Real-World Applications in Cognitive

Neuroscience Beth Parkin

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Real-World Applications in
Cognitive Neuroscience

FIRST EDITION

Beth Louise Parkin

Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, University of
Westminster, London, United Kingdom
Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

Preface

Chapter 1: Science of perception, decision making and fatigue in the

maritime industry

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Perception at sea

3: Decision making at sea

4: Conclusion: Using neuroscience to improve safety at sea

Acknowledgments
Chapter 2: Applications in sleep: How light affects sleep

Abstract

1: Sleep physiology

2: Non-visual effect of light and circadian timing

3: Circadian timing in the blind

4: Sleep in the blind

5: Light intervention to treat circadian disruption

6: Light intervention in the blind

Chapter 3: Understanding the effects of the menstrual cycle on

training and performance in elite athletes: A preliminary study

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Methodology

3: Results

4: Discussion

5: Conclusion

Chapter 4: Assessing decision-making in elite academy footballers

using real-world video clips

Abstract

1: Introduction
 2: Methods and materials

3: Results

4: Discussion

Chapter 5: Assessing decision making using 2D animations in elite

academy footballers

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Method and materials

3: Results

4: Discussion

Chapter 6: Expertise differences in a 2D animation simulation

decision-making task: The influence of presentation speed on
performance

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Methods and materials

3: Results

4: Discussion

Chapter 7: Psychology and neuroscience applied to financial

decision-making
 Abstract

1: The irrational revolution

2: Inside the trader's brain

3: The amygdala

4: Ventromedial prefrontal cortex (VMPFc)

5: Applying neuroscience to financial markets

6: Gut-feelings in decision-making

7: Coming back to the amygdala

8: Heuristic decision-making in financial markets

9: Stress, testosterone and financial markets

10: Cortisol

11: Testosterone

12: Testosterone on the brain

Chapter 8: Impressions on the current state of cognitive neuroscience

in occupational measurement

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Occupational neuroscience: A new frontier

3: Measures of the workplace

4: Barriers to entry
 5: Summary

Chapter 9: Predictive coding: Neuroscience and art

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: An explanation of the predictive coding framework

3: A re-examination of the strictly hierarchical view of the brain

4: The false distinction between processing and perceptual sites

5: Top-down influences in the processing of ambiguous stimuli

6: The perception of ambiguous art, a special case for predictive

coding

7: Conclusions

Acknowledgment

Chapter 10: Real-world applications in vision and attention: How to

help patients find their (golf) balls again

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: The neuroscience of visual behavior

3: The neuroscience of visual search

4: Applications in neglect

5: Applications in hemianopia
 6: Conclusion

Chapter 11: The effects of visual training on sports skill in volleyball

players

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Experiment 1

3: Experiment 2

4: Experiment 3

5: Experiment 4

6: General discussion

Acknowledgments

Chapter 12: Electrophysiological investigation of the effects of Tai

Chi on inhibitory control in older individuals

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Methods

3: Results

4: Discussion

Acknowledgments
Chapter 13: More time for science: Using Testable to create and share
behavioral experiments faster, recruit better participants, and engage
students in hands-on research

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Testable—The software

3: Testable Arena

4: Testable Library

5: Testable Minds

6: Testable Class

7: Conclusion

Chapter 14: Trust in artificial intelligence for medical diagnoses

Abstract

1: Introduction

2: Experiment 1

3: Experiment 2

4: Experiment 3

5: Conclusions

Chapter 15: The psychology of sustainable consumption

Abstract
1: Introduction

2: What is fast fashion?

