Challenges of Insurgency in India

BLJ 1.4 – Political thought

(Final submission)

Submitted by:
Anshita
UID No. UGJ 23-47
Course
Year: 1st year Semester: 01

Submitted to
Prof. Aditya Satpute
Assistant Professor, Political Science

February 2024
MAHARASHTRA NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, NAGPUR
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study is to locate the situation of existing in-surgency in India’s northeast
region and determine the policy op-tions for effective containment. It is believed that after
Kashmir northeast India is the most volatile and insurgency-affected place in the country. This
region is mainly composed of eight states; it is a hilly region of charming beauty and amazing
biodiversity. It is also an area with an equally rich multiplicity of tribes, ethnic groups, languages
and religions. However, this region has been troubled by insurgent movements ever since
independence. Widespread conflicts which are related to the geography of the region, the multi-
ethnicity of its population and grounds of dis-content economic feeding are the characteristic
features of this region. Different factors perpetuate insurgency in this region like the political
history of Naga Hills, Merger Agreement of Mani-pur, economic underdevelopment and
autonomy cause of Mizo Hills, an unjust attitude of the central government towards Assam,
demographic imbalance of Tripura, violent incidents in Tirap and Chaglang districts of
Arunachal Pradesh, and demographic and economic transformation of Meghalaya. Besides these
causes, there are other factors which are responsible for the sustained in-surgency in these states.
In the above context, this paper tries to relocate the strategies and policy initiatives to contain the
insur-gent and militant activities in the region.
Keywords: Ethnicity, India, Insurgency, Northeast

RESEARCH METHADOLOGY
The researcher has used qualitative methodology. References were taken from secondary data
i.e., books, articles and journals. The researcher has tried to cover every aspect in this research
to make the topic easy to understand. The researcher was neutral throughout the research
without any biased perspective, the research analysis has done with moving to every single
aspect to make research clearer and more concise.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What are the key historical, socio-economic, and political factors contributing to
insurgency in Northeast India, and how do they intersect to shape the conflict dynamics
in the region?
2. How do external factors, such as geopolitical rivalries and economic interests of
neighboring countries like China, impact the insurgency in Northeast India, and what are
the implications for regional stability and security?
3. What strategies and policies have been employed by the Indian government to address
insurgency in Northeast India, and what are the challenges and successes associated
with these efforts?
 4. How do human rights concerns, including violations committed by both insurgent groups
and security forces, impact the dynamics of insurgency and prospects for peace and
reconciliation in Northeast India?

BACKGROUND
India’s north-east is where south and south-east Asia meet .1The northeast states of India have
been seen as underdeveloped and neglected due to slow growth rate , lack of proper
infastructure ,low per capita income , non-availability of trained manpower .The insurgency
factor has come up as a threat to India’s national security. Around 98% of the borders of the
northeastern region are with other countries, namely Bangladesh, Bhutan, China and Myanmar.
Many ethnic groups in the region especially in the areas bordering the international boundaries
have more in common with the population living across the boundary than with their own
nationals. Serious ramifications have resulted from the affinity that groups have with their kin
groups across borders and the sense of support (material and non-material) that they receive
from them. Politically divided groups have demanded that international borders be redrawn and
that states within the Indian Union be reorganized due to the socioeconomic continuities that
transcend national borders. India's Northeast area is significant strategically. It has close to
5,200 km of external borders, some of which are still unsettled.2 There are a number of
demands of different factions in northeast India some favour a separate state while others seek
regional autonomy, some groups demand complete independence, others wanted religious law.
As per reports of Union Home Ministry, Government of India the militant activity in the
Northeast is on the decline, with Tripura and Mizoram emerging as the most peaceful states in
the region.3
HISTORICAL CONTEXT OF INSURGENCY IN NORTHEAST INDIA
The insurgency in Northeast India has historical roots dating back to India's independence in
1947. It involves multiple separatist militant groups operating in the region, including the Naga
National Council (NNC), United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), People's Liberation Army
(PLA), and others. The demands of these groups range from autonomy within the provisions of
the Indian constitution to outright secession. The historical factors contributing to the
insurgency include language/ethnicity, tribal rivalry, migration, and control over local resources,
as well as the region's long and porous international borders. The Indian government has
employed various tactics, from negotiations to military operations, to address the insurgency,

