 discussing all the merits and demerits of producing a sustainable RCCP using recycled materials.

154 2 Research significance and methodology

155 2.1 Research significance
156 The main focus of the present study is to critically appraise the existing literature on the utilization
157 of alternative aggregate for RCCP. The volume occupied by the aggregate in RCCP is 10-15%
158 higher than conventional concrete mixtures. Therefore, utilization of the recycled aggregates
159 (RCA, RAP, EAFSS, and tire rubber aggregates) in RCCP seems to be a better choice than its
160 counterparts. Although the use of alternative aggregate may lead to many-fold benefits such as
161 reduction in the natural aggregates demand, mitigation of waste disposal issues and lower carbon
162 footprints, etc., still hesitation due to lack of scientific/fundamental/application understanding has
163 been seen amongst academicians, field practitioner/contractors, and construction engineers related
164 to the utilization of alternative aggregates for RCCP. Some of the critical questions that have been
165 addressed in the present review are:
166
167 1. Is it possible to incorporate recycled aggregate for RCCP? If yes, what are the implications of
168 alternative aggregate on the fresh, mechanical and durable properties?
169 2. What are the key factors affecting the strength and durability of recycled aggregate inclusive
170 RCCP mixtures?
171 3. What are the treatment methods available to mitigate the negative effect of alternative
172 aggregate?
173 4. What is the optimum replacement level for recycled aggregates up to which the deterioration
174 in the strength and durability is minimal?
175 5. What are the research prospects available to induce sustainability in the RCCP through the
176 integration of recycled aggregate?
177

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178 The present review would provide a clear solution to the afforested question by critically assessing
179 the influence of these recycled materials on the fresh and hardened properties of RCCP mixes and
180 compile several researchers' findings into one document.
181
182 2.2 Research methodology
183 Fig. 3 presents the research methodology structure followed in this current review. Journal articles
184 available in different abstracting & indexing databases published between 1997 to 2021 were
185 collected during the preliminary stage of the review. Depending on the quality of the journal &
186 scope of the present article, the papers were further scrutinized and considered for review analysis.
187 In this review, only the significant engineering properties of RCCP are considered. For instance,
188 optimum moisture content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) values are the governing
189 design criteria for RCCP mixes, and hence, the influence of recycled materials on these parameters
190 is reviewed and discussed. The mechanical properties considered for review are compressive
191 strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, and abrasion resistance.
192 Subsequently, the influence of recycled materials on the durability properties, namely, porosity,
193 permeability, water absorption, and freeze-thaw of RCCP mixes, is reviewed and discussed
194 comprehensively. Based on the review analysis, the major conclusions and future
195 recommendations are outlined. The outline of the literature review adopted in this present study is
196 shown in Fig. 4.
197
Keyword Search: Roller compacted
concrete pavement, recycled concrete
aggregate, rubber tire, steel slag, and RAP
Web of
science
American
Data Range: Science Society of
(From Past to Direct Civil
2021) Engineers

Search
Options Article Type: Database
Review;
technical TRID
papers; case- (Transport
studies and Scopus Research
reports International
Documentation)
Language: Taylor &
English Francis

198
199 Fig. 3 Databases and search options used in the present study

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200
Alternative aggregates Focus of the present study Benefits of the present study

Recycled concrete Novelty in research

aggregate Green concrete
Research significance
Research methodology

Characterization of materials
Properties of alternative Reuse of waste
Reclaimed asphalt aggregates aggregates
pavement
Effect of alternative aggregates on
fresh properties
Optimum moisture content
Reuse of agricultural
Maximum dry density
wastes
Electric arc furnace Vebe time
steel slag
Effect of alternative aggregates on
mechanical properties
CO2 Reduction in
Compressive strength
CO2 emissions
Flexural strength
Tire rubber Split tensile strength

Modulus of elasticity

Abrasion resistance Decrease in waste

disposal and landfills

Effect of alternative aggregates on

durability properties
Porosity
Alternative aggregates Green concrete
as partial replacement Water absorption pavement construction
to conventional practices
aggregates Freeze-Thaw

Strength improvement techniques

Alternative pathways
Factors affecting strength properties for agricultural wastes
upcycling
Optimal RCCP mix proportions
Roller compacted concrete

201
202 Fig. 4 Outline of literature review (Photos of electric arc furnace EAFSS and tire rubber
203 reprinted with permission from Elsevier [28,29])

204 3 Characterization of alternative aggregates

205 Based on the parent source properties, the morphological and mechanical characteristics of
206 alternative aggregates may vary significantly and hence needs to be mapped judiciously and linked
7
207 with the resultant concrete performance. For instance, RCA and RAP are the main constituents of
208 construction and demolition (C&D) waste and possess completely different characteristics (Table
209 1). RCA originates from the demolition of concrete infrastructures, and the aggregates are usually
210 covered with a thick rough-textured porous adhered old mortar layer [30]. Similarly, mixed
211 recycled concrete aggregates contain porous adhered old mortar layer and a higher fraction of
212 ceramic particles, which entails more water due to higher water absorption capacity [31]. Whereas
213 demolishing distressed bituminous/asphalt pavements leads to the RAP, and the aggregates are
214 surrounded by a thin, smooth hydrophobic asphalt coating [32,33]. The residual mortar content in
215 RCAs is typically in the range of 30-60%, and the specific gravity of RCA usually ranges between
216 2.1-2.5 [18]. The asphalt content in RAP may range from 2-7.5%, and the reported specific gravity
217 typically varies between 2.1-2.6 for the coarser fraction and 1.8-2.4 for the finer fraction [34–36].
218 The absorption capacity of RCA is usually higher than natural aggregates due to adhered porous
219 mortar, whereas the hydrophobic layer in RAP restricts the absorption of water. However, the
220 water absorption of RAP could be higher if extracted through uncontrolled milling technique,
221 which produces external water soaking dust contaminants [34,37].
222 Tire rubber aggregate can be used in varying sizes to generate proper gradation. Chipped
223 rubber (CiR) is generally utilized to replace coarse aggregates; irregularly-shaped crumb rubber
224 (CR) is employed as fine aggregates, and powdered rubber may be utilized as filler, binder, or fine
225 aggregates in concrete mixes [28]. The specific gravity of tire rubber aggregates may vary between
226 0.6-1.5. The low water absorption capacity and density make tire rubber aggregate a potential
227 lightweight aggregate [38].
228 EAFSS is a by-product of steel production and has very good mechanical properties; it is
229 a crushed product with a black color stone appearance and a rough surface texture [27,39]. In
230 comparison to RCA and RAP, EAFSS has a relatively high specific gravity of about 2.9-3.4 and
231 has high abrasion resistance, low aggregate crushing value, and excellent resistance to
232 fragmentation. These properties make EAFSS particularly suitable for concrete applications;
233 however, this artificial material may result in expansion due to the presence of free CaO and MgO
234 that may lead to volumetric instability [27]. Mitigating this negative effect may make EAFSS one
235 of the potential alternative aggregates for the production of concrete mixes. A visual representation
236 of the coarser fraction of these alternative aggregates is shown in Fig. 5. Also, the composition
237 and physical properties of recycled aggregates are shown in Table.1.

Recycled Concrete Aggregate Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement EAF Slag Aggregate Rubber Aggregate
Specific gravity: 2.1–2.5 Specific gravity: 1.81-2.49 Specific gravity: 2.9-3.4 Specific Gravity: 0.6-1.5
Water absorption: 3-12% Water absorption: 0.4-2.03% Water absorption: 1.9-2.7% Water Absorption: ~0.5%
Shape and texture: Angular Shape and texture: Angular with Shape and texture: Angular with Shape and texture: Angular with
with rough surface smooth surface rough surface rough surface
238
239 Fig. 5 Visual representation of the coarser fraction of alternative aggregates. (Images
240 reprinted with permission from Elsevier [28,40–42])
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241 Table 1 Composition and physical properties of recycled aggregates
242
Composition (%)
Los Angeles
Type of Concrete Specific Water Flakiness
Bituminous/Asphalt Ceramic Agglomerated Free abrasion
aggregate and gravity absorption index References
content particles Particles CaO value
mortars
× 2.51 4.69 29.4 × [43]
1.3 2.5 71 ×
1.7 2.5 59 × 2.22 6.1 36.6 5.7 [31]
×
RCA
× × × × 2.19 7.63 32 × [44]
×
Mixed
1.5-1.1 11.4-23.4 51-55 × 2.08-2.16 7.4-9.2 35-37 9.4-14.3 [31]
RCA ×
× × × × × 1.82 0.91 × × [45]
Fine RAP × × × × × 2.27 1.4 × × [24]
4.5 × × × × 2.35 2.35 × × [46]
Coarse × × × × × 2.14-2.3 0.7-1 28 × [45]
RAP 1.9 × × 15 × 2.41 0.40 × × [46]
× × × × × 1.21 × × × [25,26]
Rubber × × × × × 1.253 × × × [47]
× × × × × 1.273 0.5 × × [48]
× × × ×
< 0.1 3.4 2.93 19.37 [49,50]
×
EAF Slag
× × × ×
0.67 3.4-2.91 1.7-3.2 10.8 × [27]
243 Note - × indicates data is not available

