B-Tech.

Project Report – 1
Laboratory evaluation Of Half Warm Mix Asphalt With 100% RAP Rejuvenated with
Waste Cooking Oil

Under the Guidance of:

Prof. KUSAM SUDHAKAR REDDY

Department of Civil Engineering
IIT Kharagpur

Submitted by:
BANOTH SANDEEP (19CE31003)
Department of Civil Engineering

IIT Kharagpur
Date: Nov-2022

i
 DECLARATION

I certify that

(a) The work contained in this report has been done by me under the guidance of my
supervisor.

(b) The work has not been submitted to any other Institute for any degree or diploma.

(c) I have conformed to the norms and guidelines given in the Ethical Code of Conduct of
the Institute.

(d) Whenever I have used materials (data, theoretical analysis, figures, and text) from
other sources, I have given due credit to them by citing them in the text of the thesis
and giving their details in the references. Further, I have taken permission from the
copyright owners of the sources, whenever necessary.

Date: NOVEMBER 27, 2022 (BANOTH SANDEEP)

Place: Kharagpur (19CE31003)

ii
iii
 DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING INDIAN
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KHARAGPUR
KHARAGPUR - 721302, INDIA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “Laboratory evaluation Of Half
Warm Mix Asphalt With 100% Rap Rejuvenated with Waste Cooking Oil”
submitted by BANOTH SANDEEP (Roll No. 19CE31003) to Indian Institute of
Technology Kharagpur towards partial fulfilment of requirements for the award of
degree of Bachelor of Technology in Civil Engineering is a record of bona- fide
work carried out by him under my supervision and guidance during Autumn
Semester, 2022-23.

Professor Kusam Sudhakar Reddy

Date: 08-11-2022 Department of Civil Engineering
Place: Kharagpur Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Kharagpur - 721302, India

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 Abstract

Name of the student: Banoth Sandeep Roll No: 19CE31003

Degree for which submitted: Bachelor of Technology
Department: Department of Civil Engineering
Thesis title: Laboratory evaluation Of Half Warm Mix Asphalt With 100% Rap
Rejuvenated with Waste Cooking Oil
Thesis supervisor: Professor Kusam Sudhakar Reddy
Month and year of thesis submission: November 27, 2022

This study aims to evaluate the effect of waste engine oil (WEO) on half-warm asphalt mixes
incorporated with 100% reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material. Indirect tensile test,
resilient modulus and cracking test have been discussed. The use of waste engine oil softened
the aged RAP bitumen, which led to a decrease in stability, resilient modulus, rutting
resistance, and an increase in fracture energy. However, with the addition of WEO, the
fracture energy increased, which indicates that the cracking resistance of these mixes
improved due softening action of WEO.

v
Contents
Declaration i
Certificate ii
Abstract iii
Contents iv
Study methodology

1. Basics of pavement 1
1.1 Introduction……………………………………….………………………... 1
1.2 Bitumen and types…………………………………………………………... 2
1.2.1 Bitumen………………………………………………………………... 2
1.2.2 Bitumen emulsion……………………………………………………… 3
1.2.3 Optimum bitumen content………………….………………………… 3
1.3 Rejuvenators……………………………………….………………………. 3
2. Pavement and types 5
2.1 Hot mix asphalt……………………………………………………………… 6
2.2 Warm mix asphalt………………………………….………………………… 6
2.2.1 Organic additives……………………………………………………… 7
2.2.2 Chemical additives………………………….………………………… 8
2.2.3 foamed additives…………………………….………………………… 8
2.3 Half warm mix asphalt……………………………………………………… 9
2.4 Cold mix asphalt……………………………………………………………. 10
2.5 Reclaimed asphalt pavement……………………...………………………… 11
2.6 pavement defects and failures…………………….………………………… 12
3. Laboratory tests 14
3.1 Indirect tensile strength test……………………….………………………… 15
3.1.1 Indirect tensile test………………………….………………………… 15
3.1.2 Cracking tolerance index……………………………………………… 16
3.2 Dynamic modulus test…………………………….………………………… 17
3.3 Resilient modulus test…………………………….………………………… 19
4. Evaluation of Gas Emissions, Energy Consumption………………………… 21
4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 21