1
C. Joshua Thomas, “Revitalising BIMSTEC through Cultural Connectivity from Northeast India,” ORF Issue Brief
No. 405, October 2020, Observer Research Foundation
2
Datta, S. (2000, November). Security of India’s northeast: External linkages. Strategic Analysis, 24(8), 1495–1516.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09700160008455301
3
T. (2018, February 19). Northeast militancy on decline, Tripura and Mizoram most peaceful. The Times of India.
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/northeast-militancy-on-decline-tripura-and-mizoram-most-
peaceful/articleshow/62978909.cms
and while there has been a decline in insurgency incidents, the discontent continues in some
areas. The region remains fragile, and factors such as China's support to northeastern guerrilla
groups and internal displacement have contributed to the volatility of the situation.
Understanding the root causes and dynamics of insurgency is crucial for effectively addressing
and countering it. By appreciating the historical, cultural, economic, and political context, one
can gain insights into the factors that contribute to the emergence and perpetuation of
insurgencies. This includes addressing the multiple causes that draw adherents to insurgency
and allow for its continuation. Insurgency is not just a political phenomenon, but also has
economic and psychological dimensions, making it essential to have a comprehensive
understanding of its underlying dynamics.Therefore, a deep understanding of insurgency is
necessary to develop effective strategies for its prevention and resolution. The insurgency in
Northeast India has been fueled by a complex interplay of historical, social, and geopolitical
factors. Since India's independence in 1947, the region has been home to various separatist
militant groups, such as the Naga National Council (NNC), United Liberation Front of Assam
(ULFA), and People's Liberation Army (PLA), among others.These groups have sought autonomy,
separate statehood, or complete independence, citing grievances related to governance,
alienation, and lack of development.The historical factors contributing to the insurgency include
language/ethnicity, tribal rivalry, migration, and control over local resources, as well as the
region's long and porous international borders. The support of some of these groups by external
actors, such as China, has further complicated the situation.While the Indian government has
made efforts to address the insurgency through negotiations and military operations, the region
remains fragile, with concerns about continued instability and the risk of renewed insurgency.
Insurgency, a persistent challenge in various parts of the world, emerges from a confluence of
socio-economic and political factors deeply entrenched in the fabric of societies.
Marginalization and economic disparities often serve as catalysts for insurgency, as marginalized
groups perceive themselves as disadvantaged or oppressed within their societies (Raleigh,
2010). This sense of injustice can be fueled by disparities in wealth distribution, unequal access
to resources, and limited economic opportunities, creating fertile ground for dissent and
conflict. Moreover, political exclusion and the absence of inclusive governance structures play
significant roles in driving insurgency. When certain ethnic, religious, or social groups are
systematically excluded from the political process or denied representation, feelings of
disenfranchisement and alienation can intensify (Cederman, Weidmann, & Gleditsch, 2011). In
such environments, grievances against the ruling authorities can quickly escalate into armed
resistance as marginalized groups seek to challenge existing power dynamics. Additionally,
corruption and governance failures exacerbate the conditions conducive to insurgency. Weak
governance institutions, rampant corruption, and a lack of accountability erode public trust in
state institutions (Fearon & Laitin, 2003). In societies where government officials abuse their
power for personal gain, citizens may lose confidence in the ability of the state to address their
needs and protect their rights. This disillusionment can drive individuals and communities
towards alternative systems of governance, including insurgent groups, that promise to address
their grievances.In summary, insurgency is a multifaceted phenomenon shaped by a complex
interplay of socio-economic and political factors. Addressing the root causes of insurgency
requires comprehensive strategies that address grievances, promote inclusive governance, and
tackle corruption and inequality within societies.45

GEOPOLITICAL DYNAMICS
Northeast India is a region marked by complex geopolitical dynamics, influenced significantly by
its proximity to neighboring countries such as Bangladesh, Myanmar, Bhutan, and China. These
dynamics are further complicated by historical grievances, ethnic diversity, and insurgent
movements that have long plagued the region. Insurgency, in particular, has been a persistent
challenge, shaping the political and security landscape of the area.
Insurgency in Northeast India:
1. Assam Insurgency:
 The United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) has been one of the most
prominent insurgent groups in Assam, seeking independence from India. ULFA
has engaged in guerrilla warfare, targeting security forces and infrastructure.
 Factors fueling the Assam insurgency include perceived neglect by the central
government, issues of identity, and economic disparities within the region.
2. Naga Insurgency:
 The Naga insurgency, spearheaded by the National Socialist Council of Nagaland
(NSCN), has been one of the oldest and most protracted conflicts in India. The
NSCN has demanded the creation of a separate Naga homeland, known as
Nagalim, comprising parts of northeastern India and Myanmar.
 Peace talks between the Indian government and NSCN have been ongoing, with
several ceasefire agreements reached. However, a comprehensive resolution to
the conflict remains elusive.
3. Manipur Insurgency:
 Manipur has witnessed several insurgent movements, with groups like the
People's Liberation Army (PLA) and United National Liberation Front (UNLF)
fighting for various demands, including independence or greater autonomy.