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244 4 Influence of alternative aggregates on RCCP properties
245 4.1 Fresh properties
246 4.1.1 Optimum moisture content
247 Since RCCP mixes have to be compacted with static/vibratory rollers, they are designed following
248 the soil compaction approach; the moisture content shall be adequate (OMC) to achieve the
249 maximum compactness (MDD). The modified proctor method, in accordance with ASTM D1557
250 [51], is the most preferred method for determining the OMC of RCCP mixes. But in the case of
251 weak aggregates, the standard proctor method, as per ASTM D698, could be adopted [2]. Some
252 researchers have also employed the Superpave gyratory compactor to determine the OMC and to
253 prepare laboratory specimens due to its better ability to simulate and reproduce the actual field
254 compaction conditions in the laboratory [52–57]. Typically, the OMC of RCCP mixes made with
255 natural aggregates ranges between 5-8% (mass of total dry materials) [2]. But in the case of RCA-
256 RCCP mixes, the OMC is generally higher by about 1.6-5.1% when RCA is utilized in the
257 proportion of 5-30% [44]. At higher RCA replacement levels, i.e., 50-100%, the increase in the
258 OMC could be much higher, nearly about 25-35% higher than the conventional RCCP [43]. This
259 increase in the OMC is mainly due to the presence of old adhered mortar in the RCA, which is
260 ascribed for higher water absorption capacities [58]. Also, the composition of RCA could have a
261 significant influence on the fresh properties. For instance, MRCA from mixed C&D waste could
262 lead to an increase in the OMC by about 35-53% [31]. This could be due to the presence of a higher
263 fraction of ceramic waste (11.4–23.4%) in the Mixed RCA, which entails more water to achieve
264 maximum compactness of the mix [31].
265 Similar to RCA, the use of EAFSS aggregates could increase the OMC by about 15-21%
266 when utilized in the proportion of 50-100% [49]. This implies that EAFSS aggregates may warrant
267 more water to attain maximum compactness. However, this water demand could be reduced by the
268 addition of fly ash, which exhibits the water reduction ability owing to the ball-bearing effect of
269 its spherical particles [49]. Contrarily to RCA/EAFSS RCCP mixes, the use of RAP generally
270 lowers the OMC value by about 8-12%, mainly due to the water-repelling ability of its asphalt
271 layer [59]. However, some researchers reported that the inclusion of RAP might increase the OMC
272 value up to 12% [45,60,61]. This negative effect on the OMC was ascribed by the agglomeration
273 of RAP particles, which entraps the water into the voids [46]. In the case of CR-RCCP mixes,
274 Fakhri and Amoosoltani [25] reported that the inclusion of CR particles lowered the OMC of
275 RCCP mixes. Besides, due to the lower water absorption of CR particles, more free mortar was
276 available that increased the workability and compaction efforts, leading to better compaction and
277 consistency of the fresh mixes. From the literature, it has been observed that the incorporation of
278 RCA and EAFSS can increase the OMC values due to its higher water absorption capacities.
279 Whereas the inclusion of RAP and CR may lower the OMC due to their lower water absorption
280 values. Based on the source, the use of RAP may also result in higher OMC values due to the
281 presence of agglomerated particles and dust. It has been determined that the utilization of
282 alternative aggregates entails OMC in the range of 1.6-34.5% for RCA, 14.7-21% for EAFSS, and
283 4.5-7% for RAP.
284 4.1.2 Maximum dry density
285 The incorporation of RCA could lead to a reduction in MDD mainly due to its lower specific
286 gravity [44]. However, the rate of change in slope of the OMC-MDD plot of the RCA-RCCP mix
10
287 could be flatter than the control RCCP. This indicates that RCA-RCCP mixes can tolerate the same
288 or greater variations in moisture content than the control mixes without compromising their dry
289 density during compaction [43]. Similar to RCA, the incorporation of low-density RAP and CR
290 has been reported to reduce the MDD of RCCP mixes by about 5% and 7%, respectively
291 [46,62,63]. Nevertheless, the inclusion of RAP results in better workability and compactability
292 due to the combined effect of the lubricating effect provided by the asphalt layer and the lesser
293 angularity of RAP aggregates [64]. On the other hand, the use of EAFSS has been found to improve
294 the MDD of RCCP mixes by approximately 0.7-3.9%, primarily due to its higher density [49].
295 Irrespective of the type of alternative aggregates utilized in RCCP mixes, the variation in the
296 MDDs was found to be minutely small. Hence, it proves the potential of these alternative
297 aggregates since the hardened strength of RCCP is directly related to its maximum compactness
298 of the fresh mix.
299 4.1.3 Vebe and hammer time
300 The vibrating table method determines the consistency of stiff and very stiff RCCP mixes as per
301 ASTM C1170 [65]. The time required to form a mortar ring around the periphery of the surcharge
302 is considered as Vebe consistency time. According to ASTM C1170 [65], the maximum allowable
303 Vebe time is 60 s; whereas ACI 325 recommends a Vebe time of 30-40 s for RCCP mixes;
304 Marchand et al. [66] suggests 50-75 secs; In general, RCCP mixes having a Vebe time of about
305 32-39 s was found to exhibit desirable performance [67]. To the best of the authors’ knowledge,
306 no study is available which investigated the Vebe time of RCCP mixes made with alternative
307 aggregates, except crumb rubber. Mohammad and Adamu [62] demonstrated that the Vebe time
308 decreases from 33 s to 27 s when the dosage of crumb rubber was increased from 10% to 30%,
309 respectively. This behavior was mainly ascribed to the hydrophobic nature of crumb rubber, which
310 repels the water away. As a result, more free water becomes available in the mixture, leading to
311 lesser Vebe time and compaction energy [48,62,68].
312 On the other hand, ACI 327 recommends that the RCCP mixes should be compacted using
313 a vibrating hammer for a duration of 15-20 s or until the mortar paste starts to appear around the
314 corners of the tamping plate. However, a much higher time is usually required for RCCP mixes
315 containing alternative aggregates to achieve their maximum compactness. The RCCP mixes made
316 with alternative aggregates should be compacted for at least 15-25 s to achieve the MDD [31,43].
317 A summary of the influence of alternative aggregates on the fresh properties of RCCP mixes is
318 shown in Table 2.
319

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320 Table 2 Summary of literature presenting the influence of alternative aggregates on fresh RCCP properties
321
Aggregate Replacement Difference Difference Difference in Trend in Trend in Trend in Remarks References
type level (%) in OMC in MDD Vebe time OMC MDD Vebe
relative to relative to relative to relative relative time
control mix control mix control mix to control to control relative
(%) (%) (%) mix mix to control
mix

5, 15, and 30 1.6, 3.2, and 0.8, 4.5, and - Increase Decrease - - [44]
5.1 4.6
RCA
50 and 100 8.3 to 30 2.2 to 4.7 - Increase Decrease - - [43]

100 17 to 35 1.8 to 3.1 - Increase Decrease - - [31]

Mixed 100 7 to 8 3 to 4 - Increase Decrease - - [31]

RCA

EAFSS 50 and 100 15 to 21 0.7 to 3.9 - Increase Increase - Higher water absorption and bulk density [49]
of EAFSS aggregate compared to crushed
stone aggregate

0 and 100 8.4 to 11.8 3.2 to 5.4 - Decrease Decrease - Both fractions of RAP utilized [64]

16 10 0.2 - Increase Decrease - Coarse fraction of RAP utilized [61]

20, 30, 40, 60 1.8, 3.6, 4.5, 1.7, 2.6, 3.3, - Increase Decrease - Both fractions of RAP utilized [60]
and 100 5.9, and 7.1 5.8, and 7.7

100 coarse 3.3 to 11.1 2.6 to 4.3 - Increase Decrease - OMC increases due to the presence of dust [45,63]
RAP contaminants and higher concentration of
RAP agglomerated particles