3: Sustainable fashion

4: The psychological processes behind sustainable purchasing

behavior

5: Implications for the psychology of marketing

6: Conclusion
Copyright
Contributors
Preface
Beth Louise Parkin, Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences,
University of Westminster, London, United Kingdom

The challenge set in editing this volume was to give a picture of how
psychology and cognitive neuroscience has reached the stage of
intellectual maturity where we can ask how it serves our daily lives,
commerce, and society. As we have seen with biological sciences and
medicine over the past century, the discipline has moved from the
gathering of knowledge and increased understanding of discrete
processes of the body, to the application of improving almost every
aspect of health. The volume is a reflection on this transition for
psychology and cognitive neuroscience, examining how
developments in our existing knowledge of the brain and mind can
be used to achieve practical insights into applied human behaviors.
The components of the human mind explored by psychology, for
example attention, memory, perception, have remained remarkably
constant over the past 50 years of psychological textbooks, yet the
areas of life this discipline have ventured into is impressively broad.
The work showcased in this Volume therefore spans a wide array of
aspects of daily living which rely on our cognitive, physiological,
and cyclical functions.
The opening chapter takes a direct approach to a consequential
real-life problem; the impact of suboptimal conditions for mariners
at sea. Djukanović and colleagues highlight how psychology can
make a tangible contribution to safety practices, by presenting a
guide to understand the importance of dark adaptation during shift
work and exploring decision-making at sea. The chapter is an
exemplary case study in the difficulties of translating laboratory
findings. Laboratory decision-making for example, is often studied
by how much virtual money a subject is making on a computer-
based task and rarely takes into account pressure. In reality, the
mariners operate under the demands of commerce, in which virtual
money is replaced by hundreds of lives or cargo worth millions of
real dollars. The next chapter continues on the theme of light and
dark rhythms by focusing on sleep. Sleep makes up 37% of our lives
and is highly undervalued in today's society. As Santhi and Ball
highlight it is often the things we take for granted that can have the
greatest impact on our lives. This chapter outlines the two oscillatory
mechanisms behind sleep and wakefulness, while explaining the
importance of light as the zeitgeber that governs this vital process. It
is important that, in this volume aimed principally at psychologists
and cognitive neuroscientists, this work discusses photoreceptive
retinal ganglion cells that make up 1% of cells in the eye. These have
no function in vision but are entirely devoted to informing our
brains of the time of day. The authors conclude by articulating the
effect that the loss of these retinal ganglion cells have in the blind.
In Santhi and Ball we see the value of regulating a particular
hormone, melatonin. The problem in studying hormones and
cyclical functions is that they operate in circadian or ultradian
rhythms. This means that data collection is slow and individual
variability is high. Laboratory research on the impact of the
menstrual cycle on behavior is no exception and may explain why it
lags behind what we may expect. In the third chapter, Statham
explores the impact of the menstrual cycle in decision-making and
training of elite athletes. The work takes on this long-term problem
area to provide insights into how physiology and psychology
overlap to influence daily performance. Focusing on athletes allows
Statham to bring the research area into a tractable sphere, controlling
for fitness level, familiarity with pain, regularity of physical routine,
and the physical and psychological goals of the experimental cohort.
Staying with sport the following three chapters remind us that
specialist groups have been a bedrock of advance in the history of
psychological science. The study of neuropsychological patients, for
example, has been essential in the development of the discipline. In
 p p p
addition, we have seen the value of chess experts in helping to
formulate theories of learning and memory. Sport is another area
where we have access to people with extreme specialization, in
which we can study skill acquisition and development. By using
tasks adapted from the laboratory, Farahani investigates decision-
making across the trajectory of elite footballers who make the
journey through the academy system. Across these chapters,
Farahani examines the influence of using different types and speeds
of presentations of tactical scenarios, including real-time videos and
2D animations. The take home message here is that if we want to
understand what an expert sees we may have to adapt our
presentations to appear, to the novice, to be somewhat unrealistic
(for example, professional footballers perceived real-time footage to
be “too slow”). Of particular value in these chapters is that the
author correlates data from a computer-based task with the
assessments of professional football coaches. If psychology and
cognitive neuroscience are to make the leap in affecting people's
everyday lives, it's important to bring along the practitioners.
The next chapter is particularly timely as this volume will appear
as the COVID-19 crisis (hopefully) abides and the world is faced
with new financial conditions and choices to make in this context.
Kabir covers the psychological and neural basis of economic
decision-making, in the specific context of the limits of human
rationality and the stresses induced by market trading. The wider
principles of decision-making covered in this chapter are applicable
to many other domains of our decision-making, particularly under
pressure. The review is a good starting point for someone requiring
an introduction to the subject area. Williams and Lewis then go on to
discuss occupational neuroscience and the issues faced in the
extension of cognitive neuroscience to the workplace. The authors
openly accept the problem that neuroscientific methods are not
designed for people working in dynamic environments, and identify
two methods, EEG and fNIRs, that may be of use in naturalistic
settings. In their exploration they address a number of problems in
bringing psychology into the real world. The first is the noise in the
data, simply because of the kinds of environments in which data is
 py
collected. The second is the type of tests that are suited for
assessments. Most robust psychological tests are robust precisely
because they tend to be insensitive to individual differences (visual
search, n-back, etc.). However, in a setting where employers and
employees are interested in individual differences, tasks must be
selected based on different criteria. Third is the motivation and
anxieties of the individuals who are being “tested.” We are not
dealing here with data points for publishable experiments, but with
descriptions of people which may incorrectly become self-fulfilling
