GONDAR UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF LAW

DEPARTMENT OF LAW

Merits and Demerits of Federal Multiple Working Languages in Legal Perspective in

Ethiopia.

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Law
(human rights law).

By-Getu Atalie Felata

Advisor- Kider Mustofa

Gondar University

Gondar, Ethiopia

March, 2023

I
 Merits and Demerits of Federal Multiple Working Languages in Legal
Perspective in Ethiopia

A research paper Submitted to University of Gondar, College of law; Department of Law in

Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Masters of Law in Human Rights
Law

BY:

Getu Atalie Felata

Board of Examiners
Name Signature Date

Advisors ………………………………………… ………………. ……..……

External examiner ……………………………………. ………………. …………..

Internal Examiner ……………………………………. ………………. …... ……

 Declaration

I, Mr. Getu Atalie, student of LLM in Human rights Law declare that the research entitled
“Merits and Demerits of Federal Multiple Working Languages in Legal
Perspective in Ethiopia” submitted by me for the award of the degree of Masters of Law
in Human Rights Law at University of Gondar is my original work and it has not been presented
for the award of any other Degree, Project Report, Dissertation or other similar titles of any other
university or institution.

Signature
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Name of Student
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University Id. Number
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Date
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 Certification from Advisors and Examiners

This is to certify that this research paper titled “ Merits and Demerits of Federal
Multiple Working Languages in Legal Perspective in Ethiopia “is the work of
Mr. Getu Atalie Felata who carried out the thesis for the purpose achieving Master of Law in
Human Rights Law at University of Gondar, is approved and accepted for this fulfillment based
on its originality and quality.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
All Praises are due the Almighty and Merciful God, who gave me the opportunity to undertake
the whole educational career development to the level of accomplishing this thesis.

First and foremost, I would like to extend my deepest gratitude to my main advisor Mr. Kedir
Mustofa (LLM) for his relentless efforts, insights and inspirations, constructive advises and
recommendations, and his academic guidance in general.

Likewise, I would like to extend my utmost and heartfelt gratitude and thanks to my friends for
their assistance in my paper.

Finally, my special thanks go to my family for their love and encouragement.

I
 Abstract

This research paper is about the merits and demerits of employing multiple federal working
languages in legal perspective in Ethiopia.

The general objective of this study was to examine the impact of employing multiple working
languages in Addis Abeba and Dire Dawa in legal perspective under the current federal system.
As a result it will show how the tension between ethnic groups could be minimized and
recommend solutions to uphold the rights of ethnic groups. The specific objective was to explore
how the current federal government addresses the rights of ethnic groups belonging to the
federal government of Ethiopia in the study area; to examine impacts of the adopting diverse
working languages on the federal governments of Ethiopia; to examine the international
principles in detail which Ethiopia ratified in relation to the study area; to Examine the current
law of Ethiopia in relation to application of language; To redress the actual problem and
recommend relevant solutions to problems identified by the study.

The research employed qualitative research approach. Qualitative data were gathered from
federal democratic republic of Ethiopia constitution and International language rights laws &
Ethiopian language rights law. And it also gathered from books, refereed journals, articles,
thesis, dissertations and others that would help to make the study more comprehensive are
utilized.

The results of qualitative data have shown that employing multiple working language in federal
government creates equality between linguistic groups, Rectifies past linguistic injustices, will
increase the state its legitimacy, Freedom of expression aspect of federal language choice, Civil
service employment reason, Equal state recognition of languages, Promotes the principle of
national identity, It fulfils Linguistic rights, Justice, Equality, Equity and Fairness Reasons,
Representational Reasons, Economic and job opportunities. In contrast employing multiple
federal working languages lacks legal ground; the consideration of making selected additional
languages the federal working language raises the question of equality on the federal
government by other unselected language speakers. Therefore it is recommended to introduce
English as working language side by side with Amharic as federal working language of
Ethiopia.

Key Words: working language, language groups, federal government

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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENT................................................................................................................I

LIST OF ABBREVATION AND ACRONYM...........................................................................4

DERG-Devolution Emergency Response Group............................................................................4

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................5

1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................5

1.1. Background of the study.................................................................................................5

1.1.1 Historical overview of Language in Ethiopia:...........................................................6

1.2 The statements of the research problem.......................................................................7

1.3 Objectives and research questions of the Study...........................................................8

1.3.1 General Objective......................................................................................................8

1.3.2 Specific Objectives....................................................................................................9

1.3.3 The study will address the following questions.......................................................10

1.4 Significances of the study.............................................................................................10

1.5 Scope of the study..........................................................................................................10

1.6 Limitations of the study................................................................................................11

1.7 Organization of the Paper............................................................................................11

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................11

2. INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................12

2.1 Language and communication..........................................................................................12

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 2.2 Language and Socialization............................................................................................15

2.3 Language and thought.......................................................................................................17

2.5Multilingualism...................................................................................................................24

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY..........................................................32

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...............................................................................................32

REFERENCES:...........................................................................................................................42

IV
LIST OF ABBREVATION AND ACRONYM
DERG-Devolution Emergency Response Group

EPRDF-Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front

FDRE- Federal Democratic Republic Ethiopia

GA-General Assembly Resolution on Multilingualism: A, 16 May 2007, by resolution Universal

UDLR-Declaration on Linguistic Rights

ICCPR- International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

ICPRMWMF -International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all Migrant Workers
and Members of their Families

ILOC - International Labor Organization Convention

SNNPR- Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples' Region

UNESCO- United Nation Education, Science and Cultural Organization

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 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1. INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the background of this study. It also explains the statement of the

research problem, research questions, objectives, significance, scope, and limitations of the

study. Moreover, the chapter offers organization of the research.

1.1. Background of the study

According to Wondwosen Teshome (2009) In Ethiopia there are about 85 different languages

which can be categorized under the language families of Semitic, Cushitic, Omotic and Nilotic.

