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 Page i

Managing Operations
Across the Supply Chain
Fifth Edition

Morgan Swink
Texas Christian University

Steven A. Melnyk
Michigan State University

Janet L. Hartley
Bowling Green State University
 Page ii

MANAGING OPERATIONS ACROSS THE SUPPLY CHAIN

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 Page iii

The McGraw Hill Series in Operations and

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Managing Operations across the Supply Chain
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 Page iv

Dedication
To Jenni, Derek, Danielle, Rachel, and Sarah, who make my life so full!
Morgan Swink

To my wife and children, Christine, Charles and Beth, for their support and patience.
To my colleagues in the United States, Bob Trebilcock, Bill Ritchie, and Chris Peters.
To these people, this book is dedicated.
Steven A. Melnyk

To Glenn and Caleb, for their love and support.

Janet Hartley
 Page v

About the Authors

Courtesy of Morgan Swink

Morgan Swink
is Professor, Eunice and James L. West Chair of Supply Chain Management, and Executive
Director of the Center for Supply Chain Innovation at the Neeley School of Business, Texas
Christian University. He holds a BS in Mechanical Engineering from Southern Methodist
University, an MBA from the University of Dallas, and a PhD in Operations Management
from Indiana University. Before becoming a professor, Dr. Swink worked for 10 years in a
variety of manufacturing and product development positions at Texas Instruments
Incorporated. He has co-authored three books and published over 90 articles in a variety of
academic and managerial journals. Dr. Swink is formerly the Co-Editor in Chief for the
Journal of Operations Management and past president of the Decision Sciences Institute.
Courtesy of Steven A. Melnyk

Steven A. Melnyk
is Professor of Operations Management at Michigan State University. Dr. Melnyk obtained
his undergraduate degree from the University of Windsor and his doctorate from the Ivey
School of Business, the University of Western Ontario. He has co-authored 21 books
focusing on operations and the supply chain and has published over 100 refereed articles in
numerous international and national journals. He also is a member of several editorial
advisory boards, including the International Journal of Production Research and the
International Journal of Operations and Production Management. Dr. Melnyk has consulted
with over 60 companies. He has also served as a member of the APICS Board of Directors
(2014–2016) and the APICS leadership team (2015). In 2017, Dr. Melnyk was recognized as
a Distinguished Scholar by the Operations and Supply Chain Management Division of the
Academy of Management. From 2017 to 2019, Dr. Melnyk held a joint appointment with
the University of Newcastle (Australia), where he was given the Global Innovation Chair in
Supply Chain Management. In 2018, Dr. Melnyk was awarded the Withrow Award as a
teacher/scholar by the Eli Broad College of Business, Michigan State University.
Courtesy of Janet L. Hartley

Janet L. Hartley
is the Chan K. Hahn Professor and Associate Dean in the Schmidthorst College of Business
at Bowling Green State University. She received her BS in Chemical Engineering from the
University of Missouri-Rolla, and the MBA and PhD degrees in Business Administration
from the University of Cincinnati. Prior to graduate school, she developed new products and
designed new manufacturing processes for the Clorox Company. She has published 40
articles on supply management and supply chain management. She serves as an Associate
Editor for the Journal of Operations Management, Journal of Supply Chain Management,
International Journal of Operations and Production Management, and Journal of Purchasing
and Supply Management. Dr. Hartley is a past president of the Decision Sciences Institute.
 Page vi

Preface

We continue to live in dynamic and exciting times. Recent years have seen many changes
that have affected nearly every aspect of business, including operations management. In this
fifth edition of our book, we continue to reflect key shifts in operations management,
including transitions:
From a focus on the internal system to a focus on the supply chain. In today’s highly
competitive business environment, organizations must leverage the capabilities of their
suppliers and customers. Operations managers must look beyond the “four walls” of the
firm and take an integrated supply chain perspective of operations.
From a local focus to a global focus. As Thomas L. Friedman pointed out,1 the world is
indeed flat. Business solutions generated in Argentina are used to meet needs in the
United States, and parts built by suppliers located in China are used to assemble cars in
Canada. Commercial needs have overcome, to a large part, national borders, presenting
new opportunities and challenges for operations managers.
From an emphasis on tools and techniques to an emphasis on systems, people, and
processes. To be successful, operations managers must think more broadly than just the
application of analytical tools and techniques. They must take a systems view to address
important managerial issues such as designing processes, working with people, managing
information flows, and building interorganizational relationships.
From myopic pursuit of profit to a holistic pursuit of sustainability. Pressures on businesses
have risen to the point that they can no longer ignore or give only lip service to social and
environmental issues. Operations managers have to balance the profit motive with the
need to protect and even strengthen both people and the planet.
From a static to a dynamic treatment of operations and supply chain management. We have
revised each new edition to keep pace with changes taking place in the field. In recent
years, very evident changes include the emergence of millennials as key consumers and
the rapid developments taking place in digital technologies. Consequently, in this edition,
we introduce a new theme: digital. While the basics remain the same, the context in which
operations are managed continues to change rapidly.
Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain provides a global, supply chain perspective of
operations management for students in introductory courses in operations management and
in supply chain management courses that do not require an operations management
prerequisite. While the book is primarily written for undergraduates, it also can be used
effectively in MBA courses. There are several features that help to differentiate this book in
its view of operations management:
Broader Vision of Operations Management While many operations management textbooks
have revised or added a chapter to address supply chain issues, we developed our book
from the ground up to effectively integrate operations management and the supply chain.
The primary focus of the book is operations management, but we provide a “supply
chain” perspective. Operations management cuts across a firm’s boundaries, bringing
together its internal activities with the operations of customers, suppliers, and other
partners around the world. We clarify the functional roles of operations, supply
management, and logistics while examining the integrative processes that make up the
supply chain. One unique aspect of the book is that we examine both the upstream
(supply-side) and downstream (demand-side) aspects of the supply chain, including a
discussion of marketing and customer relationships.
Balanced Treatment The book balances the quantitative and qualitative coverage needed
to equip operations and supply chain managers for the challenges and opportunities they
face. It describes and applies analytical tools that operations managers use to support
decision making. However, we also address the important managerial issues such as
systems, people, and processes that are critical in a supply chain context.
Integrative Frameworks The book introduces and develops various topics in supply chain
operations management using five integrative frameworks:
1. An operations strategy framework that brings together three critical elements: Page vii
(1) the key customer, (2) the value proposition, and (3) capabilities,
introducing students to a broad supply chain perspective of operations management.
2. A foundations framework that covers process fundamentals, innovation, quality,
inventory, and lean thinking.
3. A relational framework that highlights functional, supplier, and customer management
aspects of operations management.
4. A planning framework that covers demand and supply planning at multiple levels.
5. A change management framework that illustrates how projects and future developments
can be used to drive innovation in operations management.
 Use of Integrating Themes Four key themes are highlighted throughout the book: digital
transformation, global issues, relationships, and sustainability.
Digital technologies such as the Internet and other communication networks,
automation, and artificial intelligence are rapidly and radically changing
supply chain operations management. The book highlights numerous
examples of these changes, explaining how technologies are enabling faster,
better, cheaper, and richer customer experiences.
Because most organizations have supply chains that reach beyond a home
country, we examine the dynamic global environment influencing supply chain
operations management, taking care to represent business norms and cultures in many
different parts of the world.
Operations managers must collaborate with other functional personnel, with
suppliers, and with customers to accomplish most operations activities. The
book showcases how to build, maintain, and benefit from cross-functional and
interorganizational relationships.
To reduce costs and be competitive, organizations today must adopt
sustainable business practices. Sustainability is increasingly becoming a key
metric for operations managers, and an important expectation of customers.
Accordingly, we have dedicated an entire chapter to sustainability, while also
incorporating it throughout the book.
Real, Integrated Examples The book brings operations and supply chain management to
life through opening vignettes, Get Real highlights, and rich examples throughout the
book. New for the fifth edition, we have included links to useful videos that can be used to
better illustrated the various points and concepts being discussed.

Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, fifth edition, offers a new, global, supply chain
perspective of operations management, a treatment that embraces the foundations of
operations management but includes new frameworks, concepts, and tools to address the
demands of today and changing needs of the future. The book is organized into five major
sections:
Part 1 Supply Chain: A Perspective for Operations Management provides an overview of
operations management as a field, and describes the strategic role operations has in
business from the perspective of supply chain management.
Part 2 Foundations of Operations Management discusses foundational process concepts
and principles that govern all operational activities. This section examines concepts such
as product/process innovation, quality, lean, and inventory fundamentals.
Part 3 Integrating Relationships Across the Supply Chain deals with the primary
functional relationships between internal operations management activities, and other
operational functions both inside and outside the firm. This section describes customer
relationship management, supply management, and logistics management.
Part 4 Planning for Integrated Operations Across the Supply Chain discusses planning
approaches and technologies used at different levels of operations decision making. Key
topics such as demand planning, forecasting, sales and operations planning, inventory
management, and materials requirements planning are examined.
Part 5 Managing Change in Supply Chain Operations discusses how operations managers
use projects, change programs, and technologies to shape a sustainable future for
operations and supply chain management.
CHAPTER-BY-CHAPTER REVISIONS FOR THE FIFTH EDITION
In this major revision of Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain, our key objective has
been to further integrate and highlight the role of digital technologies throughout all aspects
of supply chain operations management. In addition, this revision identifies examples,
tables, and problems where supporting Excel spreadsheets are available for easier
management of data and enhanced learning. We also updated or replaced many of the
opening vignettes and Get Real stories throughout the book to make them more reflective of
contemporary issues such as the COVID19 pandemic, disruptions, labor concerns, and
more. Additional changes are summarized below.
Page viii
Chapter 1: Introduction to Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain
Replaced opening vignette with a discussion of how the COVID19 pandemic highlighted
the importance and challenges of supply chain management.

Chapter 2: Operations and Supply Chain Strategy

Introduced Environment, Social, and Governance (ESG) model of sustainability.

Chapter 3 and 3 Supplement: Managing Processes and Capacity

Added a new Get Real story describing challenges of building U.S. battery capacity in
support of growing demand for electric vehicles.
Added a new section further explaining the relationship between process design and
capacity decisions.
New Get Real story of how McDonald's has reduced drive-through wait times.
Added questions focusing on how Little's Law can be used to assess and improve the
performance of processes.

Chapter 4: Product/Process Innovation

Added new “Taco Explosion” end-of-chapter case highlighting the interaction of new
product introductions and supply chain planning in the restaurant industry.

Chapter 5: Manufacturing and Service Process Structures

Revised Capability Enabling Technologies section to reflect established and emerging
technologies including IoT, blockchain, robotics, and artificial intelligence.
New Get Real on showing how cobots are used at White Castle.
 New Get Real on how machine learning and data science are integral to StitchFix.

Chapter 6: Managing Quality

Expanded discussion of visibility platforms and the roles of technology.
Updated discussion on the importance of prevention.
Additional discussion questions.

Chapter 6 Supplement: Quality Improvement Tools

Additional discussion questions and problems.

Chapter 7: Managing Inventories

Updated and augmented data in Table 7-1.
Added Get Real on how the COVID19 pandemic
has influenced inventory decisions.
Added Get Real on Spirit Halloween's use of pop-up stores and single period inventory
model.

Chapter 8: Lean Systems

Introduced a detailed discussion of how Lean Systems and practices have been influenced
practices in healthcare.
Added a discussion of how the COVID19 pandemic
and the supply chain crises of 2020 to 2022 have influenced how researchers and
managers now view Lean.

Chapter 9: Customer Service Management

Revised opening vignette to highlight how online marketplaces are changing customers'
service expectations.
New Get Real on Target's creation of sortation centers for home delivery.
New Get Real on overpromising, underpromising, and customer satisfaction.
Replaced Amazon CRM Get Real with story of CRM at Erazor Bits.
Added problems that use order data to calculate fill rates (with supporting spreadsheet).
Added new “Global Glasses Glitches” end-of-chapter case.

Chapter 10: Sourcing and Supply Management

 Updated the opening vignette to include supply chain risk.
New Get Real on French fry shortages at McDonald's in Japan.
Updated the Get Real story on Takata airbags.
New Get Real on sustainability issues in fashion at Lucy & Yak.
New Get Real on Sherwin-Williams decision to insource key ingredients.
Updated supply management strategies and tactics.
Added discussion of the importance of supplier diversity as a selection criterion and a
new Get Real about the diverse ice cream company Creamalicious.

Chapter 11: Logistics Management

Added new learning objective (LO 11-8) regarding future state considerations for, and
factors influencing, the logistics industry.
Updated discussion on order processing to highlight its criticality as a first-step trigger for
logistics processes.
Updated the Get Real stories on Walmart’s supplier order delivery window and Page ix
Mobile Apps.
New Get Real story on Toyota’s inventory management strategy to tackle the computer
chip shortage.
Revised Transportation introductory section to highlight revised regulatory requirements
and global state of the maritime sector and megaships.
Updated the section on specialty carriers to reflect a more expanded view of the parcel
industry and the influence of last-mile delivery startups like Shipt and Deliv.
New Get Real story on the Ever Given megaship being stuck in the Suez Canal.
Updated section on reverse logistics to emphasize the role of reverse logistics centers such
as the one used by Acer America to support its remanufacturing processes.
Added a new figure 11-5 to graphically illustrate the step-wise nature of primary
warehouse processes.
Expanded the sub-section on order picking and packing to highlight the effect of e-
commerce growth on changing order picking profiles.
Updated introduction to Material Handling and Packaging section to highlight logistics
role in secondary and tertiary packaging functions.
 New Get Real on Ulta Beauty’s partnership with Happy Returns to streamline the reverse
logistics process.
Added student activity about warehouse automation.
Updated the section on inventory costs as part of logistics network design considerations,
to highlight its connections with Chapter 7’s discussion on the square root law.
Updated the section on facility location to highlight its connections to overall network
deployment strategy and total landed costs objectives.
Replaced student activity on blockchains with one more focused on understanding the
nature of the 3PL, 4PL, and LLP marketplace.
Added a new section on Future Perspectives for the logistics industry.

Chapter 12: Demand Planning: Forecasting and Demand Management

Updated Get Real stories.

Chapter 13: Sales and Operations Planning

Added S&OP maturity model.
Added discussion of planning technologies with accompanying student activity.
Replaced Nintendo Get Real with Get Real on capacity planning for vinyl record
production.
Added discussion of labor shortages and availability as a planning constraint.
Added new “Premium Foods COVID19 Pandemic Planning” end-of-chapter case on
planning in a disruptive environment.

Chapter 14: Materials and Resource Requirements Planning

Better explained certain key concepts such as Action Buckets, Scheduling, and Due Dates
(and how they are central to the MRP logic).
Updated the material so that it better reflects current understanding of MRP logic.
Discussed the evolution of MRP over time (beginning with MRP, and moving through
Closed Loop MRP, Manufacturing Resources Planning, and ERP).
Corrected problems in the chapter (e.g., Causal Manufacturing case).

