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KWANG Y. LEE
ZITA A. VALE
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
DISCLAIMER
The Editors are not endorsing evolution as a scientific fact, in that species evolve
from one kind to another. The term “evolutionary” in the evolutionary computation
(EC) simply means that the characteristics of an individual changes within the
population of the same species, as observed in the nature.
CONTENTS
PREFACE xv
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Evolutionary Computation: A Successful Branch of CI 3
1.2.1 Genetic Algorithm 6
1.2.2 Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II 8
1.2.3 Evolution Strategies and Evolutionary Programming 8
1.2.4 Simulated Annealing 9
1.2.5 Particle Swarm Optimization 10
1.2.6 Quantum Particle Swarm Optimization 10
1.2.7 Multi-objective Particle Swarm Optimization 11
1.2.8 Particle Swarm Optimization Variants 12
1.2.9 Artificial Bee Colony 13
1.2.10 Tabu Search 14
References 15
3.1 Introduction 39
3.2 Unit Commitment 40
vii
viii CONTENTS
3.2.1 Introduction 40
3.2.2 Problem Formulation 40
3.2.3 Advancement in UCP Formulations and Models 42
3.2.4 Solution Methodologies, State-of-the-Art, History, and Evolution 46
3.2.5 Conclusions 56
3.3 Economic Dispatch Based on Genetic Algorithms and Particle Swarm
Optimization 56
3.3.1 Introduction 56
3.3.2 Fundamentals of Genetic Algorithms and Particle Swarm Optimization 58
3.3.3 Economic Dispatch Problem 60
3.3.4 GA Implementation to ED 63
3.3.5 PSO Implementation to ED 71
3.3.6 Numerical Example 79
3.3.7 Conclusions 87
3.4 Differential Evolution in Active Power Multi-Objective Optimal Dispatch 87
3.4.1 Introduction 87
3.4.2 Differential Evolution for Multi-Objective Optimization 88
3.4.3 Multi-Objective Model of Active Power Optimization for Wind Power
Integrated Systems 97
3.4.4 Case Studies 100
3.4.5 Analyses of Dispatch Plan 105
3.4.6 Conclusions 106
3.5 Hydrothermal Coordination 106
3.5.1 Introduction 106
3.5.2 Hydrothermal Coordination Formulation 107
3.5.3 Problem Decomposition 110
3.5.4 Case Studies 111
3.5.5 Conclusions 114
3.6 Meta-Heuristic Method for Gms Based on Genetic Algorithm 115
3.6.1 History 115
3.6.2 Meta-heuristic Search Method 116
3.6.3 Flexible GMS 119
3.6.4 User-Friendly GMS System 131
3.6.5 Conclusion 141
3.7 Load Flow 143
3.7.1 Introduction 143
3.7.2 Load Flow Analysis in Electrical Power Systems 144
3.7.3 Particle Swarm Optimization and Mutation Operation 148
3.7.4 Load Flow Computation via Particle Swarm Optimization with Mutation
Operation 150
3.7.5 Numerical Results 153
3.7.6 Conclusions 160
3.8 Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm for Solving Optimal Power Flow 161
3.8.1 Optimization in Power System Operation 162
3.8.2 The Optimal Power Flow Problem 162
3.8.3 Artificial Bee Colony 166
3.8.4 ABC for the OPF Problem 168
3.8.5 Case Studies 170
3.8.6 Conclusions 176
CONTENTS ix
3.9 OPF Test Bed and Performance Evaluation of Modern Heuristic Optimization 176
3.9.1 Introduction 176
3.9.2 Problem Definition 177
3.9.3 OPF Test Systems 178
3.9.4 Differential Evolutionary Particle Swarm Optimization: DEEPSO 183
3.9.5 Enhanced Version of Mean–Variance Mapping Optimization Algorithm:
MVMO-PHM 187
3.9.6 Evaluation Results 193
3.9.7 Conclusions 196
3.10 Transmission System Expansion Planning 197
3.10.1 Introduction 197
3.10.2 Transmission System Expansion Planning Models 198
3.10.3 Mathematical Modeling 199
3.10.4 Challenges 201
3.10.5 Application of Meta-heuristics to TEP 202
3.10.6 Conclusions 210
3.11 Conclusion 210
References 210
INDEX 819
PREFACE
Heuristic search and optimization is a new and modern approach for solving
complex problems that overcome many shortcomings of traditional optimization
techniques. Heuristic optimization techniques are general-purpose methods that
are very flexible and can be applied to many types of objective functions and con-
straints. Recently, these new heuristic tools have been combined among them-
selves, and new methods have emerged that combine elements of nature-based
methods, or which have their foundation in stochastics and simulation methods.