100 coarse 2.1 2.5 - Decrease Decrease - Reduction in OMC due to higher [46]
RAP concentration of asphalt in RAP

50 and 100 3.3 and 9.8 0.9 and 2.1 - Increase Decrease - Use of dust contaminated fine RAP [63]
increases the water absorption capability

50 total RAP 4.1 3.8 - Decrease Decrease - OMC decreased due to maximum [46]
compactness achieved

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 100 total 4.1 to 10 5 to 8 × Increase Decrease - Negative effect of higher concentration of [45,46]
RAP agglomerated particles

Crumb 10, 20, and × 0.9, 6.6, and 9, 24.2, and × Decrease Decrease - [62]
rubber 30 6.5 27.2

Note - × indicates data is not available

322

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323 4.2 Mechanical properties
324 This section discusses the influence of alternative aggregates on some of the important mechanical
325 properties of RCCP, such as compressive strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, modulus
326 of elasticity, and abrasion resistance. Compressive strength and flexural strength are the
327 fundamental parameters that govern the thickness design of RCCP, and their stipulated limits
328 suggested by different governing agencies are listed in Table 3.
329 Table 3 Recommended strength requirements for RCCP at 28 days of curing age
Standards Recommended strength Country of
origin
Compressive strength (MPa) Flexural strength
(MPa)
ACI 327 28 to 41 3.5 to 7 USA
Portland Cement
27.6 to 68.9 3.4 to 6.9 USA
Association
American Concrete 28 (If no freeze and thaw)
× USA
Pavement Association 31 (If exposed to freeze and thaw)
IRC: SP-68 Typically designed for M30 grade concrete India
British Airport × 4 British
Authority
France 20 × France
330 Note - × indicates data is not available
331
332 4.2.1 Compressive strength
333 Compressive strength is an important parameter considered in the field for quality control, and
334 hence, proper care should be taken during the selection of the raw materials during the initial mix
335 design itself. Due to the complex composition of alternative aggregates, the inclusions of
336 alternative aggregates could drastically influence the final compressive strength of the RCCP
337 mixes. For instance, the use of RCA has been reported to lower the compressive strength of RCCP
338 mixes in the range of 5-35%. The compressive strength has been observed to be a function of the
339 proportion of RCA considered: the use of 30% of RCA has been found to reduce the compressive
340 strength by about 29% [44], whereas 100% utilization of RCA may lower the strength by around
341 35% [43]. This reduction in the compressive strength is due to the presence of old adhered mortar
342 around the periphery of the RCA that usually results in a poor ITZ with the new cement-mortar
343 paste [31,69,70]. A higher reduction of 24-31% has been reported for mixed RCA compared to
344 12-18% when RCA from an unmixed source was utilized [31]. This could be manifested by the
345 presence of masonry content that tends to reduce the compressive strength [71].
346 Similar to RCA, the use of tire rubber and RAP could also reduce the compressive strength
347 of RCCP mixes. For instance, the inclusion of CR reduces the compressive strength by about 10-
348 32%, when chipped rubber (CiR) is utilized in proportions of 5-30% [48]. The weaker adhesion
349 between the cement mortar and rubber particles is mainly attributed to the strength reductions in
350 the CiR inclusive RCCP mixes. However, the addition of 5% of CR could exhibit a beneficial
351 effect probably due to the low rubber content, which creates enough friction between particles and
352 better alignments of rubber particles inside the mixture [25].
353 Meanwhile, in the case of RAP-RCCP mixes, the use of RAP could lead to compressive
354 strength reductions in the range of 9-67%, irrespective of the RAP fractions utilized
14
355 [25,45,46,63,64,72]. This reduction is attributed to the presence of an asphalt layer engulfing the
356 RAP, which hinders a good interfacial bonding between the cement mortar and RAP aggregates.
357 Nevertheless, the use of a coarser fraction of RAP could contribute to a lesser strength reduction
358 of about 25% only [64]. Meanwhile, reductions of about 40-60% could be expected when utilizing
359 finer and/or combined fractions of RAP aggregates [46,64].
360 Mixed behavior has been observed in the case of EAFSS inclusive RCCP mixes, which is
361 mainly attributed to the aggregate’s morphology, porosity, water absorption, and ITZ
362 [27,49,73,74]. Some researchers reported that the incorporation of EAFSS would reduce the
363 compressive strength of RCCP mixes, while some reported an enhancement in the strength. For
364 instance, compressive strength reductions in the range of 5-39% could be expected, irrespective of
365 the EAFSS replacement level or EAFSS fractions utilized [49,75]. It is worth mentioning that the
366 presence of free lime and magnesium oxide in EAFSS leads to expansion and can increase the
367 volume up to 10% in a moist environment. This property makes EAFSS unsuitable for applications
368 in portland cement. In order to utilize EAFSS as a potential building material, EAFSS should be
369 exposed to outdoor moisture and rainfall for a period of 3-12 months [49,75]. Despite the pre-
370 treatment of EAFSS aggregates, the possible reason for the reduction in the compressive strength
371 is the morphological characteristics and weak interfacial bonding between cement mortar and
372 EAFSS aggregates. In contrast, Rooholamini et al. [27] demonstrated that the use of coarse EAFSS
373 could lead to a 6% and 14% improvement in the compressive strength at 50% and 100% EAFSS
374 replacement levels. This behavior was mainly attributed to the rough texture and angularity of the
375 coarse EAFSS, which facilitated a better aggregate interlocking, improved the ITZ, and resulted
376 in higher load-carrying capacity. It can be observed that the inclusion of RCA or RAP would
377 reduce the compressive strength of RCCP, whereas the use of EAFSS and tire rubber aggregate
378 showed mixed behavior. Hence, studying the behavior of these aggregates at the micro-level may
379 provide a better understanding of its effect on RCCP properties.
380
381 4.2.2 Flexural strength
382 Flexural strength is an important parameter in the mix design as well as in the pavement design of
383 cement concrete pavements. There are several parameters affecting the flexural behavior of
384 concrete pavements: the most important being the water-cement ratio and the combined gradation
385 of aggregates. Similar to compressive strength, the incorporation of RCA also reduces the flexural
386 strength of RCCP mixes by about 12-27%, irrespective of the RCA fraction and/or replacement
387 levels [43,44]. As mentioned earlier, the poor interfacial zone between the cement mortar and RCA
388 leads to higher porosity in the ITZ, and hence, leading to a reduction in the flexural strength.
389 Moreover, the use of a coarser fraction of CiR also causes a reduction in the flexural strength by
390 about 24-31% when coarse CiR is utilized in the proportion of 5-30% [48]. Contrarily, Fakhri et
391 al. [24] demonstrated that flexural strength could be increased by 3-4% when combined fractions
392 of 5% of CR are utilized. This behavior is firstly affected by diminishing water-cement ratio due
393 to less water absorption of rubber particles, which causes more stability and homogeneity of the
394 mixture, and then by dispersion of rubber particles between aggregates and making a better
395 interlock.
396 The use of RAP as a partial replacement to natural aggregates could reduce the flexural
397 strength of RCCP mixes by about 5-31%, irrespective of the RAP fraction or replacement level
398 [25,46,63,64]. However, the use of coarse RAP exhibits a lesser flexural strength reduction in

15
399 comparison to the fine and/or combined RAP fractions [63,64]. This is due to the lesser
400 concentration of asphalt in the coarse RAP fractions (~1.9%) as compared to the fine and/or
401 combined RAP fractions (4.5%) [63]. Nevertheless, the prevalence of the asphalt layer engulfing
402 the RAP will definitely cause the flexural strength to reduce due to the formation of a weak
403 interfacial bond between the cement mortar and RAP. Contrarily, the presence of an asphalt layer
404 could contribute to improving the toughness of the RCCP mixes due to the viscoelastic nature of
405 the asphalt [25]. As a result, the use of RAP could increase the load-carrying capacity of RCCP if
406 the reduction in the flexural strength is negated by providing a thicker slab [59]. In the case of
407 EAFSS inclusive RCCP mixes, the use of finer fraction could lower the flexural strength by about
408 27% owing to the poor bonding between the cement matrix and the finer fraction of EAFSS [27].
409 Contrary, the complete replacement of natural aggregates by the coarser fraction of EAFSS could
410 rather enhance the flexural strength by about 9% [27]. This is attributed to the improved
411 morphological characteristics of the EAFSS aggregates, such as the rough texture and angularity,
412 which improved the interfacial transition zone, facilitating an enhancement in the load-bearing
413 capacity of the mix. From this analysis, it could be observed that the general trend in RCCP mixes
414 containing alternative aggregates is the reduction in the compressive strength, except for EAFSS
415 aggregates. Hence, more studies relating the morphological characteristics of EAFSS to the
416 strength parameters need to be conducted to understand the true behavior of the composite RCCP.
417 The relationships between the compressive and flexural strength of RCCP mixes made with
418 alternative aggregates are established by the present authors. The data points were obtained from
419 existing studies and plotted, as shown in Fig. 6. From Fig. 6, it is evident that the variation in the
420 material properties has a significant effect on the strength of RCCP inclusive alternative
421 aggregative. Hence, further comprehensive studies are required to determine the effect of
422 alternative materials on the modulus of ruptures of RCCP mixtures.
RCA Slag Crumb Rubber RAP