Chapter 15 and 15 Supplement: Project Management

Updated opening Pixar vignette.
Chapter 16: Sustainable Operations Management—Preparing for the Future
Undergone a major revision to reflect developments now taking place regarding
sustainability.
Extended the discussion of the Triple Bottom Line to transit to ESG (Environmental,
Social, and Governance).
Updated the material to include a discussion of DEI (Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion)
initiatives—a factor now increasingly being observed in operations management systems
today.
Updated the discussion of sustainability standards to include the SASB standards.
Included a discussion of how firms are now using sustainability as a corporate strategy.
 Page x

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our appreciation to the people who have provided assistance in the
development of this textbook. We express our sincere thanks to the following individuals for
their thoughtful reviews and suggestions:

Dr. Mark Barratt, Marquette University

Joseph VanOrden, Arizona State University
Thomas Atkin, Sonoma State University
Reynold Byers, Arizona State University
Vivianne Moore, Davenport University
Asad Shafiq, California State University Fullerton
Olga Pak, Penn State
Graceful Beam, Georgia Northwestern Technical College
Kevin Burnard, Western Connecticut State University

We also want to express our sincere thanks to the following individuals for their exceptional
contributions: Katherine Eboch, Bowling Green State University; William Berry, Professor
Emeritus, Queens College; David Weltman, Texas Christian University; Frank Novakowski,
Davenport University; and Jody Wolfe, Clarke University.

We want to thank the outstanding McGraw Hill Education production and marketing team
who made this book possible, including Harper Christopher, executive marketing manager;
Rebecca Olson, senior portfolio director; Tim Vertovec, Vice President, BEC Portfolio;
Sherry Kane and Angela Norris, content project managers; Sandy Ludovissy, Manufacturing
Project Manager, Kevin Moran, digital content development director; and Beth Cray,
content licensing specialist.

A special thanks to our outstanding editorial team. We greatly appreciate the support,
encouragement, and patience shown by Nancy Dickson and Elizabeth Pappas, our product
developers. Thanks for keeping us on track! Our portfolio manager, Eric Weber, provided
excellent guidance and leadership throughout the process. We truly appreciate it!

Morgan Swink
Steven A. Melynk
Janet L. Hartley
 Page xi

Walkthrough

The following section highlights the key features of Managing Operations Across the Supply
Chain and the text’s accompanying resources, which have been developed to help you learn,
understand, and apply operations concepts.
CHAPTER ELEMENTS
Within each chapter of the text, you will find the following elements. All of these have been
developed to facilitate study and learning.

Opening Vignette
Each chapter opens with an introduction to the important operations topics covered in the
chapter. Students need to see the relevance of operations management in order to actively
engage in learning the material. Learning objectives provide a quick introduction to the
important operations topics that will be covered in the chapter.

Page xii

Key Terms
Key terms are presented in bold and defined in the margin as they are introduced. A list of
chapter key terms is also available at the end of the chapter.

Student Activity
At appropriate moments students are asked to do a personal activity that illustrates the
concept being presented or covered, thereby helping them learn to apply the concepts and
understand them more deeply.
Numbered Examples
Numbered examples are integrated into chapters where analytic techniques are introduced.
Students learn how to solve specific problems step by step and gain insight into general
principles by seeing how they are applied.

Page xiii

Get Real Boxes

Throughout the chapters, readings highlight important real-world applications. They provide
examples of operations issues and offer a picture of the concepts in practice. These also
provide a basis for classroom discussion and generate interest in the subject matter.
Icons
Instructive icons throughout the text point out relevant applications of our central themes of
global issues, relationships, sustainability, and digital technologies.

Since most organizations have supply chains that reach beyond a home country, we examine
global issues associated with operations and supply chain management.

Operations managers must collaborate with other functional personnel, with customers, and
with suppliers to accomplish many operations activities. The book showcases how to build,
maintain, and benefit from cross-functional and interorganizational relationships.

To reduce costs and be competitive, organizations today must adopt sustainable business
practices. In fact, sustainability is a key metric for operations managers and an important
expectation of customers.
Digital technologies such as the Internet and other communication networks, Page xiv
automation, and artificial intelligence are rapidly and radically changing supply
chain operations management. The book highlights numerous examples of these changes,
explaining how technologies are enabling faster, better, cheaper, and richer customer
experiences.
END-OF-CHAPTER RESOURCES
For student study and review, the following features are provided at the end of each chapter:

Chapter Summary Chapter summaries provide an overview of the material covered.

Key Terms Key terms are highlighted in the text, and then repeated at the end of the
chapter with page references.

Page xv
Discussion Questions Each chapter has a list of discussion questions. These are
intended to serve as a student self-review or as class discussion starters.
Solved Problems Solved problems illustrate problem solving and the main concepts in the
chapter. These have been carefully prepared to enhance student understanding as well as to
provide additional examples of problem solving.

Problems Each chapter includes a set of problems for assignment. The problems are
intended to be challenging but doable for students.

Page xvi
Cases The text includes short cases for most chapters. The cases were selected to
provide a broader, more integrated thinking opportunity for students without taking a “full
case” approach.
INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES
The Connect Instructor Library provides complete materials for study and review.
Instructors have access to teaching supports such as electronic files of the ancillary
materials: Solutions Manual, PowerPoint Lecture Slides, Digital Image Library, and Test
Bank.

Solutions Manual Prepared by the authors, this manual contains solutions to all the end-
of-chapter problems and cases.

Test Bank Prepared by the authors, the Test Bank includes true/false, multiple-choice, and
discussion questions/problems at varying levels of difficulty. The Test Bank questions are
assignable within Connect or through the TestGen online platform and are also available as
Word files. Each Test Bank question is tagged with the level of difficulty, chapter learning
objective met, Bloom’s taxonomy question type, and the AACSB knowledge category.

PowerPoint Lecture Slides The PowerPoint slides draw on the highlights of each chapter
and provide an opportunity for the instructor to emphasize the key concepts in class
discussions.

Digital Image Library All the figures in the book are included for insertion in PowerPoint
slides or for class discussion.

STUDENT RESOURCES
Student resources are available within the Connect Library or as tools within the Connect
assignments.
Integration of Excel Data Sets A convenient feature is the inclusion of an Excel data file
link in many problems using data files in their calculation. The link allows students to easily
launch into Excel, work the problem, and return to Connect to key in the answer.

Guided Examples These narrated video walkthroughs provide students with step-by-step
guidelines for solving problems similar to those contained in the text. The student is given
personalized instruction on how to solve a problem by applying the concepts presented in
the chapter. The narrated voiceover shows the steps to take to work through an exercise.
Students can go through each example multiple times if needed.

Student Reporting Connect Operations Management keeps instructors informed Page xvii
about how each student, section, and class is performing, allowing for more productive use
of lecture and office hours. The progress-tracking function enables you to:
View scored work immediately (Add Assignment Results Screen) and track individual or
group performance with assignment and grade reports.
Access an instant view of student or class performance relative to learning objectives.
Collect data and generate reports required by many accreditation organizations, such as
AACSB.

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Enhancing best practices in assessment creation to eliminate cultural, cognitive, and
affective bias
Maintaining and continually updating a robust photo library of diverse images that reflect
our student populations
Including more diverse voices in the development and review of our content
 Page xviii

Instructors
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 Page xx

Brief Contents

Part 1 SUPPLY CHAIN: A PERSPECTIVE FOR OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

1

1 Introduction to Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain 2

2 Operations and Supply Chain Strategy 26

Part 2 FOUNDATIONS OF OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 59

3 Managing Processes and Capacity 60

3 Chapter Supplement: Process Mapping and Analysis 96
4 Product/Process Innovation 118
5 Manufacturing and Service Process Structures 146
6 Managing Quality 176
6 Chapter Supplement: Quality Improvement Tools 206
7 Managing Inventories 246
8 Lean Systems 296

Part 3 INTEGRATING RELATIONSHIPS ACROSS THE SUPPLY CHAIN 327

9 Customer Service Management 328

10 Sourcing and Supply Management 354
11 Logistics Management 384

Part 4 PLANNING FOR INTEGRATED OPERATIONS ACROSS THE SUPPLY

CHAIN 423

12 Demand Planning: Forecasting and Demand Management 424

13 Sales and Operations Planning 472
14 Materials and Resource Requirements Planning 506

Part 5 MANAGING CHANGE IN SUPPLY CHAIN OPERATIONS 543

15 Project Management 544

15 Chapter Supplement: Advanced Methods for Project Scheduling 580
16 Sustainable Operations Management—Preparing for the Future 594