The highest density of languages is to be found in the west and southwest of Ethiopia while the

eastern parts of Ethiopia are rather “homogenous”. Generally, Ethiopia is characterized not only

by a high number of languages, but also by a high number of language families to which these

belong as well as by languages whose affiliation is rather uncertain.

He added that, although Ethiopia is a multilingual country, the role of one language, Amharic, as

the major means of communication and instruction has been evident at least for the last two

centuries. It was the DERG revolution of 1974 that brought a new language policy in terms of

the use of the so-called “ethnic languages” for education. The literacy campaign that started in

1979 had to emancipate other languages in regions including Afaan Oromo, Sidama, Wolayta,

etc. The DERG government decided to use Ethiopic script for transcribing these languages

1
because most of them were unwritten until that time and the use of one script meant a united

system of writing.

1.1.1 Historical overview of Language in Ethiopia:

1.1.1.1 Ethiopian Language during emperors

Geez was the official language of Ethiopia before Amharic was the official language of Ethiopia

until the 16th century.Tewodros II who reigned from 1855-1868 changed use of Geez to

Amharic. (Getachew &Derb, 2006). He changed the trend of using Geez to write the Royal

Chronicles into using Amharic (Bahru, 1991).the next emperors of Ethiopia promoted the same

language as Tewodros II did in their quest for national unification of their empire.

1.1.1.2 Ethiopian language during the DERG:

Then, the military government came to power. The military regime has attempted to

acknowledge the nation, nationalities identities, culture and languages of people towards the end

of its regime adopting the Marxist Leninist ideology.(Gonfa Debelo Gutema,2018) If we

examine the DERG's language policy critically it seems that it was a continuation of the previous

language policy. (Getachew &Derb, 2006).During this period Amharic was as a sole of medium

of instruction gained much privilege.

1.1.1.3 Ethiopian language during the EPRDF:-

The current federal system constitutes thirteen regional states and two city administrations of

Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. The 1994 constitution gives equal rights to all Ethiopian languages

and encourages their development. (Binyam, 2016).Since then, Amharic is used as the working

2
language of the federal government and the official working language of four regional states plus

the federal cities Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa, whereas regional governments are allowed to

select their own working language for local administration. Thus, the government of Ethiopia

actively promotes multilingualism and multiculturalism. As a result of such a decentralized

language policy, regional states have chosen their respective official languages for various

purposes. Today, in addition to Amharic, which is used as the working language of the federal

government and the official working language of four regional states plus the federal cities Addis

Ababa and Dire Dawa, other local languages such as Afan Oromo in Oromia, Tigrinya in Tigray,

Harari (Aderi) in Harari, Afar in Afar, and Somali in Somali serve as regional languages. .

However, in 2019, the federal government declared its intentions to introduce four more

languages as additional working languages of the federal government. However, a formal

decision is yet to be made (Emi 2020).

This study examined the merits and demerits of multiple working languages in federal

government in legal perspective under the current federal system.

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1.2 The statements of the research problem

Previously, various researches were conducted on federal working language and its practice
related issues in Ethiopia. However, only two researches that are believed to have some related
elements with the present research are briefly reviewed. These are Yonatan Araya Zemaryam
(2014), Milkessa Mediga (2014). Yonatan Araya Zemaryam study examines educated people‘s
attitudes towards and discourses about opportunities and challenges of the language policy and
practice for national unity and development. Specifically, it examines educated Amharic, Oromo,
Tigrinya, and other mother tongue speakers ‘attitudes towards the role of employing numerous
languages as media of instruction, administration, and mass communications on national unity
and development as well as towards the use of Amharic only as a federal working language
Amharic, was being promoted in all formal social services and administrative activities.

Milkessa Mediga research examines government reports of five years (2003-2008) towards the
Amharic monolingual language policy of the federal government in federal civil service
institutions. None of the earlier mentioned studies made comprehensive investigation into
educated people‘s attitudes and discourses about opportunities and challenges that might result in
owing to the use of diverse languages as media of instruction, mass communications, and
administration as well as due to employing Amharic only as a federal working language for
national unity and development in legal perspective. This study therefore examined the impact of
multiple working languages in legal perspective in the federal government of Ethiopia.

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1.3 Objectives and research questions of the Study

1.3.1 General Objective

The general objective of this study was to examine the impact of employing multiple working

languages in Addis Abeba and Dire Dawa in legal perspective under the current federal system.

As a result it show how the tension between ethnic groups could be minimized and recommend

solutions to uphold the rights of ethnic groups.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

This study has the following specific objectives;

 To explore how the current federal government addresses the rights of ethnic groups

belonging to the federal government of Ethiopia in the study area.

 To examine impacts of the adopting diverse working languages on the federal

governments of Ethiopia.

 Examining the international principles in detail which Ethiopia ratified in relation to the

study area.

 Examining the current law of Ethiopia in relation to application of language.

 To redress the actual problem and recommend relevant solutions to problems identified

by the study.

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1.3.3 The study will address the following questions

 What are the main legal factors that affect the impact of multiple federal working

languages?

 What are the effect of them on language groups residing in Addis Ababa and Dire

Dawa?

1.4 Significances of the study

The results of the study will help the law makers with a substantial input in making language

policy changes of the federal government of Ethiopia. The analysis can contribute knowledge

that can consolidate academic debates about language policy and practice.

It would therefore raise consciousness on the part of policy makers, legislative members, and

politicians of the ruling party and other parties, which in turn helps them to provide timely

solutions to the language use problems of the federal government as well as to take the problems

with the utmost care.

1.5 Scope of the study

The study conducted & analyzed a great deal of background reading on the subject using

sources such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, treatises, and journals, literatures, statutes and

other legal sources.

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1.6 Limitations of the study

In doing this research paper, the researcher faced the following problems.

 Lack of access the Availability of the reliable data was the biggest challenge .The

Researcher was competent enough to identify the reliable data and made sure

the data is of some kind of authority.