7
Flexural Strength (MPa)

6 y = 0.0597X1.279
R² = 0.5361
5
y = 0.7036X0.612
R² = 0.631 y = 0.1281X1.015
4
R² = 0.9837
3

2
y = 0.395 X0.6284
1 R² = 0.9592

0 10 20 30 40 50
Compressive strength (MPa)
423
424 Fig. 6 Relationship between the compressive strength and flexural strength The data used
425 for this model are taken from the literature [25,27,43,46,60,63,64]

16
426 4.2.3 Split tensile strength
427 The incorporation of RCA has also been found to reduce the split tensile strength of RCCP mixes
428 by about 18% when a coarser fraction of RCA was utilized in a proportion of 100% [31]. This
429 reduction was mainly attributed to the poor interfacial bonding between the cement mortar and the
430 RCA particles, which showed lesser resistance to deformation prior to the limit split tensile
431 strength is reached. Besides, the presence of ceramic wastes in RCA-RCCP mixes further reduces
432 the split tensile strength by about 23% [43]. As expected, the inclusions of CiR also reduces the
433 split tensile strength of RCCP mixes by about 23%, when 30% of coarse CiR is utilized [48].
434 However, similar to the compressive and flexural strength, the use of 20-30% of coarse CR was
435 also found to increase the split tensile strength by about 15-30% [62]. This disparity is attributed
436 to the fact that the addition of CR at a lower dosage increases the tensile strength owing to its
437 ductility behavior and the ability to bridge the microcracks in the concrete matrix. Meanwhile, the
438 reduction in split tensile strength at higher rubber dosages is due to the formation of a poor bond
439 between the rubber particles and cement matrix [76,77].
440 Likewise, the inclusion of RAP also reduces the split tensile strength of RCCP mixes,
441 irrespective of any curing ages [45,46,61,63]. For instance, Ferrebee et al. [61] observed that the
442 use of 16% of coarse RAP could reduce the split tensile strength by about 16%. Similarly, Settari
443 et al. [45] noticed a reduction of about 26% when 100% of coarse RAP was utilized. Obviously,
444 the presence of the asphalt layer engulfing the RAP hinders the formation of a good interfacial
445 bond between the cement mortar and RAP aggregates, thus leading to a reduction in the concrete
446 strength. Meanwhile, the use of coarse EAFSS has been found to reduce the split tensile strength
447 by 13-32%, at varying replacement levels (30-100%) [49,75]. Contrary, Rooholamini et al. [27]
448 found that the split tensile strength could increase by 25% and 32%, when coarse EAFSS was
449 utilized in the proportion of 50% and 100%, respectively. Likewise, the authors also demonstrated
450 that the use of 50% of fine EAFSS could also increase the split tensile strength by about 25% [27].
451 However, the reduction was observed at 100% of the fine EAFSS replacement level. The possible
452 reason for this reduction is mainly attributed to the increased surface area of the fine EAFSS, which
453 causes lesser cohesiveness. It is evident that the incorporation of RCA and RAP may lead to split
454 tensile strength reduction, whereas mixed behavior was observed when tire rubber and EAFSS
455 aggregates were utilized. Hence, more laboratory studies could help in understanding the effect of
456 these waste materials on the split tensile strength of RCCP mixes.
457 4.2.4 Modulus of elasticity
458 The modulus of elasticity (MOE) is a measure of a material’s tendency to endure the reversible
459 elastic deformation on axial stress [2]. The use of alternative aggregates has been observed to cause
460 a drastic influence on the MOE of RCCP mixes. For instance, the inclusion of RCA could reduce
461 the MOE by about 13-37%, irrespective of the RCA replacement levels [43]. Debieb et al. [78]
462 reported that the reduction in the MOE is mainly due to the presence of residual mortar in the
463 RCA, which leads to higher porosity, and hence, leading to a reduction in the strength and concrete
464 modulus. Similarly, the use of 100% of coarse EAFSS was also observed to reduce the MOE by
465 about 20%. Likewise, a linear reduction of 6% and 52% was observed when coarse CiR was
466 utilized in proportions of 5% and 30% [48]. The use of RAP has also been reported to reduce the
467 MOE of RCCP mixes by about 80% [25,45,60]. Although lower MOE decreases the stress level
468 in the slab and may reduce the crack width, but lower MOE causes higher slab deflection, thus
469 leading to higher base damage [79–81]. It is evident that the utilization of alternative aggregates
17
470 can greatly affect the MOE of RCCP mixes due to their difference in material properties from
471 conventional aggregates. Hence, relationship models were established between the MOE and the
472 compressive strength and are being depicted in Fig. 7. Fig. 7 illustrates that as the variation in the
473 material properties of alternative aggregate increases, the difference in the MOE of RCCP also
474 increases significantly. Hence, more studies need to be carried out to map the influence of inherent
475 material properties on the MOE of RCCP mixes containing alternative aggregates.
RCA Slag crumb rubber RAP

35000

30000 y = 990.88X1.06 y = 747424X-0.854

R² = 0.5027
Modulus of elasticity (MPa)

R² = 0.99
25000

20000
y = 4030X0.49
15000 R² = 0.77
y = 1250X0.55
R² = 0.40
10000

5000

0 10 20 30 40 50
Compressive Strength (MPa)
476
477 Fig. 7 Relationships between the modulus of elasticity and compressive strength. The data
478 used for this model are taken from the literature [25,31,43,44,48,49]
479 4.2.5 Abrasion resistance
480 Due to the rough texture of RCC pavements, it is important to assess the abrasion resistance so
481 that the pavement will be able to provide a smooth riding quality. The abrasion resistance of RCCP
482 mixes is primarily governed by the quality of aggregates used and the compressive strength.
483 Hence, the use of alternative aggregates with varying density, water absorption capacities, shape,
484 and texture, could greatly affect the abrasion resistance of RCCP mixes. However, limited studies
485 have been carried out in this regard. For instance, Debbarma et al. [46,63] reported that the
486 incorporation of RAP could increase the loss in mass due to abrasive forces, irrespective of the
487 RAP fraction or replacement type. The surface texture of RAP plays a vital role in providing
488 resistance against abrasive action. For instance, the use of rough-textured RAP with lesser asphalt
489 content may show a lesser degradation against abrasive forces, as compared to the smooth-textured
490 RAP with higher asphalt content, which exhibits higher degradation [46,63]. Similar to RAP-
491 RCCP mixes, the inclusion of 20-30% of CR could reduce the abrasion resistance due to the poor
492 bonding between the cement mortar and CR particles [62]. However, the abrasion resistance could
493 be comparative to conventional mixes when the CR dosage is lesser (<10%). At lower CR dosages,
494 the CR particles act like a brush on the surface of the hardened concrete, providing more resistance
495 to grinding and improving the abrasion resistance of RCCP mixes [82]. It is evident from the
496 literature that limited studies are available in the context of abrasion resistance of RCCP mixes
18
497 containing alternative aggregates. Hence, it is imperative for researchers to ponder upon this grey
498 area in order to better understand the behavior of various alternative aggregates under abrasive
499 action.
500 4.3 Durability properties
501 4.3.1 Porosity
502 Porosity is an important property affecting almost all the durability properties of cement concrete
503 mixes. Higher porosity generally indicates a higher amount of voids in the concrete system, and
504 higher voids will allow the entry of foreign contaminants, which could cause severe durability-
505 related issues. The porosity of RCCP mixes could be as low as 4% or as high as 19% [59].
506 However, the inclusion of alternative aggregates can cause a significant variation in the porosity
507 of RCCP mixes. For instance, the use of RCA has been reported to increase the porosity as the
508 RCA replacement level increases. Approximately 28% and 46% increase in the porosity has been
509 reported when coarse RCA was utilized in the proportion of 50% and 100%, respectively [31]. The
510 primary reason for this increase is due to the presence of adhered old mortar around the periphery
511 of RCA, which causes a poor interfacial bonding between the cement mortar and RCA, leading to
512 higher porosity in the interfacial region. Moreover, the high-water absorption of RCA also
513 accounts for more water demand in the fresh mix, thus, creating a porous interconnected structure
514 and leading to higher porosity in the hardened concrete. Several studies on conventional concrete
515 have shown that inclusions of RAP could increase the porosity of the concrete matrix due to the
516 presence of agglomerated particles in RAP and porous ITZ [19,35,83]. Contrarily, the use of RAP
517 was found to lower the RCCP porosity by about 20-48%, irrespective of RAP fraction or
518 replacement level [31,46]. This reduction was mainly due to the softening of asphalt and pore-
519 clogging during the oven-drying and boiling period of the ASTM C642 procedure [84]. The
520 melting of asphalt during the oven drying period and subsequent clogging of pores could be
521 avoided by extending the drying duration and reducing the drying temperature to 8 days and 48±2
522 °C, respectively [84]. Based on the literature surveyed, it could be understood that the influence
523 of alternative aggregates on the porosity of RCCP mixes has not been explicitly investigated.
524 Therefore, more studies need to be carried out to understand the behavior of alternative aggregates
525 on the durability aspect of RCCP mixes.
526 4.3.2 Water absorption
527 Similarly, only a handful of research is available pertaining to the influence of alternative
528 aggregates on the water absorption of RCCP mixes. Due to lower water absorption of RAP,
529 Debbarma et al. [46] found that the water absorption of RCCP could be reduced by about 20-42%,
530 irrespective of the RAP fraction or replacement level. However, the presence of higher
531 agglomerated particles could rather increase the water absorption by about 19%, as positively
532 identified by Debbarma et al. [46]. Agglomerated RAP particles may create tiny voids that entrap
533 water, thus, leading to higher water absorption capacities in the concrete system. Moreover, the
534 presence of external dust contaminants in the finer fraction of RAP could also lead to higher water
535 absorption capacities than that shown by the coarse RAP fractions, although lower than the mix
536 containing natural aggregates only [63]. Contradictory findings were observed in the case of CiR
537 inclusive RCCP mixes. For instance, Meddah et al. [48] reported that any increase in the dosage
538 of CiR would reduce the water absorption of the concrete due to the lower water absorbency of
539 CiR particles. Whereas, Mohammed and Adamu [62] noticed an increase in water absorption