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 4.2 Gas emission………………………………………………………………... 22
4.3 Energy consumption………………………………………………………… 23
5.Experiment and results……………………………………………………… 25
5.1 Experiment…………………………………………………………………. 25
5.2 Results and discussion……………………………………………………... 26
5.3 conclusion…………………………………………………………………... 27
6.Reference 28

vii
STUDY METHODOLOGY

1
Chapter 1

Basics of pavement

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

Roads are a convenient and affordable form of transportation. It can be utilized by several
facets of the community and goes beyond the height and width of a country. It contributes to
national integration and a nation's socioeconomic advancement. The road network is
regarded as an imperative measure for developing a robust economy, and the highway
network has become a primary mode of transportation and driver of the economy of many
nations. The world's third-largest road network is found in India. So when we construct
pavement, we have to build it in such a way that it should last long without damage, and it is
also economical to construct. A pavement consists of a binder made of bituminous materials,
such as asphalt, tar, or asphaltic oil, compacted with gravel or crushed stone. When we
compact all the materials, we should get the desired properties.
This literature review aims to identify the different types of pavements and how we can
achieve the properties of demolished pavement back to use. We also see how the
experimental setups used to test pavement properties, examine how they have helped solve
the issues related to the properties, and identify which area each experiment falls short in
solving and this review will look at experimental setups that test the, tensile strength,
compressive strength and flexural strength of the asphalt road pavements. We also try to
evaluate the influence of mixing time and temperature on the mechanical properties of
bitumen emulsion-based half-warm mix asphalt (BE-HWMA) with 100% reclaimed asphalt
pavement material, evaluate the influence of rejuvenation on the mechanical properties of

1
bitumen emulsion-based half-warm mix asphalt with 100% reclaimed asphalt pavement
material using waste cooking oil and to evaluate the mixing sequence of rejuvenator and
bitumen emulsion on mechanical properties of bitumen emulsion-based half-warm mix
asphalt with 100% reclaimed asphalt pavement material. The source of the aggregates from
which these experiments are performed is DEPRA and all the experiments are performed in
the pavement lab under the guidance of the charge.

1.2 Bitumen and types:

1.2.1 Bitumen

Bitumen is a substance that is produced by the distillation of crude oil. Bitumen is a viscous
substance in a liquid to a semi-solid phase. It has a blackish-brown colour. It has an adhesion
property which binds together all the components without bringing about any positive or
negative changes in their properties. One of the significant properties of bitumen is it is
resistant to water, and it is insoluble in water. Many other properties like Viscosity, softening
point, Ductility, Durability, and Strength are also very cheap, making them feasible and
affordable in many applications. Bitumen constituents are classified into asphaltenes, resins
and oils. Asphaltenes are mainly responsible for the viscosity of bitumen, and a high quantity
of asphaltenes results in high viscosity. The resins are fluids when heated and brittle when
cold they also disperse the asphaltenes throughout the oils that, provide homogeneity. The
oils yield asphaltenes and resins on oxidation.

1.2.2 Bitumen emulsion

A liquefied bitumen with a low viscosity is known as bitumen emulsion. Ordinary bitumen
can be transformed into a low-viscosity liquid that can be utilized in various applications by
dispersing it in water and adding an emulsifier. The main applications of bitumen emulsions
are for surface treatment, reusing old roads using emulsion and also for maintenance
patching, and track coating. The components of them are 70-80% bitumen and 0.1-2%
emulsifier. The emulsifier keeps the bitumen droplets in a stable suspension, controls
breaking time, and aids adhesion. Bitumen emulsions are typically two-phase systems made

2
up of bitumen and water, two immiscible liquids. Bitumen emulsion can be used to conserve
energy and reduce atmospheric pollution.

1.2.3 Optimum binder content

The mixture's optimum bitumen content is defined as the amount that maximizes the
strength, porosity, and water saturation of the asphalt concrete. The excess bitumen in the
mixture decreases the asphalt concrete's strength, shear stability, and fluidity, which causes
shears to form in hot weather. Small values of water saturation are a characteristic of asphalt
concrete with extra bitumen. Lack of bitumen compromises asphalt concrete's strength, frost
resistance, and corrosion resistance.

1.3 Rejuvenators

Incorporating unaltered RAP can cause the mixture to become excessively stiff, which leads
to poor compaction of the mix. This causes the pavement to fail sooner than expected. The
presence of aged bitumen in the RAP causes the stiffness to rise. High levels of oxidation in
aged bitumen change the ratio of asphaltene to maltene fractions and impair viscoelastic
performance. Prior to employing bitumen for road building, it is necessary to restore the
viscoelastic qualities that have been lost owing to the oxidation process by maintaining the
equilibrium between the bitumen's various constituents. This can be done by employing a
successful rejuvenation technique by restoring the aromatic components that have been lost
to oxidation and so reducing the viscosity of the bitumen. Rejuvenators aid in restoring the
chemical structure of aged RAP bitumen.
Issues with disposal and dumping can be resolved by using waste items as rejuvenators, such
as used cooking oil and used engine oil. One of the potential recycling substances that can
rejuvenate aged RAP material is waste engine oil (WEO). This WEO can be utilized in the
asphalt pavement construction industry rather than being disposed of and harming the
environment. WEO has a molecular structure that is somewhat reminiscent of asphalt when
the aromatic compositions are proper. As a result, using it causes the asphaltene and resin
components of RAP bitumen to change, rejuvenating old RAP bitumen. The optimal dosage
of rejuvenator is a must for the good diffusion between RAP and virgin binder, and that
envisages the performance of the RAP mixtures and the overdosage can cause other

3
problems like stripping, adhesion, rutting and thermal cracking, whereas the insufficient
amount will make the mixture stiffer.
There is evidence that adding WEO to a mix enhanced its workability, fatigue resistance,
fracture energy, and low-temperature cracking.