prophecies for career advancements or even self-belief. For example,
it's very common for subjects to mistake state as trait results. It is an
imperative that in translating findings to the work environment that
employees and managers understand the meaning of the results.
Williams and Lewis give serious consideration to these issues and
are aware of the limitations of cognitive neuroscience in
occupational settings.
Applying psychology is not only about industry or sport, it can
also be an asset in other areas of life, perhaps those more associated
with pleasure. Wolf for example, in his chapter, assesses the role of
predictive coding in perception as an explanation of our experience
of ambiguity in visual art. He takes ambiguity as a special case
because it is accessible to experimentation via bistable images. In
doing so he is able to make links between prediction, perception,
and emotional experience.
Ellison and colleagues capture perfectly the journey from the
fundamentals of physiology, psychology, and neuropsychology to
its applications. In the development of the Durham Reading and
Exploration (DREX) tool we can see how a knowledge of the vision
and action system can be applied for the benefit of patients. The
chapter begins with the anatomy and physiology of the vision and
action systems, describing the classic work that has brought visual
cognitive neuroscience to where it is today. The authors then build a
bridge between fundamental visual cognition and the difficulties of
implementing these in the real world. Just to give one example,
many experiments are performed on a computer screen at a distance
exactly 57.3 cm from the subject, and of course most objects out of
 y j j
the laboratory do not present themselves at this distance. As Ellison
and colleagues discuss this falls into “near space,” whereas to make
decisions about action patients also have to consider objects in “far
space.” This chapter focuses on those with visual neglect or
hemianopia, however the descriptions here can be used as a
framework for others wanting to make their work meaningful to
other patient populations. The authors are helpfully self-critical
about the limits of their intervention and end with an honest and
informative discussion of the interplay between theory of “what
works” and the necessary trade-offs.
Zhou et al. then explores the issue of practice and transfer of skills
to real world performance. In particular the chapter presents athletes
with specific cognitive training regimes and asks whether this results
in improvements in a volleyball spike (an equivalent to a tennis
smash). We have seen many unsubstantiated claims of brain training
and far transfer, however the question that remains is how similar
can tasks be to usefully interact with each other. The authors observe
that there are some improvements, dependent on the similarity in
timing between presentation of the target during training and the
presentation of the target during execution. The same group also
examines the effects of practice and transfer in their chapter on the
impact of Tai Chi on inhibitory control abilities. Much of psychology,
including clinical work, focuses on young adults but in this chapter
Chen and Muggleton pay attention to older participants. As people
age and participation in sport, especially involving contact or fast
reactions, becomes less achievable there is a need to replace these
activities and socially prescribe those that will improve general
health and wellbeing. Using behavioral, physiological and subjective
outcome measures, Chen and Muggleton found that compared with
groups who took regular exercise or were sedentary, the group
performing Tai Chi showed improvements in inhibitory control and
differences in electrophysiological responses. Given the cognitive
effort, as well as financial and social constraints on many forms of
exercise, this chapter provides reason to consider Tai Chi as a
possible candidate for social prescribing in aging groups.
 The volume has, thus far, focused on taking research out of the
laboratory, however, there is no intention to undermine the value of
laboratory research. For our research to be successfully applied the
foundations have to be solid. In the recent discussions of the
replication crisis in psychology, criticisms of current research
practices include the use of small or homogenous subject groups, the
nontransparency of data, and the variability of methodological tools.
Rezlescu et al. present technological developments which allow us to
move toward more reliable, accessible, and scalable research
practices. The software tools described allow improvements in the
speed in which experiments can be undertaken without sacrificing
rigor. Testing materials can be shared, and subjects other than those
from undergraduate populations can be easily accessed. These
software advancements will also be of great use to anyone running
field experiments.
The final two chapters take on some of the most pressing issues of
our time. In the chapter “Trust in artificial intelligence (AI) for
medical diagnosis,” Juravle et al. acknowledges that with
advancements in AI there are now many areas of life in which we
have to ask, what should we let machines do and how much trust do
we put in them. In this chapter participants were presented with
scenarios in which AI machines and doctors confirm a medical
condition and recommend treatment. The experiments showed
lower trust in the outputs of machines even when they are told that
they are performed in conjunction with humans (for high risk
medical conditions). Interestingly, some of this trust gap is narrowed
when people are given the choice of whether to be diagnosed by AI
or a human doctor. The important issue this chapter highlights is
that humans do not respond to information in a vacuum. Our
involvement in a decision is a prerequisite of accepting the sources
of the decision-making. Juravle et al.’s chapter suggests, perhaps
somewhat comfortingly, the medical negotiation between machine
learning and medical practice will be a democratic one. The last
chapter of the volume addresses the psychology of sustainable
consumption. The scientific ground here is to explore how theories,
such as the theory of planned behavior and temporal discounting,
 y p p g
can be applied to understand the antagonism of when intentions
meet the limits of what one can psychologically or financially afford.
Kotahwala discusses how these conflicts can be assessed and
addressed both within the corporate sector (focusing on fast fashion
markets) and within the individuals who constitute consumer
populations.
Overall, the work presented in this volume has provided examples
of how the firm foundations of cognitive science can be applied
across many aspects of everyday life, and outlined some of the
challenges faced in this translation. I hope this volume serves as a
starting point for those wishing to make similar kinds of leaps.
Chapter 1: Science of perception,
decision making and fatigue in
the maritime industry
Nina Djukanović*; Rico Hodges-Smikle; Jina Lim Jia Xuan; Pietro
Sambuy Arts and Sciences Department, UCL, London, United Kingdom
* Corresponding author: Tel.: + 44-42-06-0891-8349 email address:
nina.djukanovicova.16@ucl.ac.uk