Appendix A 630
Appendix B 631
Key Themes 644
Index 650
Page xxi

DIGITAL EDITION
 Page xxii

Contents

SUPPLY CHAIN: A PERSPECTIVE FOR OPERATIONS

Part 1
MANAGEMENT 1

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to Managing Operations Across the Supply Chain 2

A Broad Definition of Supply Chain Operations Management 4
Get Real: Why You Need to Study Operations Management 5
Important Decisions in Supply Chain Operations Management 6
Differences in Goods and Services Operations 6
Processes and Process Thinking 8
Operations Management Yesterday and Today: Growth of the Supply Chain
Management Perspective 10
Advances in Technology and Infrastructure 10
Reduction in Governmental Barriers to Trade 12
Focus on Core Capabilities 12
Collaborative Networks 12
Viewing Operations Management from a Supply Chain Management
Perspective 12
Operations Management Partners Across the Supply Chain 13
Cross-Functional Relationships in Operations Management 14
Get Real: Jobs in Operations Management 17
The Changing Nature of Supply Chains 18
Levels of Operational Planning Across the Supply Chain 19
How This Book Is Structured 20
Chapter Summary 21
Key Terms 21
Discussion Questions 22
Case: Business Textbook Supply Chain 22
Case: Cemex’s Digital Transformation 23
Selected Readings & Internet Sites 24
 CHAPTER 2 Operations and Supply Chain Strategy 26
Levels of Strategic Planning 28
Corporate Strategic Planning 28
Business Unit Strategic Planning 29
Functional Strategic Planning 30
Developing Operations Strategy: Creating Value Through Strategic Choices
31
Key Customers 31
Get Real: Huffy Bikes Targets Its Key Customers 32
Assessing Customer Wants and Needs 32
Value Propositions and Competitive Priorities 33
Get Real: Bosch CS20: Finding a New Order Winner by Changing the Way
Customers Cut Straight Lines 33
Product-Related Competitive Priorities 34
Process-Related Competitive Priorities 35
Get Real: IKEA: Growth through Supply Chain Innovation 36
Get Real: The LEGO Group Becomes Sustainable 38
Capabilities: Strengths and Limitations of Supply Chain Operations 39
Get Real: Seven Cycles: Building a Bicycle Your Way 40
Maintaining the Fit between Customer Outcomes, Value Propositions, and
Capabilities 40
Get Real: Don’t Expect a Salad at Five Guys Burgers and Fries 41
Deploying Operations Strategy: Creating Value Through Execution 41
Feedback/Measurement: Communicating and Assessing Operations Strategy 43
The Strategic Profit Model 43
Chapter Summary 47
Key Terms 47
Discussion Questions 48
Solved Problem 50
Problems 51
Case: Otis Toy Trains Explores the Supply Chain 53
Case: Steinway & Sons Piano 53
Case: Trail Frames Chassis 54 Page xxiii
Case: Lil’ Me Dolls Deals with the Millions of Toys (MOT) Proposal 56
Selected Readings & Internet Sites 57
Additional Photo Credits 58

Part 2 FOUNDATIONS OF OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT 59

CHAPTER 3 Managing Processes and Capacity 60

Processes and Process Thinking 62
Anatomy of a Process 64
Activities of a Process 64
Inputs, Outputs, and Flows 64
Get Real: States Reduce Waiting Times for Car License Renewals and
Registrations 65
Structure 65
Management Policies 66
Capacity Planning 66
Get Real: U.S. Ramps Up Lithium-Ion Battery Capacity 67
Economies and Diseconomies of Scale 68
The Relationship between Processes and Capacity 68
Process Capacity and Utilization 69
Principles of Process Performance: The Theory of Constraints 71
Principle 1: Every Process Has a Constraint 71
Estimating Capacity Requirements 74
Principle 2: Every Process Contains Variance That Consumes Capacity 75
Principle 3: Every Process Must Be Managed as a System 77
Get Real: Storyboarding: The Key to Success at Pixar 78
Principle 4: Performance Measures Are Crucial to the Process’s Success 79
Principle 5: Every Process Must Continuously Improve 79
Chapter Summary 80
Key Terms 81
Discussion Questions 81
Solved Problem 82
Problems 86
Case: Evergreen Products 92
Case: Midas Gold Juice Company 93
Case: American Vinyl Products 93
Selected Readings 95
 CHAPTER 3 Chapter Supplement: Process Mapping and Analysis 96
The “Process” of Process Mapping and Analysis 97
American Health and Medical Products (AHMP) 97
Step 1: Identify the Desired Outcomes in Advance 98
Step 2: Identify and Bound the Critical Process 99
Step 3: Document the Existing Process (the “Current State” Map) 100
Step 4: Analyze the Process and Identify Opportunities for Improvement 103
Step 5: Recommend Appropriate Changes to the Process (the “Future State”
Map) 107
Step 6: Implement the Changes and Monitor Improvements 108
Get Real: McDonald’s Reduces Time Spent Waiting in Drive-Thru Lanes 109
Applying Processing Mapping to the “Real” World 109
Other Process Mapping Tools 109
Supplement Summary 113
Key Terms 113
Problems 114
Case: Midwestern Lighting 115
Selected Readings 117

CHAPTER 4 Product/Process Innovation 118

The Role of Product/Process Innovation in Supply Chain Operations
Management 120
The Product Life Cycle 121
How Product/Process Innovation Affects Firm Performance 122
Innovation Competencies 123
Idea and Opportunity Development 124
Get Real: The LEGO Group: Crowdsourcing for Product Ideas and Customer
Engagement 124
Innovation Portfolio Planning 125
Innovation Project Management 126
New Product/Process Launch and Learning 126
Codevelopment 126
Get Real: Codeveloping with a Competitor: Clorox Aligns Its Business Model with
P&G 127
Product/Process Design and Development 128
The Stage-Gate Process 128
Integrated Product/Process Design and Development: Concurrent Engineering
129
Design for the Customer 132
Design for Supply Chain Operations 136 Page xxiv
Enabling Technologies for Product/Process Innovation 138
Get Real: Lockheed Martin Makes the Most of VR in Product Development 139
Chapter Summary 140
Key Terms 140
Discussion Questions 141
Problems 141
Case: The ALPHA Timer Development Project (A) 142
Case: The ALPHA Timer Development Project (B) 143
Case: The ALPHA Timer Development Project (C) 144
Case: Taco Explosion 144
Selected Readings & Internet Sites 145

CHAPTER 5 Manufacturing and Service Process Structures 146

Process Structures 148
Product-Process Matrix 148
Processes within a Supply Chain 151
Aligning Process Structure and Market Orientation 152
Unique Aspects of Service Processes 153
Service Process Matrix 153
Managing Front-Office and Back-Office Processes 154
Operations Layout 154
Fixed-Position Layout 155
Functional Layout 155
Product Layout 156
Line Balancing in Product Layouts 157
Cellular Layout 159
Capability Enabling Technologies 160
Established Technologies 160
Get Real: Is a Cobot Cooking Your Fries? 161
Emerging Digital Technologies 161
Get Real: Machine Learning in Style at Stitch Fix 164
Challenges to Digital Transformation 164
Chapter Summary 165
Key Terms 165
Discussion Questions 166
Solved Problems 166
Problems 168
Case: Coffee Roasters 172
Case: Sonnie’s Gourmet Sandwich Café 173
Selected Readings & Internet Sites 174