4
Chapter 2

Pavement and types

The most flexible paving material used in the building sector is asphalt. Asphalt pavement is
placed for the building of driveways, parking lots, roadways, etc. It is constructed of
aggregates, sand, additives, and asphalt. There is a wide range of kinds of road pavement
depending on the variations of asphalt utilized in pavement design. The four types of asphalt
pavements that are used in building the most frequently are:
1. HOT MIX ASPHALT
2. WARM MIX ASPHALT
3. HALF-WARM MIX ASPHALT
4. COLD MIX ASPHALT

2.1 Hot mix asphalt

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Hot mix asphalt (HMA) is made out of aggregate that has been thoroughly blended and
covered in asphalt binder. Before mixing, the aggregate and asphalt must both be heated
to a temperature between 140 and 180 degrees Celsius in order to achieve sufficient
fluidity of the asphalt cement for optimal mixing and workability. Heavy motor-driven
rollers condense the material while the paving mixture is hot to create a smooth, well-
consolidated pavement layer. Hot mix asphalt should be placed rapidly since it cools
down quickly. Various aggregate combinations can be used to develop hot-mix asphalt
paving mixtures, each with unique properties suited for specific design and construction
needs. Sand, gravel, crushed stone, slag, and mineral filler make up the aggregates.
Hot mix asphalt is the most durable type of paving asphalt and can last
longer as., Hot mix asphalt pavements are having higher flexural strength and high load-
carrying capacity than other pavement materials which is why it’s utilized on motorways
and high-traffic roads. Hot mix asphalt is the most expensive type of asphalt paving.
Along with advantages, there are many disadvantages with hot mix asphalt
as it is too expensive and it consumes a lot of resources during paving and during this
high heating of aggregates and bitumen, a lot of gases are released, which are dangerous
to both human beings that work at the construction site and also causes air pollution.

2.2 Warm mix asphalt

Warm mix asphalt (WMA) is heated during production, just like hot mix asphalt (HMA).
But in contrast to hot mix asphalt (HMA), Warm mix asphalt (WMA) incorporates either
water or organic or chemical additives that lower the temperature needed for
manufacture. Notably, Warm mix asphalt (WMA) manufacturing is more economical
and environmentally friendly than hot mix asphalt (HMA) production since it uses less
oil and fuel and emits fewer emissions. By using various additives, WMA technologies
primarily concentrate on the binder (bitumen) to enhance its qualities. These
technologies allow for the appropriate coating of the aggregates and create asphalt
between 110 and 140 degrees Celsius.
Consequently, the mix is workable and compatible, and production and compaction
temperatures are reduced by 20–40 °C. This lowers energy use, lessens fume and odour
emissions, and makes it cooler for asphalt workers to work.

6
 The lower manufacturing temperature of WMA makes it more workable when it cools
since the temperature difference between the mix and the environment is ultimately more
minor. Warm mix asphalt may be transported by transport trucks over longer distances
from the plant to the project site because of its lower temperature. Additionally, WMA
may be compacted at a lower temperature than HMA since it has a lower viscosity than
HMA.

The three primary techniques in the production of warm mix asphalt are:
(i) organic additives
(ii) chemical additives
(iii) foaming techniques

2.2.1 Organic additives

Bitumen viscosity can be decreased by organic WMA additions to improve workability.

These natural or synthetic waxes and fatty amides, which are added to a warm mix to reduce
the viscosity of the asphalt binder at temperatures just above 100 °C and to increase
lubrication, are the main types of organic additives. Reduced viscosity causes small particles
to settle and become evenly distributed throughout the mixture as it cools, increasing
stiffness.
The waxes appropriate for this procedure have melting points lower than those required for
traditional HMA manufacture, making them dispersible in the mixture during WMA
manufacturing.

7
The viscosity of the asphalt binder is a crucial factor at high temperatures as it shows the
binder's capacity to precisely coat the aggregate in the asphalt concrete mixture, to be
pumped through an asphalt plant, and to be compacted to create a new pavement surface.
A crucial point to keep in mind is that the type of additive must be carefully chosen so that
its melting point is greater than the Warm Mix in-service temperatures anticipated. This is
done to stop the asphalt from deforming and becoming brittle at low temperatures.