Developing solutions with these tools offers two major advantages: development
time is much shorter than when using more traditional approaches, and the
systems are very robust, being relatively insensitive to noisy and/or missing
data/information known as uncertainty.
In competitive electricity market along with automation, heuristic optimiza-
tion methods are very useful. As electric utilities are trying to provide smart solu-
tions with economical, technical (secure, stable, and good power quality), and
environmental goals, there are several challenging issues in the smart grid solutions
such as, but not limited to, forecasting of load, price, ancillary services; penetration
of new and renewable energy sources; bidding strategies of participants; power
system planning and control; operating decisions under missing information;
increased distributed generations and demand response in the electric market; tun-
ing of controller parameters in varying operating conditions, etc. Risk management
and financial management in the electric sector are concerned with finding an
ideal trade-off between maximizing the expected returns and minimizing the risks
associated with these investments.
The objective of this book is to review the state-of-the-art technologies in
the modern heuristic optimization techniques and present case studies how these
techniques have been applied in these complex power and energy systems pro-
blems. Empathies will be given to applications rather than theory and the organ-
ization of book will be on application basis rather than tools.
The book is composed of six chapters: Chapter 2 gives an overview of
applications of evolutionary computation techniques in power and energy systems,
including fundamentals of genetic algorithms, evolutionary programming and
strategies, simulated annealing, particle swarm optimization, artificial bee colony
search algorithm, and tabu search.
Chapter 3 gives an overview of the applications in power system planning
and operation problems, such as unit commitment, economic dispatch, active
power multi-objective optimal dispatch, hydrothermal coordination, maintenance
xv
xvi PREFACE
scheduling, load flow, optimal power flow, transmission system expansion pla-
nning, and OPF test bed and performance evaluation of modern heuristic
optimization techniques.
Chapter 4 gives an overview of the applications in power system and power
plant control problems, such as voltage control, load frequency control with opti-
mization and stability, control of FACTS devices, hybrid of analytical and heuristic
techniques for FACTS devices, power system automation, power plant control,
predictive control in large-scale power plant, and industrial power plant control.
Chapter 5 gives an overview of the applications in distribution systems, such
as active distribution network planning, optimal selection of distribution system
architecture, conservation voltage reduction planning, dynamic distribution net-
work expansion planning with demand side management, capacitor placement
in distribution systems, network reconfiguration, distribution system restoration,
group-based PSO for system restoration, parameter identification of dynamic
equivalents for distribution networks, and parameter estimation for distribution
transformers.
Chapter 6 gives an overview of the applications in integration of renewable
energy in smart grid, such as renewable energy sources, operation and control of
smart grid, compliance of reactive power requirements in wind power plants, pho-
tovoltaic controller design, demand side management and demand response, solar
power forecasting, load demand and solar generation forecast for PV integrated
smart buildings, multi-objective planning of public electric vehicle charging sta-
tions, and dispatch modeling incorporating maneuver components, wind power,
and electric vehicles.
Chapter 7 gives an overview of the applications of modern heuristic optimi-
zation techniques in electricity markets, such as bidding strategies, market analysis
and clearing with market simulator, electricity market forecasting with artificial
neural networks and support vector machines, fuzzy optimization (FO), and
FO-based simultaneous bidding of V2G in ancillary service markets.
Kwang Y. Lee
Waco, TX, USA
Zita A. Vale
Porto, Portugal
CONTRIBUTORS
xvii
xviii CONTRIBUTORS
xxi
xxii LIST OF FIGURES
xxxiii
xxxiv LIST OF TABLES
Zita A. Vale received her Diploma in Electrical Engineering in 1986 and her PhD
in 1993, both from the University of Porto. She is currently Professor of the Elec-
trical Engineering Department at the Engineering School of the Polytechnic of
Porto, Portugal.
She works in the area of Power and Energy Systems, with a particular interest
in the application of Artificial Intelligence techniques. She has participated in more
than 60 funded projects mainly related to the development and use of Knowledge-
Based systems, Multi-Agent systems, Machine Learning, Data Analysis and Min-
ing, Particle Swarm Intelligence, and Genetic Algorithms. The main application
xxxix
xl ABOUT THE EDITORS
1.1 BACKGROUND
Artificial intelligence (AI) has been used to address a wide range of problems in
power systems, using a large set of AI techniques [1, 2]. A wide set of power sys-
tem problems can be seen as optimization problems [3–6] for which computational
intelligence (CI) techniques1 can be of great help as mathematical approaches have
difficulties to handle nonlinearities in large-scale problems, namely when time effi-
ciency is an important issue. Recent evolution in the power industry, namely the
sector deregulation and the intensification of distributed generation, made power
system optimization problems even more complex. On one hand, distributed gen-
eration and the increasing number of market players of diverse nature make geo-
graphical dispersion even more important than before. On the other hand, the goals
of distributed generators, in particular, and of market players, in general, require a
new insight into power system optimization problems as optimal solutions must
seek from the point of view of each relevant player [7]. The evolution has been
accompanied by introduction of smart grid technologies that enabled the increase
of renewable energy sources (wind and solar photovoltaic) and electric vehicles
(EVs) [8]. This evolution has been effective to reduction in the carbon emissions
[9, 10] but at the cost of increasing the complexity in power systems [11–14].