CHAPTER 6 Managing Quality 176

Defining the Dimensions of Quality 178
Get Real: Ritz-Carlton: Where Quality Is First and Foremost 179
Functional Roles in Quality Management 180
Core Values and Concepts of Quality Management 180
Get Real: Food Safety in Global Supply Chains—A Real Challenge 183
TQM: A “Total” View of Quality 183
Recognizing the Total Impacts of Quality Performance 184
Get Real: Cost of Quality Analysis Applies to Both Services and Manufacturing
185
An Inverted View of Management 186
Process-Oriented Focus on Prevention and Problem Solving 187
Viewing Quality Management as a Never-Ending Quest 188
Building an Organizational Culture around Quality 188
Quality Goes Digital 188
Get Real: Social Media Are Making Big Impacts on Quality 189
Guiding Methodologies for Quality Management 190
Plan-Do-Check-Act Cycles (Deming Wheel) 190
Six Sigma: A Systematic Approach to Quality Management 190
DMAIC: The Six Sigma Process 192
Design for Six Sigma 193
Get Real: Applying DMAIC to Cough Drops 194
Implementing Six Sigma 194
Certifying Progress in Quality Management 195
ISO 9000: An International Quality Standard 195
Attaining ISO 9000 Certification 195
Industry Interpretations of ISO 9000 197
Chapter Summary 197
Key Terms 198
Discussion Questions 198
Problems 199
Case: Aqua-Fun 200
Case: A Comment on Management Attitude 203
Selected Readings & Internet Sites 205

CHAPTER 6 Chapter Supplement: Quality Improvement Tools 206

Overview 207
Standard Problem Solving Approach 207
Quality Improvement Tools 207
Pear Computers: Using Quality Tools to Improve Performance 207
Histograms 208
Cause-and-Effect Diagrams 210
Check Sheets 212 Page xxv
Pareto Analysis 212
Scatter Diagram 213
Process Flow Diagram 214
Process Capability Analysis: Cp and Cpk 214
Process Control Charts 218
Taguchi Methods/Design of Experiments 225
Moments of Truth Analysis 226
Other Quality Control Tools 226
Supplement Summary 227
Key Terms 227
Solved Problems 227
Problems 232
Case: The Tragedy of RMS Titanic 242
Case: The Bully Boy Bagging Line 244
Selected Readings & Internet Sites 245
Another random document with
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 PRESERVATION OF FOODS
All food for preservation should be kept in a clean, cool, dry, dark
place. Reduction in temperature to near freezing, and removal of
moisture and air stop bacterial development.
Drying, cooking, and sealing from the air will preserve some meats
and fruits, while others require such preservatives as sugar, vinegar
and salt. The preservative in vinegar is acetic acid.
All preservatives which are actual foods, such as sugar, salt and
vinegar, are to be recommended, but the use of antiseptic
preservatives, such as salicylic acid, formaldehyd, boracic acid,
alum, sulphur and benzonate of soda, all of which have been used
by many canning merchants, is frought with danger. The United
States Department of Agriculture holds, that by the use of such
preservatives, unscrupulous dealers may use fruits and vegetables
not in good condition.
There can be no doubt that, wherever possible, the best method
for the housewife to preserve food is to do her own drying, canning,
preserving and pickling of fruits and vegetables, which she knows
are fresh, putting up her own preserves, jams, jellies, pickles, syrups,
grape juice, etc.
Since economy in food lies in the least amount of money for the
greatest amount of nutriment, the preparation of simple foods in the
home, with a care that no more is furnished for consumption than the
system requires, is the truest economy in health and in doctor’s bills.
It is not more brands of prepared food which are needed, but
purity of elements in their natural state. A dish of wholesome, clean
oat meal has more nourishment and more fuel value than the
average prepared food.
In the effort to emphasize the importance of pure food in
amount and quality, pure air and pure water must not be
overlooked. Much infection is carried by these two
elements. Pure air, containing a normal amount of oxygen,
is absolutely necessary that the system may digest and
assimilate the foods consumed.
 COOKING
The cooking of food is as important as its selection, because the
manner of cooking makes it easier or more difficult of digestion. The
question of the proper selection and cooking of food is so vital to the
health and resultant happiness of every family, and to the strength
and well being of a nation, that every woman, to whom the cooking
for a family is entrusted, should have special preparation for her
work, and every girl should be given practical and theoretical training
in Dietetics in our public schools. The study is as dignified as the
study of music and art. Indeed it can be made an art in the highest
conception of the term. Surely the education of every girl in the
vocation, in which she sooner or later must engage, either actively or
by directing others, means more than education in music and
drawing. We must all eat two and three times every day; there are
few things which we do so regularly and which are so vital; yet in the
past we have given this subject less study than any common branch
in our schools. When the dignity of the profession of dietetics is
realized, the servant problem will be largely solved.
In cooking any food, heat and moisture are necessary, the time
varying from thirty minutes to several hours, according to different
foods. Baked beans and meats containing much connective tissue,
as boiling and roasting cuts, require the longest time.
The purposes in the cooking of foods are: the development of the
flavor, which makes the food appetizing, thus encouraging the flow of
gastric juice; the sterilization, thereby killing all parasites and micro-
organisms, such as the tape worm in beef, pork, and mutton, and the
trichinae in pork; the conversion of the nutrients into a more
digestible form, by partially or wholly converting the connective
tissue into gelatin.
 The fundamental principle to be observed in the
cooking of meat concerns the retention of the
Cooking of
Meats
juices, since these contain a large part of the
nutrition. The heat develops the flavor, and the
moisture, together with the heat, dissolves the connective tissue and
makes it tender.
A choice piece of meat may be toughened and made difficult of
digestion, or a tough piece may be made tender and easy to digest,
by the manner of cooking.

Soups. To make meat soups, the connective tissue, bone and

muscle should be put into cold water, brought slowly to the boiling
point and allowed to simmer for hours. It must be remembered that
the gelatin from this connective tissue does not contain the tissue
building elements of the albuminoids. These are retained in what
meat may be about the bones of the boiling piece and in the blood.
The albumin of meat is largely in the blood and it is the coagulated
blood which forms the scum on soup, if heated above a certain point;
the cook should boil the soup slowly, or much of the nutrition is lost
in the coagulated blood, or skum.

Roasting. The flavor and juice of the meat is best retained by

roasting. If it is put into a hot oven, with a little suet over the top, so
as to sear the meat with hot fat, and no water is put in the pan, it will
retain the juice and the flavor. Water draws out the extractives.
It is important to remember that the smaller the cut to be roasted,
the hotter should be the fire. An intensely hot fire coagulates the
exterior and prevents the drying up of the meat juice. After the
surface is coagulated and seared it should cook slowly.
 Unless the oven is sufficiently hot to sear the surface, the
moisture, or juice, will escape into the roasting pan and the
connective tissue will be toughened. A roast should be cooked in a
covered roaster to retain the moisture.
The roast should be turned as soon as one side is seared and just
sufficient water put into the pan to keep it from burning.
Frequent basting of a roast, with the fat, juice, and water in the
roasting pan, still further sears the surface, so that the juices do not
seep through and keeps the air in the pan moist; the heated moisture
materially assists in gelatinizing the connective tissue,—roasting
pans are now made which are self-basting.

Broiling. The same principle applies to broiling as to roasting. The

meat is put over a very hot flame and turned so as to quickly sear
both sides, to prevent the juice from oozing out. In fact, the best
broiled steaks are turned just as soon as the juice begins to drip, so
as to retain all juice in the meat.
Meat containing much connective tissue is not adapted to broiling,
because it takes too long for this tissue to become gelatinized.
Steak broiled in a skillet, especially round steak which has been
pounded to assist in breaking the connective tissue, is often first
dipped in seasoned flour, which is rubbed well into it. The flour
absorbs the meat juices so that none of them are lost. All meats
broiled in skillets should be put into a very hot skillet and one surface
seared, then should be turned so as to sear the other side. The
skillet should be kept covered so as to retain the moisture.