Examples: Sasobit, Licomont 100, Asphaltan B

2.2.2 Chemical Additives

Instead of lowering the asphalt's viscosity, chemical additives help the asphalt coat the
aggregate particles more effectively. Chemical additives exist in the form of emulsions and
surfactants, which work at the microscopic interface of the binder and aggregates to regulate
and reduce the frictional forces at that interface within a range of temperatures typically
between 100 and 140 ◦C. The improvement in adhesion gained after the addition of chemical
additives is due to the lubrication that is made possible between the binder and aggregate
during mixing and compaction by the reduction and regulation of the frictional forces. The
asphalt mix particles may move over one another more easily thanks to this enhancement in
lubrication, which lowers the mixing and compaction energy levels at lower temperatures.

Example: Evotherm, Rediset, Iterlow

2.2.3 Foaming Additives:

Small amounts of water are added to the binder using various techniques to create foaming
technology. Despite the many water delivery methods, foaming processes typically follow
one principle, which is the water's expansion factor after going from a liquid to a vapor state.
The principle underlying the efficiency of foaming technologies, in general, is the expansion
of water by a factor of roughly 1700 when it is transformed into steam. The viscosity of the
asphalt binder is generally decreased by the latent steam in the form of foam. This is made

8
more accessible by the binder's increased volume and surface area, which improves
aggregate coating and makes it simpler to compact the asphalt mix at lower temperatures.
Water-bearing processes and water-based processes are the two categories used to categories
foaming technologies.
Water-containing technologies that combine water foaming and additive (zeolites) dosing are
used in water-bearing processes. These procedures entail adding zeolites, hydrothermally
crystallized minerals, to the asphalt binder.
Contrarily, water-based procedures employ the direct injection of water into a binder, which
creates tiny bubbles and induces foaming in the binder but does not actually involve the use
of additives.
Contrary to organic additive techniques, the viscosity of the asphalt binder is temporarily
reduced by foaming operations, usually during the mixing and compaction of the asphalt
mix. After the foam collapses, the asphalt binder returns to its original state as a binder. With
this method, WMA manufacturing temperatures are decreased by 20 to 30 C.

2.3 Half warm mix asphalt

In the HWMA process, emulsion is heated to between 60 and 65 degrees Celsius before
being combined with heated aggregates at 90 to 95 degrees Celsius. Emulsions and finally
foamed bitumen are used in half-warm mixes.
The following are the goals of this asphalt mix technology:
(i) To lower fuel consumption at the central plant for heating aggregate and bitumen in order
to lower the energy needed during the manufacturing process.
(ii) To lessen the CO2 and volatile organic compound emissions that come from burning
fuel.
(iii) By lowering the chance of burns and fume exposure, it is possible to improve the health
and safety of employees at the workplace.
Since the techniques for creating asphalt mixtures at lower temperatures are still relatively
new, much of the research to date has analyzed the mechanical properties of the mixtures
and shown that their performance and level of service are comparable to those of traditional
hot asphalt mixtures.
Pollutant fluxes were reduced thanks to HWMA, which uses 50% less energy than HMA.

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2.4 Cold mix asphalt

There is no heating involved in the creation of cold mix asphalt (CMA). It may be
transported and laid while still cold. This substance can be poured directly from the bag
without needing extra tools. Only short-term uses, such as wintertime mending or filling in
minor cracks, should involve cold mix asphalt. Cold mix asphalt should only be used for one
or two seasons before needing to be replaced with something more durable.

As hot mix asphalt consumes a lot of fuels during production, and it releases a lot of
greenhouse gases while heating the aggregates and bitumen, which is harmful to both
humans and the environment. So we should replace it with some other mix which consumes
lesser fuel and also not as dangerous as hot mix asphalt but also the performance should be
same as hot mix asphalt. So one of these mixes can half warm mix asphalt.

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2.5 Reclaimed asphalt pavement
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is a reclaimed material that is frequently utilized in the
construction of pavement. A typical asphalt mixture has 5% asphalt and 95% natural
particles. Crushed rock, gravel, sand, or mineral filler naturally make up the aggregates used
in asphalt compositions. Asphalt and natural aggregate are two natural resources that must be
continuously available for the construction and maintenance of asphalt pavements. Since
these resources are not renewable, using them eventually causes environmental issues.
Asphalt and natural aggregates are becoming expensive because of their scarcity.