19
540 mainly due to the entrapment of air on the surface of CR during mixing. Although the addition of
541 1.13% of nano-silica (by weight of cementitious materials) can refine the pores and improve the
542 water absorption of CR-RCCP mixes [62], its utilization may increase the cost of the project. It
543 can be understood that very limited studies are available which discuss the effect of alternative
544 aggregates on the water absorption of RCCP mixes. Moreover, no study (as per the author’s
545 knowledge) is available in regard to the water absorption behavior of RCA and EAFSS inclusive
546 RCCP mixes.
547 4.3.3 Freeze-thaw
548 The construction of RCCP in the cold region might cause damages like surface scaling and internal
549 cracking produced by the freeze-thaw cycles, etc. [2]. The deterioration of concrete due to F-T
550 cycles is dependent on the critical degree of saturation (the ratio of the volume of voids filled with
551 water to the total void volume). Since the degree of saturation largely depends on the total volume
552 of pores in the concrete, the open and porous texture of RCCP may lead to significant F-T damage.
553 Hence, the selection of well-graded aggregate along with fundamental parameters (adequate
554 cement & water content, selection of chemical and mineral admixtures, and curing) is important
555 to make RCCP durable against F-T damage [2]. To the best of the authors' knowledge, only two
556 research studies are available which assessed the F-T durability of RCCP mixes containing RAP
557 [41,85]. The results showed that the inclusion of RAP could cause a mass loss of 0.03-1%, but
558 debonding on the periphery of RAP was observed [39,85]. Also, a minor variation in the resonance
559 frequency of about 2326 -2341 Hz was reported in their study. It was observed that the mass loss
560 in conventional concrete mixes mostly occurred near the compaction voids, whereas, in the case
561 of RAP-inclusive mixes, higher mass loss was seen at the transition between asphalt & mortar
562 [85]. Similarly, replacement of fine aggregate by CiR has a similar performance to control RCCP
563 mixes at lower cycles; however, a minor/slight increase in mass loss is observed at higher F-T
564 cycles (300 cycles). Also, CiR inclusive RCCP mixtures showed a little improvement in the
565 reduction of relative dynamic modulus. This could be attributed to the improvement in elastic
566 property of concrete mixture manifested by rubber particles [86]. In short, the incorporation of
567 RAP exhibited good resistance to freeze and thaw cycles, and the inclusion of rubber particles
568 showed little influence on F-T damage; however, more research studies are required to understand
569 the behavior of other alternative aggregates like RCA, EAFSS, and rubber tire aggregates in the
570 F-T conditions.
571

572 5 Factors affecting the strength and durability of RCCP containing alternative
573 aggregates
574 5.1 Recycled concrete aggregates
575 The primary factors affecting the strength properties of RCA are the mixing water content, water
576 to binder ratio, the strength of the old paste, water absorption and saturation state of RCA, and ITZ
577 between the RCA and the mortar [18,87–89]. The RCA concrete consists of three different types
578 of ITZ: (1) old ITZ, (2) new ITZ between old and new mortar, and (3) ITZ between uncoated RCA
579 and new mortar (Fig. 8a). The presence of old ITZ significantly influences the strength of RCA
580 concrete due to its highly porous nature, wherein cracks are easily developed [90]. On the other
581 hand, the new ITZ governs the strength performance of RCA concrete; however, improvement in
582 the strength was not reported in the case of RCA-RCCP. This may be due to the fact that the load-
20
583 carrying capacity of RCCP is largely dependent on the aggregate-to-aggregate interlocking and
584 the densification of the porous old ITZ is too large to be compensated by the hydration products.
585 Although the new ITZ governs strength performance, the failure in the old ITZ restricts any
586 strength improvement and leads to the strength reduction of RCA-RCCP mixes.
587

588
589 Fig. 8 Schematic representation showing the factors affecting the strength and durability of
590 recycled aggregates (Images are made by authors)
591
592 The RCA replacement level and w/c ratio also significantly influence the strength of RCA-
593 RCCP mixes. For instance, Lopez-Uceda et al. [43] demonstrated that as the RCA content
594 increases, the w/c ratio also increases due to the high water absorption of RCA. Due to the higher
595 pore volume of RCA, the porosity, strength, and transport properties (water absorption,
596 permeability, etc.) were subsequently affected as the RCA content increases. Another factor
597 affecting the strength is the curing time used to produce the hardened RCA concrete. Lopez-Uceda
598 et al. [43] found that the increase in compressive strength between 28 days and 90 days in mixes
599 fully or partially replaced by RCA was higher than the mixes containing virgin aggregates only.
600 This behavior could be attributed to an improvement of the bond strength in the ITZ between the
601 old and new mortar over time. The cement content used to produce the RCA-RCCP mix also
602 greatly influences the hardened concrete strength. A low cement content of 110 kg/m3 has been
603 reported to produce an RCA-RCCP mix with a very low compressive strength of about 4.5-5.7
604 MPa, irrespective of the RCA content and curing ages [43]. But increasing the cement content to