Boiling. In boiling meat, where the object is to eat the tissue itself,
it should be put into hot water, that the albumin on the surface may
be immediately coagulated and prevent the escape of the nutrients
into the water. It is impossible to make a rich broth and to have a
juicy, highly flavored piece of boiled meat at the same time. Meat is
best roasted or broiled when the meat tissue is to be eaten.
The boiling cuts contain more connective tissue, therefore they
require a much longer time to cook in order to gelatinize this tissue.
They are not as rich in protein as the steaks.
Meat soups, bouillons and broths contain very little nutriment, but
they do contain the extractives, and the flavors increase the flow of
digestive juices and stimulate the appetite. It is for this reason that
soups are served before a meal rather than for a dessert; they insure
a copious flow of gastric juice and saliva to act upon the crackers or
toast eaten with the soup. Many mistake the extractives and flavor
for nourishment, feeling that the soups are an easy method of taking
food, but the best part of the nutriment remains in the meat or
vegetables making the soup.

Pot Roasts. In the case of a pot roast, or roast in a kettle, where it

is desirable to use both the fibre of the meat and the juice, or gravy,
it should be put into a little cold water and raised to about 180
degrees F., where it should be kept for some hours. The juices of the
meat seep out in the gravy. The extractives are simmered down and
are again poured over the meat in the rich gravy.

Frying. This is the least desirable method of cooking. Food

cooked by putting a little grease into a frying pan, such as fried
potatoes, mush, eggs, french toast, and griddle cakes, are more
difficult of digestion than foods cooked by any other means,
particularly where the fat is allowed to smoke. The fat is
superheated; if a lighted match is placed near the smoke it will catch
fire, showing that it is volatilizing, or being reduced to a vapor.
 The extreme heat liberates fatty acids. This acrid fat soaks into the
food and renders it difficult of digestion. It is wise not to employ this
method of cooking.
The objection to frying does not hold so strongly in the case of
vegetables, such as potatoes, if fried slowly in fat, that is not over
heated, or to griddle cakes cooked slowly without smoke, or to foods
immersed in grease (such as saratoga chips, doughnuts, french fried
potatoes, etc.), as the large amount of fat does not permit it to get so
heated. It does apply, however, if the fat is sufficiently heated to
smoke.
The coating of vegetables and cereals with the hot fat prevents the
necessary action of saliva upon the starch globules. As previously
stated, most of the starches are digested in the mouth and the
stomach, while the fats are not emulsified until they reach the
intestines.
The starch globules in cereals and vegetables are in the form of
cells, the covering of these cells being composed largely of
nitrogenous matter. The protein is not acted upon by the saliva, and
the nitrogenous matter is largely digested in the stomach. It is more
easily dissolved if it is broken or softened by cooking, so that the
carbohydrates can come in contact with the saliva, but if encased in
fried fat, the gastric juices cannot digest the protein covering and the
saliva cannot reach the starch until the fat is emulsified in the
intestines. This means that wherever starch globules are surrounded
with fat, the digestive ferments reach these globules with difficulty
and fried foods must be digested mostly in the intestines.
Fats are readily absorbed in their natural condition, but when
subject to extreme heat, as in frying, they are irritants. For this
reason, eggs, poached, boiled or baked are more easily digested
than fried.
Boiling, broiling and roasting are preferable to foods cooked in
fats.
 One safe rule for the cook is, that it is better to
Cooking of cook most foods too much than too little;
Cereals overcooking is uncommon and harmless, while
undercooked foods are common and difficult of
digestion.
In partially cooked cereals, one does not know how much of the
cooking has been done, but it is safe to cook all such foods at least
as long as specified in the directions.
One reason why breakfast foods, such as rolled oats, are partially
cooked, is because they keep longer.
As has been stated, the nutrients of the grain are found inside the
starch-bearing and other cells, and the walls of these cells are made
of crude fiber, on which the digestive juices have little effect. Unless
the cell walls are broken down, the nutrients can not come under the
influence of the digestive juices until the digestive organs have
expended material and energy in trying to get at them. Crushing the
grain in mills, and making it still finer by thorough mastication breaks
many of the cell walls, and the action of the saliva and other
digestive juices also disintegrates them more or less, but the heat of
cooking accomplishes the object much more thoroughly. The
invisible moisture in the cells expands under the action of heat, and
the cell walls burst. The water added in cooking also plays an
important part in softening and rupturing them. Then, too, the
cellulose itself may be changed by heat to more soluble form. Heat
also makes the starch in the cells at least partially soluble, especially
when water is present. The solubility of the protein is probably, as a
rule, somewhat lessened by cooking, especially at higher
temperatures. Long, slow cooking is therefore better, as it breaks
down the crude fiber and changes the starch to soluble form without
materially decreasing the solubility of the protein.
“In experiments made with rolled oats at the Minnesota
Experiment Station, it appeared that cooking (four hours) did not
make the starch much more soluble. However, it so changed the
physical structure of the grains that a given amount of digestive
ferment could render much more of it soluble in a given time than
when it was cooked for only half an hour.
“On the basis of the results obtained, the difficulty commonly
experienced in digesting imperfectly cooked oatmeal was attributed
to the large amounts of glutinous material which surrounds the
starch grains and prevent their disintegration. When thoroughly
cooked the protecting action of the mucilaginous protein is
overcome, and the compound starch granules are sufficiently
disintegrated to allow the digestive juices to act. In other words, the
increased digestibility of the thoroughly cooked cereal is supposed to
be largely due to a physical change in the carbohydrates, which
renders them more susceptible to the action of digestive juices.”

Pastry. Pastry owes its harmful character to the interference of fat

as shown on page 198, with the proper solution of the starch,—at
least such pastry as requires the mixing of flour with fat; the coating
of these granules with fat prevents them from coming in contact with
liquids; the cells cannot absorb water, swell and burst so that they
may dissolve. The fat does not furnish sufficient water for this and so
coats the starch granules as to prevent the absorption of water in
mixing, or of the saliva in mastication. This coating of fat is not
relieved until late in the process of digestion, or until the food
reaches the intestines. This same objection applies to rich gravies,
unless the flour be dissolved in water and heated before being mixed
with the fats. The objection, therefore, is to such pastry as is made
by mixing flour with fat, as in pie crust; it does not apply to most
puddings.
Heat, in cooking, causes a combustion of the carbonic acid gas
and the effort of this gas to escape, as well as the steam occasioned
by the water in the food, causes the bubbles. When beaten eggs are
used, the albuminoids in the bubbles expand the walls, which stiffen
with the heat and cause the substances containing eggs to be
porous.
 Since the root vegetables contain a large
Cooking of proportion of carbohydrates, they should be well
Vegetables cooked, in order that the cells may be fully
dissolved, and the crude fibre broken.
Vegetables are best cooked in soft water, as lime or magnesia, the
chemical ingredients which make water “hard”, make the vegetables
less soluble.
Vegetables and fruits become contaminated with the eggs of
numerous parasites from the fertilizers used; hence they should be
thoroughly washed.
The objection to frying meats are equally strong in regard to
vegetables. The coating of vegetables with the hot fat retards
digestion, as shown on page 198.