When existing asphalt pavements are removed for reconstruction or resurfacing, a significant
amount of materials are generated throughout the process. There are significant
environmental problems because the removed pavement materials are frequently disposed of
in landfills. Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP), the term for the removed pavement
material, is composed of both productive asphalt and aggregates.
It is crucial to recycle and reuse these resources in order to decrease waste and landfills,
which can be seen as a step toward sustainable growth.
This approach has three benefits: it lowers the demand for asphalt and virgin material,
reduces landfill stress, and lowers associated costs.
The removed pavement components are crushed and processed to lower the maximum
aggregate particle size to a usable size. Overprocessing, which weakens aggregates and
raises fine material content, is avoided. The aggregates are graded in accordance with the
contaminants and fine materials that have been removed from the milled RAP. The obtained
RAP is kept cleanly in storage. Most significantly, the type of milling machinery, milling
speed, and depth of reclamation all affect the quality of RAP. Overheating, ageing, quality,
and source are the common problems faced as they affect the durability of the asphalt
mixtures. According to the USA State Transportation Department's (DOT) recommendation,
the performance of asphalt pavement construction can be maintained by using up to 30%
RAP content in the intermediate layers and surface layer. As a result of microwave
technology's propensity to heat RAP without causing it to deteriorate further and to reduce
gaseous emissions, asphalt factories that employ it can even use 100% RAP.
RAP incorporated HMA mixtures reduce 28% of energy consumption and Greenhouse

11
Gases emission compared to the conventional HMA RAP reduced the asphalt content and
that in return lower the eco-burden.

2.6 Pavement defects and failures

When it comes to construction of a pavement, we have five areas to look over:

1. Cracking: It is one of the most typical types of pavement failure. The forces
generated by a vehicle's turning or braking motion cause cracks to form. The
instability of the asphalt mix or the fragility of the foundation or subgrade layers are
what produce distortions in asphalt pavement. Rutting, shoving, depressions,
swelling, and patch failures are only a few of these difficulties.

Cracking potholes

2. Potholes: can be visible as tiny depressions on the pavement's surface, and they can
go all the way down to the base course. These are frequently related to infiltration
and, if not addressed appropriately, might result from cracks.

3. Rutting: Rutting is a kind of pavement breakdown that causes channelized

depressions to emerge, especially in the pavement's wheel track. Ruts are created
when the wheel of a big vehicle begins to crush the asphalt.

Rutting Moisture
susceptibility

12
4. Moisture susceptibility: It is the kind of pavement failure where the uppermost
asphalt layer deteriorates as a result of ongoing water infiltration. As the
characterized process continues, the aggregate particles break from the pavement's
surface and leave behind eroded-looking spots.

5. Thermal cracking: the pavement fracture that roughly parallels the pavement's
centreline. Pavements experience stresses as a result of contracting with a drop in
temperature.

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Chapter 3

Laboratory tests

The asphalt mix performance test helps us to improve asphalt performance and prolong the
service life of the pavement. So here are some tests:

1. INDIRECT TENSILE STRENGTH TEST

2. DYNAMIC MODULUS TEST
3. RESILIENT MODULUS TEST

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3.1 Indirect tensile strength test
3.1.1 Indirect tensile test

The strength of an asphalt mixture exhibiting fatigue fractures and/or rutting may be affected
by the impact of heavy traffic over an extended period of time. Indirect Tensile Strength is
frequently employed to assess this damage (ITS). The ITS test was performed according to
UNI EN 12697-23. The cylindrical specimen must be positioned in the compression testing
equipment between the loading strips and subjected to a constant displacement loaded
radially at a speed of 50mm/min applied symmetrically along the cylinder axis until it
breaks. The peak load applied at the break and the specimen's dimensions are used to
compute the indirect tensile strength, which is the highest tensile stress.
2P
ITS=
DH π

where ITS is the indirect tensile strength

P is the peak load, expressed in kilonewtons (kN)
D is the diameter of the specimen, expressed in millimeters (mm)
H is the height of the specimen, expressed in millimeters (mm)

The water effect weakens the mixture's strength as well. Thus its behaviour and durability
must be assessed. The difference between the ITS value before and after a 72-hour soak at
40°C in a water bath was measured. According to the UNI EN 12697-12 standard, the ratio
between the strength values before and after water storage is known as the indirect tensile
strength ratio.

ITS WET
𝐼𝑇𝑆𝑅 = *100
ITS DRY
where 𝐼𝑇𝑆𝑅 is the indirect tensile strength ratio (%)
ITS WET is the average indirect tensile strength of the wet group.
ITS DRY is the average indirect tensile strength of the dry group

A minimum specimen height of 50.8 mm is required for specimens with a nominal diameter
of 101.6 mm. A minimum specimen height of 75 mm is required for specimens with a

15
nominal diameter of 150 mm and A minimum of three replicates shall be prepared for each
mixture.

3.1.2 cracking tolerance index

The cracking resistance of asphalt mixtures containing different asphalt binders, asphalt
binder modifiers, aggregate blends, fibres, and recycled materials is measured by the CT Index .
The higher the CT Index value, the better the cracking resistance and, consequently, the less
cracking amount in the field. CT Index of an asphalt mixture is calculated from the failure
energy, the post-peak slope of the load-displacement curve, and deformation tolerance at 75
% of the peak load.

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I X =¿displacement (mm) corresponding to X % of the peak load at the post-peak stage.