1.7 Organization of the Paper

The current study is organized into six chapters. The first chapter deals with the

background to the study area, the statement of the research problem, research questions,

objectives, significance, scope, and limitations of the study. Chapter two explains related

literatures. It reviews language and communication, Language and Socialization,

language and thought, Language-in-use, multilingualism and Language rights under

International and Ethiopian laws. Chapter three treats the research design, research

approach. The chapter also explains the data gathering and analyses instruments. Chapter

four deals with the collected data is analyzed and discussed briefly. The fifth chapter

concludes the main themes of the study thereby providing some recommendations.

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 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2. INTRODUCTION

This subsection reviews about language and communication, language and thought, Language-

in-use and multilingualism & Language rights under International and Language rights under

Ethiopian laws.

2.1 Language and communication

Communication is a core function of human existence. As social beings, humans seek to

communicate with each other, using a variety of tools from the time they are born. These tools

include sounds, gestures, expressions, symbols, and words, among others. Communication is a

social event that requires sending and receiving messages with shared understanding of meaning.

The tools available for communication expand as a person grows and learns (Gooden & Kearns,

2013). For example, babies can use tools, such as crying, body movements, smiling, and

grunting; as they develop and are exposed to more interactions, knowledge, and experiences,

they can learn new ways to communicate with facial expressions, written/oral/sign language,

dance, music, and other tools. Communication depends on the production or expression of a

message and its reception. That is, a shared understanding of meaning is essential to effective

and meaningful communication. This shared meaning must be developed through social

interaction, or among participants. Just as a new parent grows to learn the meaning of different

8
cries from an infant, meaning expressed through other aspects of communication including

language, the arts, and expression, must be learned or discovered, and shared to be useful.

Language is “a complex and dynamic system of conventional symbols that is used in various

modes for thought and communication” (American Speech Language-Hearing Association,

1982). Learning and using language is a complex process that requires knowledge beyond the

words themselves to be used effectively. The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association

describes contemporary views of human language as evolving within specific contexts, being

governed by phonological, morphologic, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic rules. Language is

learned and used through interaction of biological, cognitive, psychosocial, biological, and

environmental factors, and its effective use requires a broad understanding of associated factors

such as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio -cultural roles.

Language is a structured and shared form of communication like spoken and written words,

figures, characters, and gestures, or a combination of these. Language includes rules that dictate

word order, tense, social use, and these apply differently depending on the culture in which the

language is used. As with other forms of communication, language depends on shared meaning

and an increasingly complex understanding of the associated rules and structures. As language is

learned, receptive language skills, listening and reading) are almost always stronger and more

developed than productive counterpart skills (speaking and writing). Accordingly, language

learners with and without disabilities often understand more than they can verbally respond to

with accuracy.

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Communication and Language in Schools Considering the fundamental role of communication

within society, the development of a student’s communication system is an essential undertaking

of schools, especially for students who do not have an effective means of communication when

they enter school. The importance of language development cannot be understated and must be

addressed holistically, incorporating all four domains (reading, writing, listening, and speaking)

for all students learning English, including those with significant cognitive disabilities. These

students (including those with significant cognitive disabilities) require a communication system

and language foundation that allow for increasingly complex thoughts and ideas to arise and be

expressed.

With a command of only basic communication tools such as crying and laughing, a child has the

ability to communicate reactions to experiences. A child can get excited and smile when arriving

at school, cry to express displeasure, or laugh at something that is observed. At this stage, adults

must engage in a significant amount of guessing to establish common understanding. As children

increase their grasp of additional communication tools and basic language skills, communication

is clearer and opportunity expands for educators to incorporate more complex ideas and concepts

into the student’s school experiences. Students may identify their likes more directly by pointing

at a picture, for example. They can also express their dislikes by moving papers away from

themselves during a task. As language grows, students can express their thinking using

traditional forms of speaking and writing, or with augmentative/alternative communication.

Language acquisition follows a typical order regardless of language. Learners of language,

however, do not move lockstep in language development; individuals learn at various speeds and

use a variety of methodologies, strategies, and tools, but all individuals can learn to use

10
language. At the same time, language may not take the same form across students, especially

among English learners with significant cognitive disabilities. In this population, students are

often aided in their expressive communication in language by tools such as using eye gaze in

response to a question (demonstrating listening comprehension) or in selecting words to compose

a sentence (writing). Nonverbal students may use assistive technologies like a speech generating

device or text-to-talk applications, whereas others may benefit from audio books to assist with

comprehending written text. While these may not be traditional methods of communication,

research shows they help students develop and use more complex language over time, aiding in

their independence, academic development, and social engagement. Regardless of the

communication and language tools employed by a student, those people with whom the student

interacts must know what to expect from the student and how to respond.

Combining expertise from the field of second language acquisition with best practices in

developing communication systems and teaching students with significant cognitive disabilities

will provide the best starting point for addressing all the communications and language needs of

students in this target population. Professional development across these areas will provide a

solid foundation for professionals serving language learners with significant cognitive

disabilities.

2.2 Language and thought

Possessing a language is one of central features that distinguish humans from other species.

Many people share the intuition that they think in language and the absence of language therefore

11
would be the absence of thought. One compelling version of this self-reflection is Helen killer’s

(1955) report that her recognition of the signed for ‘water’ triggered thought processes that had

therefore –and consequently –been utterly absent. Statements to the same or related effect come

from the most diverse intellectual sources: “The limits of my language are the limits of my

world."(Wittgenstein, 1922); and "The fact of the matter is that the 'real world' is to a large extent

unconsciously built upon the language habits of the group"(Sapir 1941, as cited in (Whorf,

1956).

The same intuition arises with regard to particular languages and dialects. Speaking the language

of one's childhood seems to conjure up a host of social and cultural atitudes,beliefs,memories,and

emotions, as though returning to the casbah or to avenue and east 19th street and conversing with

the natives opens a window back into some prior state of one's nature. But do such states of

mind arise because one is literally thinking in some new representational format by speaking in a

different language. After all ,many people experience the same correlated changes in

sociocultural orientation and sense of self when they are ,say, wearing their battered old jeans

versus some required business suit or military uniform; or even more poignantly when they re-

experience a smell or color or sound associated with dimly recalled events. Many such

experiences evoke other ties, other places.