“In different countries opinions differ markedly

Cooking of Fruit regarding the relative wholesomeness of raw and
cooked fruit. The Germans use comparatively little
raw fruit and consider it far less wholesome than cooked fruit. On the
other hand, in the United States raw fruit of good quality is
considered extremely wholesome, and is used in very large
quantities, being as much relished as cooked fruit, if indeed it is not
preferred to it. It has been suggested that the European prejudice
against raw fruit may be an unconscious protest against unsanitary
methods of marketing or handling and the recognition of cooking as
a practical method of preventing the spread of disease by fruit,
accidentally soiled with fertilizers in the fields or with street dust.
“As in the case with all vegetable foods, the heat of cooking
breaks down the carbohydrate walls of the cells which make up the
fruit flesh, either because the moisture or other cell contents expand
and rupture the walls or because the cell wall is itself softened or
dissolved. Texture, appearance, and flavor of fruit are materially
modified by cooking, and, if thorough, it insures sterilization, as in the
case of all other foods. The change in texture often has a practical
advantage, since it implies the softening of the fruit flesh so that it is
more palatable and may be more readily acted upon by the digestive
juices. This is obviously of more importance with the fruits like the
quince, which is so hard that it is unpalatable raw, than it is with soft
fruits like strawberries. When fruits are cooked without the addition of
water or other material, as is often the case in baking apples, there is
a loss of weight, owing to the evaporation of water, and the juice as it
runs out carries some carbohydrates and other soluble constituents
with it, but under ordinary household conditions this does not imply
waste, as the juice which cooks out from fruits is usually eaten as
well as the pulp. Cooking in water extracts so little of the nutritive
material present that such removal of nutrition is of no practical
importance.
“The idea is quite generally held that cooking fruit changes its acid
content, acid being sometimes increased and sometimes decreased
by the cooking process. Kelhofer showed that when gooseberries
were cooked with sugar, the acid content was not materially
changed, these results being in accord with his conclusions reached
in earlier studies with other fruits. The sweeter taste of the cooked
product he believed to be simply due to the fact that sugar masks the
flavor of the acid.
“It is often noted that cooked fruits, such as plums, seem much
sourer than the raw fruit, and it has been suggested that either the
acid was increased or the sugar was decreased by the cooking
process. This problem was studied by Sutherst, and, in his opinion,
the increased acid flavor is due to the fact that cooked fruit
(gooseberries, currants, plums, etc.) usually contains the skin, which
is commonly rejected if the fruit is eaten raw. The skin is more acid
than the simpler carbohydrates united to form a complex
carbohydrate. In some fruits, like the apple, where the jelly-yielding
material must be extracted with hot water, the pectin is apparently
united with cellulose as a part of the solid pulp. As shown by the
investigations of Bigelow and Gore at the Bureau of Chemistry, 40
per cent of the solid material of apple pulp may be thus extracted
with hot water, and consists of two carbohydrates, one of which is
closely related to gum arabic. That such carbohydrates as these
should yield a jelly is not surprising when we remember that they are
similar to starch in their chemical nature, and, as every one knows,
starch, though insoluble in cold water, yields when cooked with hot
water a large proportion of paste, which jellies on cooling.
“When fruits are used for making pies, puddings, etc., the nutritive
value of the dish is, of course, increased by the addition of flour,
sugar, etc., and the dish as a whole may constitute a better balanced
food than the fruit alone.”[8]

FOOTNOTES:
[8] C. F. Langworthy, Ph. D.—In charge of Nutritive
Investigations of the United States Experiment Station.
 DIETS
As previously stated, the object of foods is to supply the needs of
the body in building new tissue in the growing child; in repairing
tissue which the catabolic activity of the body is constantly tearing
down and eliminating; and in supplying heat and energy. This heat
and energy is not alone for muscular activity in exercise or
movement; it must be borne in mind that the body is a busy work-
shop, or chemical laboratory, and heat and energy are needed in the
constant metabolism of tearing down and rebuilding tissue and in the
work of digestion and elimination.
In this chapter, a few points given in the preceding pages are
repeated for emphasis. The proteins, represented in purest form in
lean meat, build tissue and the carbonaceous foods, starches,
sugars and fats, supply the heat and energy. An excess of proteins,
that is more than is needed for building and repair, is also used for
heat and energy; the waste products of the nitrogenous foods are
broken down into carbon dioxid, sulphates, phosphates, and other
nitrogenous compounds and excreted through the kidneys, skin, and
the bile, while the waste product of carbonaceous foods is carbon
dioxid alone and is excreted mostly through the lungs.
Since the foods richest in protein are the most expensive, those
who wish to keep down the cost of living, should provide, at most, no
more protein than the system requires. The expensive meat may be
eliminated and proteins be supplied by eggs, milk, legumes, nuts
and cereals.
The most fundamental thing is to decide upon the amount of
protein—two to four ounces, nearly a quarter of a pound a day—and
then select a dietary which shall provide this and also supply heat
and energy sufficient for the day. If the diet is to include meat, a
goodly proportion of protein will be furnished in the lean meat. This
will vary greatly with the different cuts of meat as shown on Table IV,
page 128. If, as often happens, one does not care for fats, then the
starches and sugars must provide the heat. If one craves sweets,
less starches and fats are needed.
The normally healthy individual is more liable to supply too much
protein than too little, even though he abstain from meat. Yet, as will
be shown later, our strongest races, who have lent most to the
progress of the world, live upon a mixed diet.
If the diet is to include meat, it will consist of less bulk, because
the protein is more condensed; for the same reason, if it includes
animal products of eggs and milk and a fair proportion of legumes, it
will be less bulky than a vegetable diet. This point is important for
busy people, who eat their meals in a hurry and proceed at once to
active, mental work. Those who engage in physical labor are much
more likely to take a complete rest for a half hour, to an hour, after
eating. The thinkers seldom rest, at least after a midday meal, and
those who worry seldom relax the mental force during any waking
hours.
Where the system shows an excess of uric acid, the chances are
that the individual has not been living on a diet with too large a
proportion of protein, but that he has been eating more than he
requires of all kinds of foodstuffs. His system thus becomes
weakened and he does not breathe deeply nor exercise sufficiently
to oxidize and throw off the waste. Let it be recalled here that the
theory that rheumatism is caused by an excess of uric acid is
disputed by the highest authorities. It is accompanied by uric acid,
but not supposed to be caused by it.
Every housewife, to intelligently select the daily menus for her
family, needs a thorough knowledge of dietetics. She must
understand the chemistry of food that she may know food values.
The difficulty which confronts the housewife, is to provide one meal
suited to the needs, tastes, or idiosyncracies of various members of
her household. Peculiarities of taste, unless these peculiarities have
been intelligently acquired, may result in digestive disturbances. As
an illustration: one may cultivate a dislike for meat, milk, or eggs, as
is often the case, and the proteins for the family being largely
supplied by these, the individual is eating too much of starches and
sugars and not sufficient protein,—legumes, nuts, etc., not being
provided for one member. Such an one’s blood becomes
impoverished and she becomes anaemic.
The relief lies in cultivating a taste for blood building foods. Foods
which are forced down, with a mind arrayed against them, do not
digest as readily, because the displeasure does not incite the flow of
gastric juices. One fortunate provision of nature lies in the ability to
cultivate a taste for any food. Likes and dislikes are largely mental.
There are certain foods which continuously disagree and they should
be avoided; but many abstain from wholesome food because it has
disagreed a few times. It may be that it was not the particular food
but the weakness of the stomach at this time. Any food fails of
prompt digestion when the nerves controlling the stomach are weak.
Many foods disagree at certain times because of the particular
conditions regulating the secretion of digestive juices. Where this
condition has continued for some time it becomes chronic and a
special diet is required, together with special exercises to bring a
better blood supply to stomach and intestines and to regulate the
nerves controlling them.
Dr. W. S. Hall estimates that the average man at light work
requires, each day,
106.8 grams of protein[9]
57.97 grams of fat
398.84 grams of carbohydrates
These elements, in proper proportions, may be gained through
many food combinations. He gives the following:
Bread 1 lb.
Lean Meat ½ lb.
Oysters ½ lb.
Cocoa 1 oz.
Milk 4 oz.
Sugar 1 oz.
Butter ½ oz.
 A medium sized man at out of door work, fully oxidizes all waste of
the system and he requires a higher protein diet,—125 grams. In
such event he does not require so much starch and sugar. If on the
other hand he were to take but 106.8 grams of protein, as above, he
would require more carbohydrates. One working, or exercising in the
fresh air, breathes more deeply and oxidizes and eliminates more
waste, hence he has a better appetite, which is simply the call of
nature for a re-supply of the waste.
In active work, one also liberates more heat, thus more fat,
starches, and sugar are required for the re-supply. If one has an
excess of starch (glycogen) stored in the liver, or an excess of fat
about the tissues, this excess is called upon to supply the heat and
energy when the fats and carbohydrates daily consumed are not
sufficient for the day’s demand. This is the principle of reduction of
flesh.
It is interesting to note that habits of combining foods are
unconsciously based upon dietetic principles. Meats rich in protein
are served with potatoes, or with rice, both of which are rich in
starch. Bread, containing little fat, is served with butter. Beans,
containing little fat, are cooked with pork. Starchy foods of all kinds
are served with butter or cream. Macaroni, which is rich in starch,
makes a well balanced food cooked with cheese.
Pork and beans,
bread and butter,
bread and milk,
chicken and rice,
macaroni and cheese,
poached eggs on toast, and
custards, form balanced dishes.
A knowledge of such combinations is important when one must
eat a hasty luncheon and wishes to supply the demands of the body
in the least time, giving the least thought to the selection; but hasty
luncheons, with the mind concentrated upon other things, are to be
strongly condemned. The mind must be relaxed and directed to
pleasant themes during a meal or the nerves to the vital organs will
be held too tense to permit a free secretion of digestive juices.
Chronic indigestion is sure to result from this practice. Dinner, or the
hearty meal at night, rather than at noon, is preferable for the
business or professional man or woman, because the cares of the
day are over and the brain force relaxes. The vital forces are not
detracted from the work of digestion.
Experiments in the quantity of food actually required for body
needs, made by Prof. R. H. Chittenden of the Sheffield Scientific
School, Yale University, have established, beyond doubt, the fact
that the average individual consumes very much more food than the
system requires. In fact, most tables of food requirements, in
previous books on dietetics, have been heavy.
Prof. Chittenden especially established the fact that the average
person consumes more protein than is necessary to maintain a
nitrogenous balance. It was formerly held that the average daily
metabolism and excretion of nitrogen through the kidneys was 16
grams, or about 100 grams of protein or albuminoid food. Prof.
Chittenden’s tests, covering a period of six months, show an average
daily excretion of 5.86 grams of nitrogen, or a little less than one-
third of that formerly accepted as necessary; 5.86 grams of nitrogen
corresponds to 36.62 grams of protein or albuminoid food.
Prof. Chittenden’s experiments of the foodstuffs actually required
by three groups of men, one group of United States soldiers, a group
from the Yale College athletic team, and a group of college
professors, all showed that the men retained full strength, with a
higher degree of physical and mental efficiency, when the body was
not supplied with more protein than was liberated by metabolic
activity, and when the quantity of carbonaceous food was regulated
to the actual requirement to retain body heat and furnish energy.
It may be well to call attention here to the fact that the food
elements, called upon for work, are not from those foods just
consumed or digested, but from those eaten a day or two previous,
which have been assimilated in the muscular tissues.
In selecting a diet, the individual must be considered as to age,
sex and physical condition, also whether active in indoor or outdoor
work, and whether he or she breathes deeply, so as to take plenty of
fresh air into the lungs.
The following tables, published through the courtesy of Dr. W. S.
Hall, give the rations for different conditions.
TABLE XI.
Rations for Different Conditions.
Proteins Carbohydrates
Energy in
Conditions Low High Fats Low High
Calories
Man at light indoor work 60 100 60 390 450 2764
Man at light outdoor work 60 100 100 400 460 2940
Man at moderate outdoor work 75 125 125 450 500 3475
Man at hard outdoor work 100 150 150 500 550 4000
Man at very hard outdoor winter
125 180 200 600 650 4592
work
U. S. Army rations 64 106 280 460 540 4896-5032
U. S. Navy rations 143 292 557 5545
Football team (old regime) 181 292 557 5697
College football team (new) 125 125 125 500 3675