P X = X % of the peak load (kN) at the post-peak stage

Cracking tolerance index (CT Index ) is calculated from the parameters obtained using the load-
displacement curve:

t I Gf
CT Index = * 75 * *106
62 D ¿ m75∨¿ ¿
where:
CT Index = cracking tolerance index
Gf = failure energy (Joules/m2)
¿ m75∨¿ = absolute value of the post-peak slope m75 (N/m)
I 75= displacement at 75 % the peak load after the peak (mm)
D = specimen diameter (mm)
t = specimen thickness (mm)
Wf
Gf = *10
6
D∗t

W f = The area under the load versus LLD curve.

3.2 Dynamic modulus test

The dynamic modulus (E*) is a measure of how stiff asphalt is. One of the crucial variables
used to assess the distress caused by rutting and fatigue cracking is the dynamic modulus.
The stress-strain relationship under a continuous sinusoidal loading is determined by the
linear viscoelastic material's complex dynamic modulus (E*). For linear viscoelastic
materials subjected to continuously applied sinusoidal loading in the frequency domain, this
complex number connects stress to strain. The ratio of the sinusoidal stress and strain
amplitudes at any given time, t, and the angular load frequency,, is given by δ = δ0sin(⍵t), ε
= ε0sin(⍵t-Ø)

E* = δ/ε = δ0ei⍵t/ε0ei(⍵t-Ø)δ0sin⍵t/ε0sin(⍵t-Ø)

17
Where, δ0 = Peak (maximum) stress
𝜀0 = Peak (maximum) strain
Ø = Phase angle, degrees
⍵ = angular velocity
t = time, seconds
i = imaginary component of the complex modulus

For a pure elastic material, Ø = 0, For pure viscous materials, Ø = 90°.

The primary output variables of the test are the dynamic modulus |E*|, and the phase angle
(Ø), which is a direct indicator of the elastic-viscous properties of the mix or binder material.

Mathematically the dynamic modulus is defined as absolute value of complex modulus:

δ0
|E*| =
ε0

Master Curve:
From a master curve built at a reference temperature, the modulus of asphalt cement is
calculated for all analysis levels of temperature and time rate of load. The time-temperature
superposition method is used to create master curves. To get the curves to converge into a
single smooth function, the data at different temperatures need to be moved relative to the
log of time. The time dependence of the material is described by a master curve function of
time constructed in this way. The amount of shift needed at each temperature to create the

18
master curve explains how the material is temperature-dependent. A sigmoidal function with
the following description can be used to mathematically represent the master modulus curve
in general:

Log |E*| = δ + 𝛼/[1+e𝛽+𝛾(log tr)

Where, Tr = time of loading at reference temperature

δ= minimum value of E*
δ + 𝛼 = Maximum value of E*
𝛽, 𝛾 = parameters describing the shape of the sigmoidal function
𝛼 = variable which is a function of gradation

3.3 Resilient modulus test

This a fundamental material property used to characterize unbound pavement materials. It is

a measure of material stiffness and provides a mean to analyze stiffness of materials under
different conditions, such as moisture, density and stress level. The Mechanistic Empirical
Pavement Design Guide (MEPGD) requires the resilient modulus of soil and aggregate
materials for structural design of the layers. There is a drastic influence of Mr on the
thickness of the base course and the asphalt layers. For laboratory measurements of the
resilient modulus, the repeated load triaxial test is conducted based on the AASHTO T307:
“Determining the Resilient Modulus of Soils and Aggregate Materials.” The resilient
modulus is defined as the ratio of the repeated deviator stress (cyclic stress in excess of
confining pressure) to the recoverable resilient (elastic) strain in a repeated dynamic loading:
The resilient modulus model is as follows:

( )( )
k2 k3
Mr θ τ oct
=k 1 +1 .
Pa Pa Pa

where
τ octis the octahedral shear stress
k1, k2, and k3 are material parameters.
M r is the resilient modulus,
Pais the atmospheric stress (101.4 kPa)

19
In resilient modulus tests on cylindrical specimens, σ1 is the major principal stress, σ3 is the
minor principal stress, and σ3 is the interment principal stress.

The bulk stress, θ = σ1 + σ2 + σ3

octahedral shear stress is equal to τ oct =

√2
3(σ1−σ3)

Benefits of Mr testing:
1. Measure of fundamental material property
2. Dynamic load testing similar to traffic loading
3. Essential input in mechanistic-empirical pavement design

Difference between dynamic and resielnt modulus

Resilient Modulus (Mr) is a fundamental material property used to characterize unbound

pavement materials. It is a measure of material stiffness and provides a mean to analyze
stiffness of materials under different conditions, such as moisture, density and stress level.
Beside, the dynamic modulus (E), is one of the most critical parameters for the Mechanistic
Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG), which is used for flexible pavement design.
The dynamic modulus represents the stiffness of the asphalt material when tested in a
compressive-type, repeated load test. The dynamic modulus is one of the key parameters used
to evaluate both rutting and fatigue cracking distresses in the MEPDG.