Abstract
In this paper, we investigate how perception, decision making
and fatigue affect safety in the maritime industry. With
maritime safety incidents often having disastrous effects on the
lives of the seafarers, the natural environment, and the industry
as a whole, a better understanding of the science behind the
human errors is necessary to increase safety at sea. We
conducted interviews and real time observations of seafarers,
and we combine our findings with a review of relevant
academic literature with the aim of using scientific knowledge
to address a real-world problem. We conclude that the seafarers
consistently work at the limits of their cognitive abilities and
that better care for their wellbeing is crucial for safety at sea. It is
hoped that this study will be beneficial to the practitioners in the
field of the maritime industry as well as psychologists studying
the effects of long term, high cognitive loads in the work
environment.
Keywords
Perception; Decision making; Fatigue; Maritime industry; Safety

1: Introduction
In the maritime industry, from the bridge to the engine room, people
continuously work under pressure and in adverse conditions.
Challenging situations faced by the seafarers are often unique to the
maritime industry and can be hidden in the way they see, scan, plan,
decide, communicate and even sleep. In carrying out their jobs and
responding to emergency situations, the way they perceive and
make decisions plays a crucial role. With around 3200 marine
incidents occurring each year (European Maritime Safety Agency,
2017), safety in the maritime industry is unacceptably low. During
2016 alone, there were 106 fatalities, 957 injuries, 26 ships lost and
123 investigations launched (European Maritime Safety Agency,
2017). Thus, research in the psychological and neurological factors
affecting safety at sea can contribute to a better understanding of
human errors behind collisions.
In this chapter, we review the critical issues of perception, decision
making and fatigue in the context of safety in the maritime industry
through research in the form of interviews, participant observations
and literature review. First, we explore the issue of perception with
regards to attention, lighting conditions, what and where systems
and visual size and distance. Second, we investigate the decision-
making process on a vessel, focusing on communication and culture,
trust, and group decisions. Finally, we explore the issue of fatigue at
sea which is especially relevant to the crew members working shifts
and those in a control rooms that are typically closed spaces.