21
605 175, 250, and 350 kg/m3 produces an RCA concrete with a higher compressive strength in the
606 range of 18.2-22.2, 21.5-28.9, and 27.6-40.6 MPa, respectively [43]. The effect of cement content,
607 w/c ratio, curing time, and RCA replacement levels on the compressive strength of RCA-RCCP
608 mixes is shown in Fig. 9.
110 kg/m3 cement content (28 days curing) 110 kg/m3 cement content (90 days curing)
175 kg/m3 cement content (28 days curing) 175 kg/m3 cement content (90 days curing)
250 kg/m3 cement content (28 days curing) 250 kg/m3 cement content (90 days curing)
350 kg/m3 cement content (28 days curing) 350 kg/m3 cement content (90 days curing)
60

w/c = 0.34
w/c = 0.34

w/c = 0.38
50

w/c = 0.42

w/c = 0.38
w/c = 0.42
Compressive strength (MPa)

w/c = 0.41
Wc = 0.52
40

w/c = 0.41
w/c = 0.52

w/c = 0.51
w/c = 0.55

w/c = 0.64

w/c = 0.51
w/c = 0.73
w/c = 0.55

w/c = 0.64
30

w/c = 0.73
20
w/c = 0.82
w/c = 0.82

w/c = 0.90
w/c = 0.90

w/c = 1.0
w/c = 1.0
10

0
0% RCA 50% RCA 100% RCA
RCA replacement level
609
610 Fig. 9 Effect of cement content, w/c ration, and RCA replacement levels on the compressive
611 strength. (Data points obtained with permission from Taylor & Francis [43])
612 5.2 Recycled asphalt pavement aggregates
613 The primary reason influencing the strength properties of RAP concrete mixes is the weak and
614 porous ITZ between the RAP and cement-mortar paste [91–93]. The presence of an asphalt layer
615 around the RAP hinders the formation of a good interfacial bonding, and as a result, contributes to
616 a weak and porous ITZ (Fig. 8b). Due to the viscoelastic nature of asphalt, the crack propagates
617 through the asphalt film rather than through the aggregates [21]. Hence, the prevalence of asphalt-
618 cohesion failure becomes more dominant than the cement-asphalt adhesion failure in RAP
619 concrete mixes [20].
620 Several factors affecting the strength of RAP-RCCP mixes are the age of RAP, the
621 concentration of asphalt and agglomerated particles, the fraction of RAP utilized, and the size of
622 the aggregates. Debbarma et al. [46] observed that the use of less-oxidized RAP could result in a
623 considerable strength reduction of about 26-67%, irrespective of the RAP fractions utilized. In
624 comparison, the use of highly-oxidized RAP shows a less detrimental effect with a compressive
625 strength reduction in the range of 9-37% only [63]. Meanwhile, higher the asphalt concentration,
626 the more will be the mechanical strength reduction and vice-versa. Moreover, the use of a finer
627 fraction of RAP can lead to significant strength reduction due to its higher asphalt concentration
628 [46]. Whereas coarse RAP has a relatively lesser asphalt concentration, due to which a lesser
629 detrimental effect was observed as compared to the finer and combined RAP fractions [63,64].
630 The presence of agglomerated particles in higher concentrations is typically not desired since the
631 agglomeration of smaller RAP fractions can create water voids. These water voids can negatively
22
632 affect the transport properties and are also considered to be weak zones that easily break due to
633 mechanical stresses. Besides, the particle size distribution of RAP also plays a significant role in
634 the performance of RCCP mixes. For instance, RAP milled in a controlled way may produce gap-
635 graded fine RAP aggregates and cause workability-related issues. Whereas, RAP procured using
636 a full-depth reclamation technique can produce relatively well-graded RAP aggregates and result
637 in concrete with better performance [63]. However, this may not be environmentally friendly as it
638 may produce a significant amount of dust contaminants, which may subsequently affect the
639 concrete properties. Increasing the cementitious content was also reported to increase the
640 compressive strength of RAP incorporated RCCP mixes [25].
641 5.3 Rubber tire aggregates
642 The primary factor affecting the strength properties of RCCP mixes containing rubber tire
643 aggregates is due to the poor bonding between the rubber particles and cement paste. The poor
644 adhesion is mainly due to the smooth surface and lower hydraulic conductivity [62]. The
645 dislodgement of rubber particles from the cement matrix accelerates the amplication of stress to
646 neighbouring areas and causes failure to the rubberized concrete [47,94]. Besides, the entrapment
647 of air on the surface of the rubber particles also increases the size of ITZ; as a result, poor adhesion
648 and weak bond between the rubber and cement paste [95], as shown in Fig. 8c. The lower stiffness
649 of the rubber particles is also largely accounted for the significant strength reduction of the RCCP
650 mixes containing rubber aggregates [47]. The reduction in solid material required to carry the load
651 and concentration of stresses along the boundary of the rubber particles also contributes to the
652 mechanical strength reduction of the rubber tire incorporated RCCP mixes [96].
653 The mechanical strength of RCCP containing rubber tire aggregates can also be
654 significantly affected due to the low w/c ratio and the method of compacting the fresh RCCP mix.
655 Firstly, RCCP is a no-slump concrete with a very low w/c ratio as compared to conventional
656 concrete. Due to the high w/c ratio in conventional concrete, there is less friction between the
657 rubber aggregates and the cement paste; thus, the rubber aggregates easily move towards the top
658 of the cast during compaction [97]. As a result, the concentration of rubber aggregates on the top
659 of the concrete results in a serious defect in the conventional concrete. Secondly, the use of a
660 vibrating hammer instead of a vibrating table provides better compaction to the fresh RCCP mix.
661 When compacting using a vibrating hammer, the rubber aggregates cannot move up readily in the
662 casts; as a result, less chance of a weak point emerging on the top of the sample [97]. A schematic
663 illustration of the compaction methods using a vibrating table and hammer is shown in Fig. 10.
664 The distribution of rubber aggregates in the concrete samples and the critical points on the top of
665 the samples are clearly distinctive. Hence, the use of a vibratory hammer for compacting the fresh
666 RCCP mixes has a significant role as far as the mechanical strength is concerned.

667
23
668 Fig. 10 Schematic illustration of (a) compaction using vibrating table (b) vibratory hammer
669 and the distribution of rubber aggregates (Reprinted with permission from Elsevier [97])
670 5.4 Electric arc furnace steel slag aggregates
671 As mentioned earlier, the performance of EAFSS is primarily governed by the aggregate shape
672 and surface texture and the quantity of free magnesia and lime [27,74]. The use of EAFSS can
673 either enhance or reduce the mechanical strength of RCCP mixes depending upon the inherent
674 aggregate characteristics. The enhancement in mechanical strength exhibited due to the use of
675 coarse EAFSS is mainly attributed to the rough texture and angularity of the coarse EAFSS that
676 facilitates a better adhesion between aggregate and the cement matrix, improved ITZ, and higher
677 load-carrying capacity [27,74]. In contrast, the reduction in strength due to the inclusion of EAFSS
678 is due to the porous ITZ between the slag aggregates and the cement paste [49], as shown in Fig.
679 8d. Besides, the increased surface area of the finer fractions of EAFSS contributes to lower
680 cohesiveness and weaker ITZ; hence, lower concrete strength is achieved [27]. Also, the higher
681 water absorption of EAFSS aggregates resulted in concrete with higher absorption characteristics
682 and increased porosity, causing the concrete to fail easily. Moreover, the presence of free lime and
683 magnesia in untreated EAFSS contributes to a reaction with water which then causes the volume
684 to expand and leads to subsequent cracking [73–75].

685 6 Strength improvement techniques

686 The literature outlined the following as the main attributions for the poor performance of RCCP
687 made with RCA: a) poor chemical and physical bonding between adhered mortar and new cement-
688 mortar paste, b) high water absorption capacity of adhered mortar, and c) presence of cracks in the
689 adhered mortar [98]. This clearly defines the adhered mortar as the main reason for the reduced
690 performance of RCA-RCCP mixtures and thus needs to be addressed. There are numerous
691 Physico-chemical and physico-mechanical methods to address the adhered mortar, however not
692 been validated for RCCP to date. These techniques primarily deal with the adhered mortar by
693 removing it partially/completely, adjusting the mix proportions, especially the water content based
694 on the RCA water absorption (pre-soaking), and reducing the porosity of adhered mortar by means
695 of mineral admixtures and carbonation. These techniques are summarized in Table 4. It should be
696 noted that RCCP derives its initial strength primarily due to aggregate-to-aggregate interlocking,
697 and thus, validation of these techniques is necessary for RCCP mixes.
698 As similar to RCA, the main attribution for reduced performance of RAP-RCCP is the
699 presence of adhered asphalt coating around the aggregates. Brand and Roesler [19] observed that
700 the chemical affinity of organic asphalt coating towards cement-mortar paste is very low and could
701 not be improved by means of different SCMs. The most dominant failure mechanism observed
702 with RAP-concrete was the asphalt cohesion failure, and thus, the only way seems to improve the
703 concrete performance was to completely remove the asphalt coating. Singh et al. [99] proposed a
704 physio-mechanical technique, Abrasion & Attrition technique, to partially remove the asphalt
705 coating around the RAP. Also, the same group observed that stiffening of the asphalt coating could
706 improve the bonding between RAP and cement-mortar paste [99]. However, all these techniques
707 were confined to conventional concrete, and considering the load transfer mechanism in RCCP,
708 their validation for RCCP needs to be carried out. On the other hand, several researchers
709 [63,64,100,101] studied the effect of various SCM such as silica fume, bagasse ash, rice husk ash,
710 and fly ash in the RAP-RCCP mixtures. Among various SCMs, the use of silica fume and rice
24
711 husk ash causes a marginal improvement in both mechanical and durable properties, which is
712 mainly attributed to the dominance of asphalt cohesion failure. However, the incorporation of silica
713 fume and rice husk ash caused a negative impact on fresh properties (increased water demand and
714 slight reduction in maximum compactness). In short, the use of mineral admixture could densify
715 only microstructure, and it may not alter the failure mode. Table 4 outline these techniques in
716 detail.
717 The incorporation of rubber tire aggregates could reduce the mechanical strength of RCCP
718 due to the following: poor adhesion between the cement matrix and rubber particles, dislodgment
719 of rubber particles from the cement matrix, which could manifest amplification of stress to
720 neighboring areas, and inability to transfer the load from cement mortar [47,94]. Therefore, the
721 reduction in strength due to the rubber particle could be mitigated by improving the bond, surface
722 roughness, by chemical (NaOH) and mechanical (sand gluing) treatments, by the use of pozzolanic
723 materials, and surface pre-treatment, etc. as summarized in Table 4. It shall be noted that the
724 techniques summarized in Table 4 have been employed for conventional concrete only but could
725 be validated for RCCP as well. In addition, the use nano-silica particles can also be used to refine
726 the pores and improve the ITZ characteristics of rubber-tire RCCP mixes. As seen in Fig. 11, the
727 addition of 2% of nano-silica contributes to an improved ITZ between the rubber aggregate and
728 cement paste, and subsequently, improved compressive strength of the concrete.