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Chapter 4

Evaluation of Gas Emissions, Energy

Consumption

4.1 Introduction:

Half-warm mix asphalt is a viable alternative to hot mix asphalt since it uses less energy, uses
less gasoline, emits fewer gases and fumes, and performs similarly to hot mix asphalt. Hot
mix asphalt requires a lot of fuel (HMA). Adding various fume suppressors, it was found that
in separate tests, adding 3% of SBS, PE, melamine, nano-calcium carbonate, and activated
carbon reduced asphalt fumes by 19.2%, 6.5%, 45.1, 4.8%, and 41.6%, respectively. Wax
was also found to reduce emissions by about 50% when the manufacturing temperature of
asphalt mixture was lowered by around 30 C.
A 20-degree drop in manufacturing temperature resulted in fuel savings of 2 litres per tonne
of the mixture and a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions of 20% to 35%. The fume-
emission rate increased by a factor of 2 for each 12 ◦C increase in temperature.

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By lowering manufacturing temperatures by 9 C, an average fuel saving of 22.1% was
achieved in the asphalt mixture. As a result, we were reducing manufacturing temperatures to
aid in lowering energy usage. Because using WMA instead of HMA can result in energy
savings of 23% to 29% while using HWMA can result in savings of 35–45%. These
innovations have the potential to increase the amount of recycled asphalt pavement used in
paving projects and reduce emissions, energy use, fuel consumption, the length of the paving
season, employees' exposure to heat and gas, and field compaction (RAP).

The excessive raw material consumption and waste produced by replacing degraded
pavement must be addressed. Because fewer virgin ingredients, including asphalt binder and
aggregates, are used when RAP is used to substitute raw materials in asphalt mixtures
(WMA-RAP), it has significant advantages.

The energy consumption was calculated by the Romier equations, varied according to the
changes in the manufacturing temperature.

4.2 Gas emissions

Fuel type has a significant impact on the amount of SO 2 produced during combustion, with
fuel oil and recycled fuel oil making the most pollutants. Given that it contains less sulphur
than other fuel alternatives, natural gas appears to be more environmentally benign.

There has been a 35% decrease in fuel usage, resulting in a reduction in SO 2 emissions of
25% to 30% between HMA foam (180 °C) and WMA foam (125-130 °C). The most
significant contributing component to SO 2emissions is gasoline use. 90% of the CO 2
emissions were found to be produced directly during the mixing of the asphalt. The entire
production process involves heating the aggregate, heating the asphalt, and mixing. The
observed carbon emissions in these stages were 67%, 14%, and 12%, respectively. The
difference between HMA foam produced at 180°C and WMA foam produced at 125–130°C
is about 35%.

4.3 Energy Consumption

HMA production takes more energy to heat the aggregate and mix the asphalt. The lower
production temperature is shown in the graphic to show a decrease in energy use. According

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to the reports of WMA testing, the state-of-the-practice suggested energy savings ranging
from 20 to 35%. It is noted that for every 10°C drop in temperature, there is a reduction of
2051 kcal/ton. An additional energy requirement of approximately 2253 Kcal.

Energy consumption equation defined by romier used to determine the energy consumption
during the production stage and to relate this variable to temperature changes:

energy needed to heat aggregates (Cal)

C agr∗magr ∗(t agr −t amb )

energy needed to heat the water present in the aggregates (Cal)

( )
magr
C a∗ −1 ∗magr∗(100−t amb)
u
magr − ∗magr
100

energy needed to vaporize water from aggregates (Cal)

( )
magr
clv∗ −1 ∗magr
u
magr − ∗magr
100

energy needed to eliminate water vapor (Cal)

( )
magr
C v∗ −1 ∗magr∗(t agr −100)
u
magr − ∗magr
100

Here: C agr is the specific heat of aggregates (Cal/kg−1◦C−1)

magr is the mass of aggregates (kg);

t agr is the aggregate heating temperature (◦C);

t amb is the ambient temperature (◦C)

C a is the specific heat of water; (cal/kg−1 * ◦C−1)

h is the aggregate moisture content (%)

clv is the latent heat of vaporization of the water (Cal/kg)

C v is the vapor-specific heat (Cal/kg−1* ◦ C−1 )