4
Cederman, L. E., Weidmann, N. B., & Gleditsch, K. S. (2011). Horizontal inequalities and ethnonationalist civil war:
A global comparison. American Political Science Review, 105(3), 478-495.
5
Raleigh, C. (2010). Conflict recurrence and the resource curse: A review. In M. Berdal & D. Malone (Eds.), Greed
and grievance: Ex-militants’ perspectives on the conflict in the Niger Delta (pp. 91-104). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner
Publishers.
  Ethnic tensions, economic marginalization, and allegations of human rights
abuses by security forces have fueled discontent and insurgency in Manipur.6
4. Tripura Insurgency:
 The National Liberation Front of Tripura (NLFT) and the All Tripura Tiger Force
(ATTF) have been active insurgent groups in Tripura, seeking to establish an
independent state or autonomy for indigenous Tripuri people.
 Decades of insurgency have witnessed violence, displacement, and socio-
economic disruptions in the state.78
Northeast India faces significant challenges due to porous borders with Bangladesh, Myanmar,
and Bhutan, enabling the movement of insurgents, weapons, and contraband, threatening
border security and sovereignty. Effective cooperation among neighboring nations is crucial to
combat cross-border infiltration. However, foreign support complicates counter-insurgency
efforts, with reports indicating insurgent groups finding refuge and assistance in countries like
Myanmar.9
Ethnic complexities further complicate the situation, with diverse groups pursuing agendas
based on identity and historical grievances. Resolving socio-economic and political issues
underlying ethnic tensions is vital for sustainable peace. Additionally, regional power dynamics,
notably China's interests and investments in infrastructure projects, impact the security
environment. India aims to strengthen ties with neighboring countries to collectively address
security challenges. In conclusion, addressing cross-border infiltration, foreign support, ethnic
complexities, and regional power dynamics is essential for peace in Northeast India.In
conclusion, addressing insurgency in Northeast India requires a multifaceted approach that
addresses the root causes of conflict, strengthens border security, promotes inter-community
dialogue, and fosters regional cooperation. Only through concerted efforts can sustainable
peace and development be achieved in the region.

COUNTERINSURGENCY EFFORTS
Government Strategies and Policies Aimed at Addressing Insurgency
The Indian government has employed a multifaceted approach to address insurgency in
Northeast India, incorporating military, political, and developmental strategies. Peace talks and
negotiations have been initiated with various insurgent groups, offering them autonomy or
6
Baruah, S. (1999). India against itself: Assam and the politics of nationality. University of Pennsylvania Press.
7
Das, S. (Ed.). (2014). Ethnicity and Insurgency in Northeast India. Routledge.
8
South Asian Terrorism Portal. (n.d.). Insurgency in Northeast India. Retrieved from
https://www.satp.org/terrorism.asp#northeastinsurgency

9
Dutta, P. (2018). Insurgency in Northeast India: Issues and Challenges. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd.
other concessions in exchange for laying down arms and participating in the democratic process
(Baruah, 1999). Additionally, development initiatives aimed at addressing socio-economic
grievances and improving infrastructure in the region have been implemented to undercut
support for insurgent groups (Das, 2014). Furthermore, the government has sought to
strengthen regional cooperation and intelligence sharing with neighboring countries to curb
cross-border infiltration and disrupt insurgent networks (Dutta, 2018).
Role of Security Forces in Counterinsurgency Operations
Security forces, including the Indian Army, paramilitary forces, and state police, play a central
role in counterinsurgency operations in Northeast India. They are tasked with maintaining law
and order, conducting counterinsurgency operations, and protecting civilians from insurgent
attacks. However, the heavy-handed tactics employed by security forces, such as extrajudicial
killings and human rights abuses, have been a source of concern. Instances of excessive use of
force and violations of human rights have strained relations between security forces and local
communities, fueling resentment and alienation (Baruah, 1999).
Effectiveness and Challenges of Counterinsurgency Measures
The effectiveness of counterinsurgency measures in Northeast India has been mixed. While
some insurgent groups have been brought to the negotiating table and peace agreements have
been signed, others continue to operate, albeit with varying degrees of intensity. Challenges
such as rugged terrain, porous borders, and limited resources pose significant obstacles to
achieving lasting peace and stability in the region (Dutta, 2018). Moreover, the complex socio-
political landscape characterized by ethnic tensions and competing interests complicates efforts
to address root causes of conflict and achieve sustainable peace.
Human Rights Concerns
Violations Committed by Both Insurgent Groups and Security Forces
Both insurgent groups and security forces have been implicated in human rights violations in
Northeast India. Insurgent groups have been responsible for acts of violence targeting civilians,
including bombings, assassinations, and extortion, as part of their campaign for autonomy or
secession (Das, 2014). On the other hand, security forces have been accused of extrajudicial
killings, arbitrary arrests, torture, and disappearances in their efforts to combat insurgency
(Baruah, 1999). These violations have eroded trust in state institutions and further alienated
affected communities.10
Impact on Civilian Population and Efforts Towards Accountability and Justice
The civilian population in Northeast India has borne the brunt of the conflict, experiencing
displacement, trauma, and loss of livelihoods as a result of insurgent attacks and security
operations. Efforts towards accountability and justice for human rights violations committed by
10
Dutta, P. (2018). Insurgency in Northeast India: Issues and Challenges. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd.
both insurgent groups and security forces have been inconsistent. While some cases have been
investigated and perpetrators held accountable, many others have gone unpunished, leading to
a climate of impunity (Dutta, 2018). Civil society organizations and human rights activists
continue to advocate for justice for victims and reforms within security forces to uphold human
rights standards and promote accountability.1112
International Involvement