The AI family techniques most proposed to address difficult problems in
power systems are CI techniques, inspired by nature and animal behavior. The
1
CI is a subset of AI, which is a family of problem-solving and problem-stating approaches that attempt
to exhibit or mimic the intelligence observed in nature.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
CI is commonly used for different purposes, but three main categories of its appli-
cation can be highlighted, namely optimization, learning/modeling, and control.
Artificial neural networks (ANN) are widely used for learning and forecasting,
fuzzy systems (FS) are generally applied to control problems and decision-making,
and evolutionary computation (EC) is suited for optimization problems where
modern heuristic optimization (MHO) falls. The EC includes a variety of algo-
rithms, including: ant colony [15], chaotic bat algorithm [16], differential evolution
(DE) [17], genetic algorithm (GA) [18], particle swarm optimization (PSO) and
multi-objective particle swarm optimization (MOPSO) [19], and non-dominated
sorting genetic algorithm (NSGA-II and NSGA-III) [20, 21]. Although ANN,
FS, and EC can target different applications, many real-world problems require
a combination of different methods from those categories in order to achieve
the most effective solution. Figure 1.1.1 depicts the evolution of the number of
publications in the CI field (EC, ANN, and FS) between 2002 and 2018 in the
power systems and smart grid field according to SCOPUS database [22]. ANN
and EC have registered the most relevant increase in the number of contributions.
The FS contributions in this field are also increasing but not ahead of EC since
early 2000s. The EC where MHO falls is behind ANN in number of contributions
but ahead of FS contributions in the field of power systems and smart grid.
The EC optimization methods differ from most of the classical optimization
methods as they are general-purpose methods to explore the solution space. This
means that they are not specifically designed to adequately approach a specific
problem and that they use limited knowledge about the specific problem to be
addressed. They are based on concepts and behaviors that were usually not con-
sidered relevant for the classic optimization techniques.
The interest in these heuristic-based methods has been increasing due to
their adequate characteristics to solve complex real-world problems. Power system
4500
4000
3500
Number of publications
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
problems’ intrinsic complexity and large dimension make MHO a very relevant
issue for the power system community.
Although there is not a widely accepted definition for MHO methods, one
can say that these methods seek near-optimal solutions at a reduced computational
effort without guaranteeing the optimality and feasibility [5]. Using this definition
as a basis, it is simple to conclude that heuristic optimization methods do not guar-
antee that the optimal solution is found. Moreover, it is not usually possible to eval-
uate how close to optimality the obtained solution is. Despite heuristic optimization
methods’ characteristics can be pointed as limitations, in practice, MHO methods
allow to obtain high-quality solutions for real-world problems that were otherwise
practically insoluble or, at least, very difficult to solve. The most important advan-
tages that can be summarized from MHO to solve real complex problems are:
• their ability to find good-quality solutions in much shorter computing times
than traditional methods;
• their robustness, namely in what concerns their low sensitivity to noisy and/
or missing data.
In some demanding applications, one or more MHO techniques are used
together with traditional approaches (such as operational research and statistical
methods) resulting in efficient hybrid applications.
Some power system problems, namely those concerning planning and sche-
duling, require the consideration of a large set of constraints and variables. In addi-
tion, the models often require the consideration of nonlinear functions to provide
more accurate real-world solutions, which increase exponentially the complexity
of the problem. In problems for which these constraints are rather complex, the
use of constraint logic programming (CLP) appears as an adequate approach
largely used in commercial applications. The CLP allows to easily model the prob-
lem and can be combined with other techniques including MHO to solve the
problems more efficiently [23]. This chapter provides an introduction to EC and
describes some of the most prominent MHO algorithms used in power sys-
tems field.
The rest of the book will cover overview of MHO applications in power and
energy systems (Chapter 2), specific but a significant set of relevant problems in
power systems topics tackled with MHO, namely including planning and operation
(Chapter 3), power plant control (Chapter 4), distribution systems (Chapter 5),
renewables and smart grid (Chapter 6), and electricity markets (Chapter 7).