But according to many anthropologic linguists, sociologists, and cognitive psychologists,

speaking particular language expert’s vastly stronger and more pervasive influences than an old

shoe or the smell of boiling cabbage. The idea of "linguistic relativity" is that having language,

or having a particular language, crucially shapes mental life. Indeed ,it may not be only that a

12
specific language experts its idiosyncratic effects as we speak or listen to it- that language might

come to “be" our thought ;we may have no way to think many thoughts ,conceptualize many of

our ideas, without this language ,or outside of an independent of this language .From such a

perspective ,different communities of humans, speaking different languages, would think

differently to the extent that languages differ from one another. But is this so? Could it be so?

That depends on how we unpack the notions allude to so informally thus far.

In one sense, it is obvious that language use has powerful and specific effects on thought .That's

what it is for ,or at least that is one of the things it is for- to transfer ideas from one mind to

another mind. Imagine Eve telling Adam "Apples taste great." .This fragment of linguistic

information, caused Adam to entertain a new thought with profound effects on his world

knowledge, inference, and subsequent behavior. Much of human communication is an intentional

attempt to modify others’ thought and attitudes in just this way. This information transmission

function is crucial for the structure and survival of cultures and societies in all their known

forms.

But the language –and –thought debate is not framed top query whether the content of

conversation can influence one’s attitudes and beliefs, for the answer to that question is too

obvious for words. At issue, rather is the degree to which natural languages provide the format in

which thought is necessarily (or at least habitually) couched. Do formal aspects of a particular

linguistic system (e.g., features of the grammar or the lexicon) organize the thought processes of

its users? One famous “Aye" to this question appears in the writings of B.L Whorf in the first

half of twentieth century. According to Wholf, the grammatical and lexical resources of

13
individual languages heavily constrain the conceptual representations available to their speakers.

To quote:

Language is a mirror of mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human

intelligence by studying the properties of natural languages ,their structure ,organization ,and

use, we may hope to learn something about human nature ;something significant ,if it is true that

human cognitive capacity is the truly distinctive and most remarkable characteristic of the

species.

To give a child an idea of scarlet or orange, of sweet or bitter, I present the objects, or in words,

convey to him these impressions; but proceed not so absurdly, as to endeavor to produce the

impressions by exciting the ideas. And as a part of such experience of objects, language learning

will come along for the ride (Locke, 1690)

If we will observe how children learn languages ,we shall find that ,to make them understand

what the names of simple ideas or substances for, people ordinarily show them the thing whereof

they would have them have the idea; and them repeat to them the name stands for it…

Thus linguistic relativity, in the sense of Whorf and many recent commentators, is quite novel

and, in its strongest interpretations, revolutionary. At the limit, it is a proposal for how new

thoughts can arise in the mind as a result of experience with language rather than as a result of

experience with the world of objects and events.

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2.3 Language-in-use
Language is not merely a factor or variable to be understood in relation to theoretically-defined

problems and issues, but first and for most is the means by which all aspects of social life are

conducted. The key word here is ‘conducted’. Members of society use language to do the social

activities that make up their lives together. everything we do, from the most extraordinary and

significant things down to the most insignificant and ordinary ones, including the trivial and

uninteresting parts of our lives, are done in and through the use of language. However, though

the uses made of language may sometimes be trivial, the fact that language is a mundane feature

of all social life is anything but trivial. Furthermore, in our view, by ignoring how people

actually use language in social interaction, sociologists both misunderstand the social nature of

language and lose sight of the detail of social life. The key point that both the causal and the

semiotic approaches to language fail to appreciate is the ‘situated’ nature of language use. We

noted above that context is fundamental to meaning in interaction. In using language to perform

activities, members of society shape the words they use to the situation at hand, and use the

situation at hand to understand the meaning of words. When persons speak to one another, they

do not simply recite pre-determined linguistic formulae, independent of the circumstances of

their speech situation. There are, of course, some ‘ceremonial’ speech situations, in which a

ritualized form of words must be precisely recited in order for the desired outcome to be

achieved – marriage ceremonies, courtroom oath-taking and the bestowing of knighthood would

be examples. However, these occasions confirm the point, for the sense of the required

expressions is tied to the particular ceremonial occasion. Overwhelmingly, however, ordinary

speech does not involve the use of pre-set linguistic expressions. Rather, persons spontaneously

produce talk that ‘fits’ the situation they are in, including the talk of others. They do so, then, not

15
in some predetermined way but because the words used display a particular understanding of

what is happening ‘here and now’. A simple way to illustrate the situated nature of language use

is by considering how descriptions are constructed. Descriptions are a universal feature of social

life: pretty much everything that is done in any walk of social life involves describing things –

events, objects, places, persons, actions and so forth. If language use was not situated, it would

be reasonable to expect that whenever a given object or event was referred to in talk, by

whomsoever for whatsoever reason, it would be described in the same way – perhaps in the way

that had been established as the most ‘accurate’ description. But clearly this is not how

description works. How something is described varies according to the circumstances in relation

to which the description is produced. The same object or event may be described in very

different terms according to who are describing it to whom and for what reason. The issue about

the description often is not accuracy but relevance or appropriateness: is this the appropriate kind

of description for this occasion or purpose? For example, a spouse who asks ‘What sort of day

have you had?’ to a partner just home from work might find it puzzling to receive a lengthy

description of a quite routine journey to work or a detailed account of a telephone call

concerning a minor and uninteresting business matter. Similarly, a parent telephoning their

student son might be nonplussed to receive, in answer to the question ‘What have you been up

to?’, a description of the night-club that he had attended the previous evening and a detailed

account of the numerous ‘mixes’ that the DJ played. The strangeness of such talk lies in its

situational inappropriateness rather than its factual status. In other words, the problem the

recipient has in such cases is not ‘Is this true?’ but ‘Why are you telling me this?’ In

experiencing such a puzzle, what is being oriented to is the ‘recipient designed’ nature of talk.