International actors and organizations have significantly contributed to addressing the

insurgency problem in Northeast India. Countries like the United States, Japan, and various
European nations have extended diplomatic support and assistance to India in its efforts to
combat insurgency and foster peace in the region (Ahmed, 2017). Furthermore, international
entities such as the United Nations and the World Bank have actively supported development
projects aimed at addressing socio-economic grievances and promoting conflict resolution
(United Nations, 2020).
Bilateral and multilateral initiatives have played a crucial role in facilitating peace and conflict
resolution in the region. For instance, collaborative efforts between India and Bangladesh on
border security measures have aimed to prevent cross-border infiltration and disrupt insurgent
networks (Das, 2014). Additionally, regional organizations like the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC) have provided a platform for dialogue and cooperation among
member states to address common security challenges (Chatterjee, 2016).
External factors, including geopolitical rivalries and economic interests, have significantly
influenced insurgency dynamics in Northeast India. China's strategic interests in the region,
particularly its investments in infrastructure projects and border disputes with India, have had a
notable impact on the security environment (Chowdhury, 2019). Similarly, competition for
natural resources and access to markets among regional powers have contributed to instability
and conflict (Chakraborty, 2018).
Regarding prospects for peace, several peace processes and negotiations are currently
underway in Northeast India, offering hope for a resolution to the longstanding conflict. The
Indian government has been engaged in peace talks with various insurgent groups, offering
them autonomy or other concessions in exchange for laying down arms and participating in the
democratic process (Dutta, 2018). Additionally, civil society organizations and religious leaders
have played crucial roles in facilitating dialogue and reconciliation among conflicting parties
(Goswami, 2020).
Several factors contribute to the prospects for lasting peace in the region, including the
willingness of both the government and insurgent groups to engage in dialogue and
11
Baruah, S. (1999). India against itself: Assam and the politics of nationality. University of Pennsylvania Press.

12
Das, S. (2014). Ethnicity and Insurgency in Northeast India. Routledge.
compromise, the support of international actors and organizations, and the involvement of civil
society in conflict resolution efforts (Chatterjee, 2016). Addressing underlying socio-economic
grievances, promoting inclusive development, and respecting ethnic diversity and cultural rights
are also crucial for building trust and fostering sustainable peace (Ahmed, 2017). Despite
progress in peace processes, numerous challenges persist in achieving lasting conflict resolution
in Northeast India. These include deep-rooted ethnic tensions, competition for resources,
external interference, and the presence of spoilers who seek to derail peace efforts (Chowdhury,
2019). However, opportunities exist to overcome these challenges through sustained dialogue,
confidence-building measures, and inclusive governance structures that address the needs and
aspirations of all stakeholders (Goswami, 2020).

CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the insurgency challenge in Northeast India is a complex issue rooted in socio-
economic grievances, ethnic tensions, external influences, and historical factors. International
actors and organizations have played a significant role in addressing this challenge, alongside
bilateral and multilateral initiatives aimed at promoting peace and conflict resolution. However,
external factors such as geopolitical rivalries and economic interests have also contributed to
the dynamics of insurgency in the region.
Despite ongoing peace processes and negotiations, challenges persist, including deep-seated
ethnic tensions and external interference. Nevertheless, there are opportunities to address
these challenges through sustained dialogue, confidence-building measures, and inclusive
governance structures.
Recommendations for addressing the insurgency in Northeast India include continuing peace
talks with insurgent groups, enhancing cooperation with neighboring countries to address cross-
border issues, addressing socio-economic grievances through targeted development projects,
promoting dialogue and reconciliation among conflicting parties, and ensuring accountability for
human rights violations.
Importantly, sustained efforts towards peacebuilding and development are essential for
achieving lasting peace in Northeast India. These efforts should comprehensively address both
immediate security concerns and underlying socio-economic and political factors. By fostering
inclusive governance, promoting dialogue, and addressing grievances, Northeast India can move
towards a more stable and prosperous future for all its inhabitants.
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