729
730 Fig. 11 Improvement in ITZ of CR concrete with the addition of nano-silica(Reprinted with
731 permission from Elsevier[62])
732
733 The potential application of EAFSS depends on the volume stability after the hydration
734 reaction and alkali-aggregate reactions. The free calcium oxide, magnesium oxide in the EAFSS
735 aggregate gets converted into portlandite, brucite on reaction with water. In addition, the formation
736 of portlandite, brucite, in the hardened concrete increases the volume by twice its original volume,
737 which attributes to the cracking and deterioration mechanism [27,49,50]. These adverse effects
738 can be mitigated by either by differential mixing approach, surface treatment, carbonation,
739 subjecting the EAFSS to physical weathering in an open environment and spraying the
740 water/exposed to rainfall for several months and years etc. as summarized in Table 4)
741 [27,49,50,75].

25
742 Table 4 Strength improvement techniques of concrete containing alternative aggregates
743
Type of recycled Method of treatment Techniques Reasons Reference
aggregate

Mechanical grinding Effective removal of adhered mortar [102]

To improve the bonding between the RCA and new mortar
Thermal treatment To improve the bonding between the RCA and new mortar [103,104]
To reduce the pore size of adhered mortar
Removal of adhered To reduce the cracks in the old ITZ of adhered mortar
mortar Pre-Soaking in acid To reduce the pore size of adhered mortar [105,106]
(HCl, H2SO4, CH3- To reduce the cracks in the old ITZ of adhered mortar and to improve the compactness
COOH) of the new ITZ

Ultrasonic cleaning To improve the bonding between the RCA and new mortar [107,108]

Carbonation Carbonation of Carbonation of adhered mortar fills the pores and causes denser ITZ [109,110]
adhered mortar To enhance the mechanical and durability properties
Differential improved Two-stage mixing and To densify the microstructure by filling the pores, and cracks of RCA [87,89,111–113]
mixing methods three-stage mixing To enhance the mechanical and durability properties
To densify the ITZ and makes it strong
Recycled Biological methods Calcium carbonate bio To improve the bonding between the RCA and new mortar [114–116]
Concrete deposition Calcium carbonates fill the pores of RCA
aggregates Strengthening of adhered Pozzolana Slurry (FA, To reduce the porosity of RCA and to increase the compactness of old ITZ [112,117]
mortar blast furnace slag, SF, To enhance the mechanical and durability properties
(Surface Coating) and metakaolin)
Sodium silicate To fill the pores of adhered mortar by C-S-H gel [118,119]
solution To enhance the mechanical properties and to reduce the water absorption
Polymer emulsion To densify the microstructure by filling the pores of RCA [120]
(PVA and silane) Impregnation of polyvinyl alcohol improved the adhesion between the RCA and cement
mortar and mechanical properties

Combined methods Thermomechanical Removal of hardened cement paste, and improved mechanical properties of RCA [121]
treatment
Chemical-Mechanical Improved physical and mechanical properties of RCA [122]
treatment Soaking in H2SO4 is more effective than HCL acid
(Soaking in HCL & Improved the compressive strength and static modulus of elasticity as compared to the
H2SO4 + natural aggregate concrete
Heating+Rubbing)
Reclaimed Removal of the asphalt Mechanical grinding To puncture the asphalt layer in order to provide more window for aggregate mortar [11]
asphalt layer interactions
pavement Long-term aging Subjecting to open To increase the viscosity of asphalt binder by forming the asphaltene on oxidation [19,20,123,124]
aggregates environment for a To provide the window for aggregate mortar interactions by making the brittle asphalt
longer duration film.
Chemical treatment Oxidation of asphalt To increase the viscosity of asphalt binder by forming the asphaltene on oxidation [20,125]
by chemicals (HCL,

26
 H2SO4, NaOH,
phosphoric and
chromic acid)
Use of pozzolanic Densification of ITZ To improve the strength and durability properties [63,64,100,101]
materials (silica fume, and pores
bagasse ash, fly ash, and
rice husk ash)
Use of finer material Natural Fines To induce the filler effect and to densify the microstructure [46]
Lowering the water- Use of high range To improve the strength and durability properties [126]
cement ratio water reducer
Exposed to open To convert the free CaO content in EAF into Ca (OH) 2 [49]
environment for 90
days and water is
Physical weathering sprayed on every day
Exposed to the open To diminish the volumetric expansion of EAFSS aggregates [75]
environment for
several months
Exposed to open To reduce the cracking and expansion in the hardened state of concrete [27]
environment for more
than a year
Electric arc
furnace EAFSS Differential improved Differential mixing To diminish the negative effect of water absorption from the mixing water [50]
aggregates mixing methods methods To enhance the compactability and compressive strength

Carbonation Calcium carbonate To promote the formation of calcite and denser microstructure [127]
formation To enhance the mechanical and durable properties

Surface coating with To lower the expansion ratio, and water absorption [128]
Surface treatment cement slurry, silicone To avoid the hydration of active ingredients
waterproof agent, and
silane coupling agent
Chemical treatment NaOH solution Increase the adhesion between the rubber particles and cement paste. [48,77]
To increase the hydrophilicity of rubber particle
To improve mechanical properties and to reduce the porosity
Use of pozzolanic Nano silica To improve the bonding between the CR and the cement matrix. [62,129]
materials To densify the microstructure by refining the pore structure
Enhanced strength properties by densification of ITZ through physiochemical effects
Rubber tire Cement paste coating+ To improve the bonding between the rubber particle and cement paste
aggregates air curing for more To lower the width of ITZ between the rubber particles and cement matrix
than 28 days [130]
Surface Coating Cement paste coating+ To enhance the bonding/packing density between the CR and cement matrix by
gluing sand (1-2 mm) changing the surface morphology
To improve the strength, flexural toughness, and durability properties
Gluing Sand with resin To improve the bonding by modifying the surface roughness [48]

27
 Two-stage approach Precoating with To improve the interface and densification of cement-rubber matrix [97,131]
limestone powder
+Silica fume
Ultraviolet treatment To improve the bonding between the CR and cement matrix by changing the surface [94]
Surface pre-treatment energy
Organosulfur To improve the strength by enhancing the intermolecular interaction forces between the [132]
compounds rubber and C-S-H
Combined methods Alkaline activation + To improve the roughness, adhesion, and mechanical properties, [47,133]
silica fume
744