16
Interaction involves fitting actions to their context and that meaning is understood contextually.

A key contextual feature of such understandings is the identity of the participants. Persons do not

talk to one another as anonymous ‘actors’, but as occupants of situation ally relevant identities or

membership categories. One of the ways such identities are made relevant is through the

construction of descriptions that are geared to ‘this person’ with whom one is interacting. The

term ‘recipient design’ has been coined to describe the ways in which speakers gear their talk to

the relevant identity of the person with whom they are interacting. In other words, it is a general

feature of conversational talk – as well as talk of other kinds – that speakers will ‘design’ their

talk to take account of the person to whom they are speaking in the circumstances in which they

are being spoken with. Recipient design involves taking into account such things as the

knowledge and interests of the other person, the relationship in which one stands to them and,

perhaps most importantly, what it is that the other person has just said. The key point to note

here, then, is that language use in interaction has a ‘local character’. The situated nature of

language use means that what is said in any interaction is being said here and now in this

situation, with these circumstances in mind and this interactional task at hand. The form of words

that a speaker employs is tied to and displays the character of the local situation at hand.

The notion of the individual as an entity separate from society is incoherent and fails to

recognize the all-pervasive character of social life. So pervasive are such conceptions of society

that the student can be forgiven for concluding that sociological inquiry cannot be done any other

way. However, several reasons can be adduced for thinking that a different approach to

sociological analysis may be worthy of consideration.

17
To begin with, the assumption that understanding society is dependent upon possession of a

theory has several unfortunate consequences. The first is that it generates the kind of gulf

mentioned earlier between professional sociological accounts of social life and the

understandings possessed by those whom the sociologist studies. It is commonly argued that

ordinary members of society do not possess the theoretical concepts of sociology. The

implication is that those aspects of social life that can only be understood by virtue of these

concepts are unavailable to ordinary understanding. Persons may be members of society, but

precisely what it is that they are members of which is assumed to be beyond their ability to fully

grasp. By comparison with the understandings that can be derived from the theories of the

sociologist, whose accounts are taken as a benchmark for assessing the value of knowledge, the

understandings of the ordinary members are regarded as second rate; they are both incomplete

and faulty. Lacking the theoretical concepts of sociology, the ordinary member of society is

unable to transcend the limitations of ordinary understanding. The sociologist, in contrast, uses

theoretical concepts to reveal aspects of social life that are ‘hidden’ from the ordinary person.

From this widely accepted point of view, then, the sociology task is a corrective one vis-à-vis the

things that ordinary persons think and believe about social life. The stance that sociology usually

adopts towards ordinary social life, therefore, is best described as ‘professional skepticism’.

(Hester, 2004)

18
 2.4Multilingualism

A multilingual individual is anyone who can communicate in more than one language, either

being active (through speaking and writing) or passive (through listening and reading)”.

Multilingualism refers to the number of languages involved either as languages spoken by an

individual or as languages in a particular society. Multilingualism and Multiple Language

Learning

“A person can be called multilingual if on the basis of the knowledge of his/her mother tongue

he/she has restricted knowledge in at least two further languages, either in the same or in

different discourse areas. “Viewed as a societal phenomenon, multilingualism does not

necessarily imply that all individual members of the group are multilingual, but that several

languages are present within a certain society.” Accordingly, a multilingual society is composed

of multilingual individuals or several monolingual groups, each of which speaking a different

language (Wilton, 2009). The notion that human being is equipped to learn more than one or

more languages from birth introduces individual multilingualism as something natural (Tracy,

2007).

There are many definitions of multilingualism. For example, Li (2008) defined a multilingual

individual as “anyone who can communicate in more than one language, be it active (through

speaking and writing) or passive (through listening and reading”. A well-known definition of

multilingualism is given by the European Commission (2007): “the ability of societies,

institutions, groups and individuals to engage, on a regular basis, with more than one language in

19
their day-to-day lives” .These definitions of multilingualism are relevant for discussing some of

its dimensions: the individual versus social dimension, the proficiency versus use dimension, and

the bilingualism versus multilingualism dimension.

The Individual Versus Social Dimension of Multilingualism is at the same time an individual and

a social phenomenon. It can be considered as an ability of an individual, or it can refer to the use

of languages in society. Individual and societal multilingualism are not completely separated. It

is more likely that the individuals who live in a multilingual community speak more than one

language than for individuals who live in a monolingual society.

The Bilingualism Versus Multilingualism Dimension The term multilingualism has gained

currency in recent years at the expense of bilingualism, but the difference between the two terms

is not always clear, and different positions can be found: • Bilingualism as the generic term. This

is the traditional position that reflects the importance of research involving two languages rather

than additional languages. Bilingualism generally refers to two languages but can include more

languages. • Multilingualism as the generic term. This can be regarded as the mainstream

position nowadays. Multilingualism is often used to refer to two or more languages (Aronin &

Singleton, 2008). Bilingualism or trilingualism are instances of multilingualism. • Bilingualism

and multilingualism as different terms. Some researchers use the term bilingual for users of two

languages and multilingual for three or more (De Groot, 2011). This position is also common

among scholars working on third language acquisition and trilingualism (Kemp, 2009).

20
2.5 Language rights under International laws and Ethiopian laws

2.5.1 Protection of Language rights under international human rights law

2.5.1.1 International conventions that recognize language rights

Language rights are one of the basic human rights which are part of a set of inalienable and

universal norms for just enjoyment of human’s civil, political, economic, social and cultural

rights. (Paulston, 1997) A. Linguistic rights under the ICCPR Language rights are frequently

addressed by ICCPR either in a direct or indirect ways. The majority of the international human

rights laws referred to language from negative point of view, only prohibition of discrimination

on ground of language, Article 27 of the ICCPR has for the first time virtually recognized it as a

right and imposed duty on state party to refrain from denying the rights to language of linguistic

minorities. It has provided that: In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities

exist, persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in community with the

other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, to profess and practice their own

religion, or to use their own language. (ICCPR, 1966) ICCPR has also guaranteed the rights to

language of everyone in case of criminal prosecution. Article 14 (3) reads as: In the

determination of any criminal charge against him, everyone shall be entitled to the following

minimum guarantees, in full equality: a) To be informed promptly and in detail in a language

which he understands of the nature and cause of the charge against him; b) To have the free

assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language used in court;

Accordingly, the right to language in case of criminal proceeding is for everyone. This provision

imposes an absolute duty to be fulfilled at all costs. In addition, unlike most of its provisions

21
which only prohibits language not to be used as a discriminating ground, this article is articulated

in an explicit positive language. The right for free assistance of an interpreter for instance, is

framed in the way a state cannot refuse to provide it even for economic or any other job.