TABLE XII.
Rations Varied for Sex and Age.
Proteins Carbohydrates
Variations of Sex and Age Low High Fats Low High Energy in Calories
Children, two to six 36 70 40 250 325 1520-1956
Children, six to fifteen 50 75 45 325 350 1923-2123
Women, with light exercise 50 80 80 300 330 2272
Women, at moderate work 60 92 80 400 432 2720
Aged women 50 80 50 270 300 1870
Aged men 50 100 400 300 350 2258

The unit of measurement for the calories of energy is the amount

of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of energy
to 1° centigrade.
In estimating the number of calories of energy given off by the
different foods, Dr. Hall represents
 1 gram of carbohydrates as 4.0 calories
” ” ” fats ” 9.4 ”
” ” ” proteins ” 4.0 ”
To determine the relative energy which a food represents, it is only
necessary to multiply the number of grams of protein in that food by
4, the fat by 9.4 and the carbohydrates by 4, and add the results.
Thus according to the food required for the average man at light
work given on page 211.
106.8 grams of proteins × 4 = 427.20 calories of energy
57.97 ” ” fat × 9.4 = 544.94 ” ” ”
398.84 ” ” carbohydrates × 4 = 1595.36 ” ” ”
= the calories of energy required
2567.51
for the average man at light work.

Dr. Chittenden’s experiments show that a man leading a very

active life, and above the average in body weight, can maintain his
body in equilibrium indefinitely with a daily intake of 36 to 40 grams
of protein, or albuminoid food, and with a total fuel value of 1600
calories. Authorities, however differ upon the amount of food
required.
Dr. Hall suggests 106 grams of protein
Ranke suggests 100 grams of protein
Hultgren and Landergren suggests 134 grams of protein
Schmidt suggests 105 grams of protein
Forster and Moleschott suggests 130 grams of protein
Atwater suggests 125 grams of protein

In order to bring oneself to as limited a diet as Prof. Chittenden’s

men followed, however, it would be necessary to have all food
weighed so as to be sure of the correct proportions; otherwise the
actual needs would not be supplied and the body would suffer. A
wise provision of nature enables the body to throw off an excess of
food above the body needs without injury, within limitations; but, as
stated, there is no doubt that the average person exceeds these
limits, exhausting the digestive organs and loading the system with
more than it can eliminate; the capacity for mental work is restricted,
and the whole system suffers.
 Prof. Chittenden’s experiments have been a wonderful revelation
to dietitians and scientists. They have demonstrated beyond doubt
that the average person eats much more than the system requires
and thus overworks the digestive organs.
From the fact that only from two to four ounces
Mixed Diet of nitrogenous food is required to rebuild daily
versus a tissue waste, it is apparent that this amount can
Vegetable Diet readily be supplied from the vegetable kingdom,
since nuts, legumes, and cereals are rich in
proteins; yet there is a question whether a purely vegetable diet is
productive of the highest physical and mental development. Natives
of tropical climates live upon vegetables, fruits, and nuts, and it may
be purely accidental or be due to climatic or other conditions, that
these nations have not been those who have made the greatest
progress in the world. Neither have the Eskimos, who live almost
entirely upon meat, attained the highest development. The greatest
progress and development, both as nations and as individuals, have
been made by inhabitants of temperate climates, who have lived
upon a mixed diet of meat, eggs, milk, grains, vegetables, fruits, and
nuts. They have shown more creative force, which means reserve
strength.
The Eskimo has demonstrated, however, that an entire meat diet
supplies all physical needs; the meat tissue providing growth and
repair and the fat supplying all of the carbonaceous elements. The
fat, as previously stated, yields more heat than starches and sugars,
and Nature provides this heat for climates where most warmth is
required. It may be the natural reason why natives of warm climates
have formed the habit of using vegetables and grains for their heat
and energy rather than meat. It is also a natural reason why man, in
temperate climates, eats more meat in winter than in summer.
An unperverted, natural instinct will always be found to have a
sound physiological basis. For example,—if, by reason of some
digestive disturbance, one has become emaciated, all of the fat
having been consumed, and the cause of the disturbance is
removed by an operation or otherwise, one is seized with an almost
insatiable desire for fat, often eating large chunks of the fat of meat