28
745 7 Optimal RCCP mix proportions
746 Depending on a set of performance parameters benchmarks (such as compressive strength, flexural
747 strength, and qualitative assessment of concrete durability), several researchers recommended the
748 optimal replacement levels of alternative aggregates to produce RCCP mixes. Based on the present
749 literature review survey, the optimal RCCP mixes proportions recommended by various authors
750 are shown in Table 5.
751
752 Table 5 Partial replacement levels of alternative aggregates in RCCP mixes
753
References Type of recycled % Replacement Remarks Applications
aggregate level
[31] RCA 100% coarse Dosage of cement – 175 As a base layer for light traffic
kg/m3 condition
[43] RCA 100% coarse Cement content of 175 As a base layer in pavements
kg/m3 with a low density of heavy
vehicles such as urban areas
[43] RCA 50% coarse Cement content of 250 As a base layer in pavements
kg/m3 with a high density of heavy
vehicles
[31] Mixed recycled 100% coarse Cement content of 250 As a base layer for pavements
aggregate kg/m3 with relatively high strength
(RCA+Ceramic Ceramic content up to 20% requirements, such as
Waste) residential streets or light-traffic
roads
[75] EAFSS 100% coarse In conjunction with 40% of Sub-base
FA particles
[49] EAFSS 100% coarse In conjunction with 20% of Surface layer
FA particles
[27] EAFSS 100% coarse Finer fractions up to 25% Surface layer
could also be used
[46] RAP Combination of Missing gaps of fine RAP Surface layer
50% coarse and was filled using sand
50% fine RAP passing 600 µm sieve
[63] RAP Combination of Highly oxidized RAP and Surface layer
50% coarse and well-graded fine RAP
50% fine RAP aggregates should be
utilized
[64] RAP 100% coarse Coarse RAP has higher Can be used as a surface layer
mechanical strength than
fine RAP concrete
[25] RAP Up to 50% - Acceptable for use in the
surface layer
[25] CR Up to 10% Incorporation of 5% of CR Acceptable for use in the
leads to a slight increase in surface layer
compressive strength
[47] CiR 20% coarse The addition of silica fume Rural roads, low traffic
of 5% reduced the strength condition, pedestrian footpath
loss
[48] CiR Up to 5% - Rural roads, low traffic roads,
pedestrian footpath
754

29
755 8 Conclusions
756 There seems to be a significant potential of alternative aggregates and mineral admixtures for
757 RCCP applications to maximize the economic and environmental benefits. Significant savings can
758 be achieved by converting these wastes materials into useful resources through the production of
759 new concrete. The present study has critically reviewed the properties of RCCP mixes made with
760 alternative aggregates and binders. The following conclusions are made from this study:
761
762 • RAP aggregates are generally surrounded by a low-density smooth textured hydrophobic
763 asphalt coating that could lower the OMC as well MDD of RCCP mixes. This asphalt film
764 could reduce the bonding potential of RAP with cement-mortar paste and thus results in
765 lower strength properties. Besides, the inclusion of RAP could lower the water absorption
766 and porosity due to the water-repelling behavior; however, the presence of agglomerates
767 and dust may cause the reverse effect. Lower levels of RAP (<50%) could be utilized for
768 pavement application without much affecting the strength, porosity, and water absorption.
769 On the other hand, the inclusion of higher levels of RAP may not be suitable in terms of
770 mechanical performance but may enhance the toughness and energy absorbency of
771 pavements.
772 • The properties of RCA mainly depend on the quality of the source. Mixed-RCA may have
773 inferior properties than RCA received from pure concrete chunks. RCA is mostly covered
774 with low-density adhered mortar, which is highly porous and could negatively affect the
775 fresh state as well as the hardened properties of RCCP. However, replacing the
776 conventional coarse aggregates with 50% of RCA could impart enough strength to be used
777 for road pavement bases. The proportion of RCA could be increased for RCCP by adopting
778 the physico-chemical/physico-mechanical treatments.
779 • EAFSS due to its higher density could enhance the MDD of RCCP mixes, however it
780 would require more mixing water to achieve maximum compactness than conventional
781 aggregates. The Effect of EAFSS on the mechanical properties showed a mixed behavior,
782 which is primarily governed by several parameters such as the morphology (angularity),
783 surface texture (smooth/rough), bond strength, surface area, and width of ITZ. Besides,
784 the presence of free CaO in EAFSS aggregates should be less than 1% to maintain volume
785 stability. Nevertheless, coarser fractions of EAFSS could be utilized in a proportion of
786 100% for sustainable RCCPs.
787 • The addition of CR may reduce the maximum compactness due to its lower specific
788 gravity but may improve the workability of concrete due to its lower water absorption
789 compared to natural aggregates. The performance of crumb rubber in the RCCP is
790 primarily depending on the degree of replacement level. Higher replacement levels of
791 crumb rubber could significantly lower the compressive strength, flexural strength, split
792 tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity of RCCP. Contrarily, the utilization of minimum
793 crumb rubber up to 5% was found to provide beneficial results due to better orientation,
794 homogenous dispersion, better friction, and aggregate interlocking. Similarly, at a lower
795 fraction, the CR could enhance the ductility behavior, crack resistance and improve the
796 split tensile strength by bridging the micro cracks.
797

30
798 The above conclusion from the literature review depicts that alternative aggregate could be used
799 for RCCP without compromising the strength loss. Besides, the use of waste materials in RCCP
800 could provide several benefits, such as reducing greenhouse gas and global warming, lowering the
801 demand for natural aggregates, saving precious land resources, lowering transportation costs, and
802 imparting economic construction.
803

804 9 Future scope of research

805 The available literature shows that alternative aggregate could be effectively used for RCCP;
806 however, the fraction of replacement level, source, physical and morphological properties of
807 aggregate dictate their application in various layers of pavements (surface/base course layers).
808 Based on the present literature review, some of the gaps are identified and outlined below. If these
809 gaps could be bridged based on the laboratory and field understandings, this may lead to the
810 effective utilization of construction and demolition wastes, industrial by-products, and other waste
811 in the RCCP construction with greater economic savings.
812
813 1. Vebe Time: The quantification of compactability of RCCP mixtures in the field as well as
814 in the laboratory conditions is generally evaluated based on the vebe consistency time.
815 Indeed, most of the published literature has not determined the consistency time of
816 alternative aggregate. Therefore, to understand the true picture of workability and
817 compactability of alternative aggregate inclusive RCCP mixtures, more research studies
818 are required to be conducted.
819 2. Characterization of Aggregate and its Morphology: The morphological characteristics of
820 alternative aggregate (angularity, surface texture) has been found to have a profound effect
821 on the aggregate-aggregate interlocking, bonding potential, and mechanical performance
822 of RCCP. Therefore, further investigations are required to be conducted incorporating the
823 aggregate’s morphology in the mix design and relating them with the concrete properties.
824 3. Particle Packing Approach: The load-carrying capacity of RCCP at early ages is primarily
825 governed by the aggregate-to-aggregate interlocking. Hence, the use of particle packing
826 models could increase the compactness of the aggregate skeleton and thus, reduces the
827 binder volume of RCCP. However, the applicability of conventional theoretical models for
828 alternative aggregate inclusive RCCP has not been studied extensively,
829 4. Validation of surface treatments: Improvement in the quality of alternative aggregates
830 could facilitate improved concrete performance. Treatment methods (mechanical,
831 chemical, and thermal) have shown improved properties of the alternative aggregates, and
832 subsequently, improved concrete performance. Validation of such surface treatment
833 methods could provide insight into the most viable and economical treatment method that
834 could facilitate optimized RCCP performance. Similarly, efforts could be made to study
835 the moisture conditioning of aggregates (pre-soaking of RCA) for enhanced RCCP
836 properties.
837 5. Freeze and thaw: The performance of RCCP in the high altitude and cold regions
838 significantly depends on the freeze and thaw behavior. However, the implication of
839 alternative aggregate on the freeze and thaw cycle is still unknown, owing to the paucity
840 of literature.

31
841 6. Theoretical Model: Most of the theoretical models to predict concrete properties are
842 established based on laboratory test results that account for concrete mix design,
843 aggregates, and cement properties, degree of hydration, and packing density, etc. However,
844 these models are applicable only for a set of conditions that they were tested for and may
845 not be universally accepted. Hence, theoretical models that can be universally accepted
846 should be developed in order to predict the RCCP properties.
847 7. Field evaluation and life cycle assessment: The analysis presented in this review is mainly
848 based on laboratory tests conducted for a different set of conditions. Hence, field studies
849 should be carried out to validate the laboratory findings, and a life cycle assessment needs
850 to be performed to highlight the benefits of using these alternative aggregates in roller
851 compacted concrete pavements.
852
853 CRediT authorship contribution statement
854
855 M. Selvam: Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, review & editing. Solomon
856 Debbarma: Methodology, Writing - original draft, review & editing. Surender Singh:
857 Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing - original draft, review & editing, Supervision. Xijun
858 Shi: Methodology, Writing – review & editing
859
860 Declaration of competing interests
861 The authors declare that there are no competing interests.
862
863 Acknowledgement
864 The first author would like to thank the MHRD (Government of India) for providing the PMRF
865 scholarship. The first and third authors would like to acknowledge and thank the financial support
866 received from the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India, under project nos.
867 CE1920900RFER008952 and SB20210809CEMHRD008100.
868
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