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24
Chapter 5

Experiment and results

5.1 Experiment
We have taken 6 samples of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material with 1100 grams
and they have a residual bitumen content of 5.2% Which means 57.2 grams by weight.
We have also added some bitumen emulsion and waste cooking oil (rejuvenator) to regain the
properties of the bitumen and the aggregates.
The source of the reclaimed asphalt has been taken form DEPRA
These samples are conditioned at 110 degrees centigrade for 2 hours and they have been
compacted with 30 blows each.
sample Bitumen emulsion Waste cooking oil Mixing temperature
(%)
1 3% 8 grams 110 °C
2 4% 10 grams 110 °C
3 3% 8 grams 110 °C
4 4% 10 grams 110 °C
5 3% 8 grams 110 °C
6 3% 5 grams 110 °C

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5.2 Results and discussion
Even though hot mix asphalt (HMA) is suitable for pavement because of its disadvantages,
like the emission of too many greenhouse gases and consumption of a lot of fuel, and affects
the people working on the site, it will have a side impact, so we have to consider an
alternative to this and among one of the new technologies half warm mix asphalt (HWMA)
is an excellent replacement to hot mix asphalt as it does not release as much greenhouse
gases as the hot mix. Also, the heating of aggregates and bitumen is around 60-100 degree
Celsius, which is way less than hot mix asphalt, and due to low heating, it consumes fewer
fuels, and it won't affect the workers around the asphalt mix that much. There is also an
advantage of using half warm mix asphalt as we can use a much percentage of reclaimed
asphalt pavement (RAP) compared to hot mix asphalt as the aggregates won't be much stiffer
and don't cause any problems. As there is a deficiency of aggregates and bitumen, it is hard
to get, so we use reclaimed asphalt, but when we use reclaimed asphalt, we have to keep in
mind that it should not be heated overly because increasing the heating temperature of the
RAP cannot constantly improve the workability of the recycled mixture, because the higher
heating temperature causes more hard-aged bitumen to be blended with soft virgin bitumen
during the mixing process. It is preferred to avoid high heating temperatures for reclaimed
asphalt material to limit the ageing of the already oxidized reclaimed asphalt binder and to
prevent sticking of the reclaimed asphalt binder to the heating facility. The lower preheating
temperatures of reclaimed asphalt may also result in higher air voids which may lead to
consolidated rutting in the mixture and an increase in moisture damage, and the lower
mixing temperature and mixing time can lead to an insufficient coating of aggregates and
allow moisture to damage the mix. And when we add rejuvenators to the rap when we heat,
we should add accordingly so that the bitumen on the reclaimed asphalt should gain its
properties.

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5.3 Conclusion
As the half-warm mix asphalt is a new technology and there are only very few on-site results
available, so it is hard to get the results and compare them with hot mix asphalt. Still, if we
see the mechanical properties of the aggregates and laboratory experiments, we can say that
they can show performance similar to hot mix asphalt, if not better than hot mix asphalt.
Reclaimed asphalt properties are also complex to determine. We cannot overheat as it causes
hardening of the aggregate, and we cannot also preheat it as it may also result in higher air
voids which may lead to consolidated rutting in the mixture and an increase in moisture
damage.
So we have to heat it at a particular temperature to get good samples. Due to significantly
less data available on reclaimed aggregate half-warm mix asphalt, we cannot come to a
conclusion very quickly, but in the future, it has a chance to become the key to road
pavements.

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REFERENCES:

1. Paolino Caputo, Abraham A. Abe, Valeria Loise, Michele Porto, Pietro Calandra,
Ruggero Angelico, Cesare Oliviero Rossi. The Role of Additives in Warm Mix
Asphalt Technology: An Insight into Their Mechanisms of Improving an Emerging
Technology (2020).
2. María del Carmen Rubio, Fernando Moreno, María José Martínez-Echevarría,
Germán Martínez, José Miguel Vázquez. Comparative analysis of emissions from the
manufacture and use of hot and half-warm mix asphalt (2012).
3. Lekhaz Devulapalli, Saravanan Kothandaraman, Goutham Sarang. A review on the
mechanisms involved in reclaimed asphalt pavement (2018).
4. Ishfaq Mohi Ud Din, Mohammad Shaf Mir. Laboratory Study on the use
of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement and Copper Slag in Warm Mix Asphalt Pavements
using Waste Engine Oil as a Rejuvenator (2021)
5. Bakhromjon Adhamovich Otakulov, Bekzod Xomidjonovich Kodirov, Hojiakbar
Solijon o’g’li Solijonov. Selecting the optimum binder content.
6. Alejandra T. Calabi-Floody, Gonzalo A. Valdés-Vidal, Elsa Sanchez-Alonso and
Luis A. Mardones-Parra. Evaluation of Gas Emissions, Energy Consumption and
Production Costs of Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) Involving Natural Zeolite and
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) (2020)
7. https://wsdot.wa.gov/research/reports/fullreports/704.1.pdf
8. https://www.witpress.com/Secure/elibrary/papers/MC19/MC19025FU1.pdf
9. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233048924
10. https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_987E.pdf
11. https://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/trispdfs/00941260.pdf
12. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-030-77230-7.pdf

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