In addition, The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) has also replicated the provision

of ICCPR concerning the rights of children belonging to language minorities. Minorities and

indigenous children are therefore entitled to use their own language, among others. Likewise,

CRC has expressly guaranteed the rights of every child alleged as or accused of having infringed

the criminal law to have free assistance of interpretation in case he cannot understand the

language used by the court. (CRC, 1990) Unlike Article 27 of the ICCPR and Article 30 of the

CRC, the right to language during criminal proceeding is guaranteed to everyone irrespective of

belonging to any groups. Similarly, the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights

of all Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (CMW) safeguarded the rights to free

interpretation and be informed in the language they can understand. (ICPRMWMF, 1990)

Migrant workers’ children and indigenous people to be educated in their mother tongue are also

recognized under the International Labor Organization Conventions (ILOC, No.107 &169).

Likewise, the International Convention against Discrimination in Education approved

conditional rights of minorities to use and teach their own language at the schools which they can

establish. (UNESCO, 1960)

The General Assembly’s Resolution on Multilingualism is the pertinent document which

virtually envisages the duties of state to protect languages and encourage multilingualism. While

the primary goal of this Resolution is to protect, promote and preserve linguistic diversity within

22
UN itself, it also affirmed the need to recognize People’s rights to use their own language all

over the globe. This resolution has precisely proclaimed that activities and training materials of

the UN should be in a local language of the beneficiaries to the extent possible. Most

importantly, it calls on all states to promote and protect all languages used by the people

throughout the world. (GA, 2007) Generally, this Resolution has shown a progressive and

explicit initiative asking states to take positive measures for the promotion and protection of all

languages spoken by their people.

2.5.1.2 Universal Declaration of Language Rights (UDLR)

Universal Declaration of Language Rights is the most prominent document which exclusively

deals with universal language rights. Although its binding nature is highly doubtful, its vivid and

comprehensive provisions which explicitly recognize the rights to language of individuals,

groups and language communities universally will help for the possibility of having binding laws

in this regards. Both the preliminaries and Preambles of this declaration confirmed that its

adoption is based on the linguistic rights recognized under different international human rights

instruments. (UDLR, 1996) According to UDLR: the right to be recognized as a member of a

language community; the right to the use of one’s own language both in private and in public;

the right to the use of one’s own name; the right to interrelate and associate with other members

of one’s language community of origin; the right to maintain and develop one’s own culture; the

right to maintain and develop one’s own culture; and all the other rights related to language

which are recognized in ICCPR and ICESCR are 'inalienable personal rights’.

23
Again, According to UDLR: The rights of ‘Linguistic community’ to official use of their

language; the Rights to education in their own language; Everyone’s rights to carry out all

activities in public, in the personal and family spheres in his language and the rights of linguistic

communities to get laws published in their own language are basic linguistic rights.(declaration

on language,1996) ICCPR has also guaranteed a wide range of freedom of opinion and

expression including the rights to expression, the rights to receive and seek information either

orally, in written or by any other means Which has protected the rights to use one’s own

language.( ICCPR,1966)

2.5.2.3 Language rights under the Ethiopian laws

By F.D.R.E. constitution every Nation, Nationality and People’s in Ethiopia has been granted

the right to speak, write and develop its own language; to express, develop and promote its own

culture; and to preserve its history. Adopting ethnic based form of federalism and allowing each

state to use their language expressly is a turning point in the history of Ethiopia. Likewise,

Article 5 of the constitution has affirmed the equal recognition of all Ethiopian languages. This

provision seems a political response for the past prejudices by the practical language hierarchies

created between local languages. Apparently, this provision is a bit similar to the provision of the

1987 constitution which provides for equal respect and developments of all languages. Although

this provision does not accord language right to the speakers directly, it will have importance to

claim the right to equal use of one’s own language based on this linguistic equality adopted by

the constitution. However, Article 5(2) of the constitution states that Amharic will be the

‘working language’ of the federal government. Though this assertion seems to contradict the

24
very principle of equality of all languages in the out face. The recognition of all Ethiopian

languages as working language of the federal government might be impractical and unattainable.

The right to equality which assures the rights of all persons to equality; and equal and effective

protection without any discrimination on ground of language, among others, is guaranteed

clearly. The right to equality is an absolute one and it cannot even be subjected to derogation

during an emergency situation. In addition, right of everyone to participate in the affairs of the

government directly or indirectly without any discrimination based on language, among others, is

clearly guaranteed. Similarly, other rights that the rights to language can indirectly be claimed,

such as freedom of expression, Association and Assembly, Rights to access to equal social

services and rights to culture, among others, are clearly provided by the constitution. By thus

provisions individual language rights are provided. (FDRE Constitution, 1995)

25
 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the methods adopted throughout the study to accomplish
the research objectives. The first section presents research design. The second section presents
research approach This is followed by nature of data and data collection instrument and data
analysis method is explained..
3.1 Research Design

Research design is a master plan specifying the method and procedures for collecting and
analyzing the need of information. Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth
sailing of the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible
yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money (Kothari,
2004). It helps the study to be relevant to the problem and it uses economical procedures. It
specifies which approach will be used for gathering and analyzing the data.

The types of research employed under this study were descriptive research. The major purpose of
descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present.

3.2 Research Approach

There is no consensus about how to conceptualize the actual undertaking of research. However,
there is a tendency to divide research in to three approaches that are quantitative, qualitative and
mixed research approach (Creswell, 2003).

In order to attain the objective of the study, the researcher adopted qualitative approach.

3.3 Methods of Data Collection:-This study employed both primary as well as secondary
sources to collect different data. The primary data collection instrument includes: The document
analysis included the federal constitution and International language rights laws & Ethiopian
language rights law. The study used the secondary sources such as books, refereed journals,

26
articles, thesis, dissertations and others that would help to make the study more comprehensive
are utilized. Internet sources about the subject matter under discussion were consulted in order to
supply up to date information.

27
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.0 Introduction

This is the results and discussions chapter. In this chapter, qualitative data that were gathered

Through text selection from employing multiple working languages in legal perspective related
documents.

4.1 Merits of multiple federal working language in international laws and the Ethiopian
laws and law related documents

It is the right to non-discrimination at the hands of the state due to language, which is stipulated
in Art. 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Right and Art, 1 of the Convention against
Discrimination in Education of 1960.

It creates equality between linguistic groups፡- Languages are inherently equal, at least in the
sense that they can perform identical functions. Employing multiple languages the working
language of the federal government, there will be equality between linguistic groups.

Rectifies past linguistic injustices:-.According to the preamble of the FDRE constitution which
says “We, the Nations, Nationalities and Peoples of Ethiopia… Fully aware that our common
destiny can best be served by rectifying historically unjust relationships” .

Making several languages the working language of the federal government will increase the state
its legitimacy.

The Federal leadership may include many languages which reflect the diverse society it claims to
represent.

Freedom of expression aspect of federal language choice: -The right to express opinion freely
implies the right to do so in the language of one’s own choice in accordance with Art 19, of the
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).

Furthermore, Article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
guarantees the rights of persons belonging to an ethnic and linguistic group to enjoy their own
culture and to use their own language. If these rights are violated, persons belonging to a given

28
linguistic and cultural groups are denied the opportunity to take part in the conduct of public
affairs and have access to public services.

Mass media consequences of federal language choice: the chosen language will be given a favor
in broadcasting media, print media and online media.

It guarantees the right to vote: “Where political debate is conducted in the selected language, the
speakers of other languages are at a disadvantage” (Patten & Kymlicka, 2003).

Civil service employment reason: - It helps people who speak multiple languages to be employed
in Federal civil service offices.

The Legal experiences of other multilingual countries: federal working languages of Canada are
two, Switzerland (three), federal working languages of Belgium are three, federal working
languages of South Africa are eleven, federal working languages of India are two, federal
working languages of Singapore are four, federal working languages of Fiji are three, federal
working languages of Nigeria is one foreign language, and federal working languages of
Cameron opts for two foreign languages.

the rights of individuals belonging to linguistic minorities to participate efficiently pursuant to

Art 2 of the 1992 UN Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic,
Religious or Linguistic Minorities.

Equal state recognition of languages:- The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Constitution
implemented the equal protection of all languages of the country, in principle, but it maintains
Amharic language as the only official working language of the Federal Government. Hence
employing multiple federal working languages maintains equal recognition of languages.

Multiple ethnic group languages are represented in the court of Appeal:- When the case seen in
the states is appealed to the federal court, the case should be translated into Amharic. In
addition, when witnesses testify in the appellate court, the testimony should be changed to
Amharic. Therefore, when it is multilingual, the appeal is conducted in their language, both the
case and the testimony.

29
Language serves to express one’s identity and culture; Language also serve as a tool of
communication, participation, employment, and the survival of groups (Watts in Assefa,
2005:286). In the absence of language equality, all these essential matters will be affected.

Promotes the principle of national identity: - employing multiple languages in education

promotes the principle of national identity which is stipulated under FDRE constitution article 39
grants every ethnic group “the right to speak, write and develop its language and to promote its
culture, help it grow and flourish, and preserve its historical heritage.” The recognition of
cultural diversity was accompanied by the introduction of multilingualism. The constitution,
under article 5, declares the equality of all languages spoken in the country.

The imposition of Amharic as the sole official working language of the Federal Government
threatens the equality of Ethiopian languages thereby representing the continuation of the
dominance of the Amharic language and its speakers at mother-tongue level.

It fulfils Linguistic rights:-In education the right of all children to have access to education in
their own language in a federal government and all children given the same opportunities to
participate and become active citizens, regardless of whether or not their mother tongue differs
help to confirm linguistic rights and fulfilling linguistic rights that ,in turn, affirm human rights.
Providing education in children’s mother tongues, making education more accessible and,
therefore, more equitable.

It is towards to the constitution:-It is stated in the constitution that all children should learn in
their own language. In the constitution the use of language is stated as human right. Thus, any
person is allowed to use and develop his/her language, Regardless of the size of their speakers.
Instruction given in language that is used in the child‘s immediate environment is thus regarded
as a practice that manifests the confirmation of linguistic rights and social identity and equal
access to knowledge.

The status of language:- speaking in one‘s own language has a great place in international law
and by virtue of being human being. The 1995 constitution of the country declared that all
languages should enjoy equal recognition. On the other hand, the constitution claims that
Amharic shall be the working language of the federal government. Hence The declaration of
multiple languages as a federal working language achieves the same language status.

30
It will fix difficulty:- Whose languages are not official spend years learning others‘languages and
may still communicate with difficulty, compete unequally for employment and participation, and
suffer from minority or peripheral status. those who cannot access public services or participate
meaningfully in the conduct of public business owing to their linguistic capabilities are
vulnerable to having their rights and interests overlooked. the universality of one dominant
language is affirmed by rejecting all other languages, which in turn force them to fall into
particularity Consequently, ― linguistic minorities usually press for the recognition of their
languages as official federal languages because of anxiety that otherwise they would be
handicapped in participating in federal affair. Learning in one’s own language and computing for
jobs in another language amounts to a denial to constitutional equitable opportunities

 10. Language as Core factor in Human Development: The only means and avenue
through which any human society could produce, develop exchange and disseminate
knowledge and information for self-actualization, economic and social development is
language. The Ethiopian federal government and the two segregationist cities of Addis
Ababa and Dire Dawa denied multiple languages speaking population of Ethiopia this
fundamental, inalienable and basic rights through its Amharic only policies. Multiple
federal working language erects thus difficulties.
 Diverse and pluralistic Ethiopia can stand on the acceptance of the policy of unity
through diversity by institutionalizing constitutional system of governance where fair
economic power and political power sharing mechanism are legally established. Making
multiple federal working language of the federal government will open the door for unity
through diversity.
 Multilingualism to Create link among various nations and nationalities:
The Amharic only policy exclude non- Amharic speakers from the political, economic,
religious, and social structure and institutional fabrics of the Federal Government of
Ethiopia undermines the equality, mutual respect and peaceful coexistence of the
Ethiopian people. It lent legitimacy to the development of racist and hate groups who
claim to struggle for the ‘unity of Ethiopia in the name of this Amharic only langue
policy’ to openly discriminate, propagate hate towards non-Amharic speakers, and even
issue racist political manifestos in a way that will destroy the social bond among various
nations and nationalities of Ethiopia.

31
  Justice, Equality, Equity and Fairness Reasons: Justice, equality, equity and
fairness demands equal opportunity and equal treatment of multiple language
speakers on equal basis as the Amharic speaking segment of the population. The
Amharic only language policy of the federal government and the two segregationist
cities have completely left the multiple language speaking population outside all
economic, social, religious and educational institutional framework. Employing
multiple federal working language in Ethiopian federal government will abolish this
unjust, discriminatory and apartheid language policy.
 Representational Reasons:- The Ethiopian federal government institutions legally
excluded non Amharic speakers by adopting Amharic as their only working language.
Under this condition, it is very hard to say non Amharic speakers are represented in the
Federal Government. The very preservation of monolingual government for multilingual
state hosting diverse nationalities suggests discrimination. The right to non-discrimination is
founded mainly on fundamental right to equality of treatment at the hands of the state. the
right to non-discrimination to be the most effective guarantee for the rights of any linguistic
groups.
 Economic and job opportunities:- This segregationist and exclusionary Amharic only
language policy of the federal government have fully and completely excluded non
Amharic speakers from all federal, municipal, corporate, and private jobs as well as all
economic and business opportunities including the right to do business and live in these
jurisdictions unless one speaks Amharic.
 The use of Amharic as the sole language of working language of the federal government and
education has had an adverse impact on the identity and economic opportunity of individuals
for whom Amharic is not their mother tongue: It represented an extension of a policy that
failed to recognize formally the existence of different linguistic groups or regard them as
equal members of society. the use of Amharic as the sole language of working language of
the federal government undermines the constitutional principle that all languages are equal.
Non Amharic speakers will eliminate their access to education, to employment, to information in
general and to power and prestige in many forms. As a result the rest of the linguistic groups
would be marginalized; and this is against the very principle of federalism that Ethiopia
adopted.

4.2 Demerits of multiple federal working languages in international laws and

in Ethiopian laws and law related documents

 No legal ground: - The FDRE constitution which is the supreme law of the
land of Ethiopia under Article 5(2) of the constitution states that Amharic shall be the
‘working language’ of the federal government. Hence employing multiple federal working
languages lacks legal ground.
 Experience of other countries:- Nigeria with over 500 languages spoken. The
working language is English, France with 75 languages spoken, the working

32
 language is French, Germany with about 31 languages spoken, and the working
language is German.
 Equality cannot attained:- If all the languages of the country cannot be made the federal
working language, equality cannot be achieved. However, as expected ,the consideration of
making selected additional languages the federal working language raises the question of
legal impediments of the law.
 It forces to know another language:- In the cities administered by the federal government,

most of the residents speak one language, the Amharic language. If other additional languages

are the working language ,it will require to know other languages. If they are not interested in

learning other languages or do not have the ability to know the language, they lose their legal

rights, such as the right to hold a job and the right to serve in their language. As a result many

People may migrate.

33
 CHAPTER FIVE

Conclusion and recommendations

Ethiopia has showed a significant change in terms of developing and employing working
language policy from the reign of Tewodros II to date. The working language policies that were
employed From the Reign of Tewodros II to the DERG Government all promoted the use of
one language Amharic. EPRDF (the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Forces) after
the downfall of the DERG came in to power Other local languages are used as working
languages in addition to Amharic at regional level. FDRE constitution has affirmed the equal
recognition of all Ethiopian languages. However, FDRE constitution states that Amharic will be
the ‘working language’ of the federal government.. This assertion seems to contradict the very
principle of equality of all languages in the out face. The recognition of all Ethiopian languages
as working language of the federal government might be impractical and unattainable. The late
prosperity party declared its intentions to introduce four more languages in addition to Amharic
as working languages of the federal government.

employing multiple working language in federal government creates equality between linguistic
groups, Rectifies past linguistic injustices, will increase the state its legitimacy, Freedom of
expression aspect of federal language choice, Civil service employment reason, Equal state
recognition of languages, Promotes the principle of national identity, It fulfils Linguistic rights,
Justice, Equality, Equity and Fairness Reasons, Representational Reasons, Economic and job
opportunities.

In contrast employing multiple federal working languages lacks legal ground; the consideration
of making selected additional languages the federal working language raises the question of
equality on the federal government by other unselected language speakers.

For the reasons given in my research above, it would be good for Amharic to be the working
language of the federal government. The researcher suggested that all regions should include in
their education policy to know Amharic in addition to their own language. Because Amharic has
had the chance to expand and thus it is spoken all over Ethiopia Thus all language groups of

34
federal government can exercise their legal rights in the language they know. Amharic should
serve all language groups as a common medium of communication.

In addition to Amharic the researcher recommends to introduce English as working language

side by side with Amharic as federal working language of Ethiopia. This is recommended
because English gives equal opportunities for all language groups of the federal government.

35
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