2: Perception at sea
Vision and visual cognition play an essential role in the maritime
industry as seafarers on a bridge primarily depend on their eyes to
avoid collisions and spot objects at great distances. Attention, night
conditions, light, “what and where” systems and visual size and
distance are the key factors that determine safety at sea (Fig. 1).

FIG. 1 The key factors of “perception” that impact

safety at sea.

2.1: Attention
Attention is a central process of perception which allows people to
selectively process information and decide what is relevant. As
Carrasco pointedly suggests, attention is “the mechanism that turns
looking into seeing” (Carrasco, 2011). The selectivity of attention is
caused by the limits of our visual and perceptual abilities, as well as
by our experiences and expectations. When attention is scattered
over a large visual field rather than focused on one location, a
decrease in processing efficiency and spatial resolution occurs.
Moreover, attention trade-offs occur even when only two stimuli are
competing for processing (Barbot et al., 2011). These findings are
particularly relevant in the environment of the bridge as workers
there are subjected to a large number of visual stimuli competing for
their attention, where missing an important stimulus might prove
catastrophic. Thus, seafarers must pay attention to several stimuli at
once, using both overt (moving one's eyes) and covert (attending to
the periphery without moving one's eyes) attention (Carrasco, 2011).
On the bridge, seafarers are required to constantly scan the horizon
for any potential obstacles, which proves particularly challenging at
night, when they are looking for lights of different colors, each color
indicating a type of an obstacle.
However, there is a limit to the amount of information people can
track. Existing research suggests that this limit is at around four
targets of object tracking, depending on the subject being tracked
(Cavanagh and Alvarez, 2005; Fisher, 1984). Similarly, there is also a
limit to the number of items people can hold in their visual working
memory, with research suggesting that this number is also around
four. While Bays and Husain argue that visual memory is a dynamic
and flexible process not fixed by a number of items, they highlight
that it is still limited (Bays and Husain, 2008). Thus, with the
extensive number of items to track and hold in their memory,
seafarers are constantly operating at the limit of their cognitive and
perceptual abilities, which is also enhanced by the stressful working
environment. This applies to the workers on the bridge, who track
moving objects on the horizon and detect whether any of them could
pose a threat for an extended period of time. Equally, control room
workers are expected to constantly pay attention to the monitors and
detect any abnormality in the functioning of a vessel. Consequently,
constant choices of what to focus on prove demanding.
 In addition to the cost associated with staying focused and
tracking and holding items in their visual memory, there is also an
important cost associated with focus-switching process, both in
terms of reaction time and accuracy. In young adults, switching
focus slows reaction time by about 240 ms and accuracy decreases
steadily even for simple, easily identified items. There is also some
age difference in the focus-switching process—more precisely, an
age switching deficit has been found for the items which were
outside the focus of attention with older individuals performing
worse than younger (Verhaeghen and Basak, 2005). This again
proves highly relevant for the work of seafarers, as, on the bridge,
they constantly switch between modes of focus, such as near vision
to use the Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS)
and look at radar, and far vision to look out for obstacles on the
horizon.
Together with attention, which prioritizes processing of stimuli,
expectation and experience also mitigate the brain's limit of
processing visual stimuli. While attention prioritizes processing of
visual stimuli based on salience or relevance, expectation does so
based on prior experience, guiding the interpretation of a visual
stimulus using contextual probabilities. For instance, research has
demonstrated that items placed in contextually congruent scenes are
detected faster and more reliably than items placed in incongruent
contexts (Summerfield and Egner, 2009). Consequently, seafarers on
a lookout are less likely to spot objects they do not expect to see. For
instance, when the radar presents a contact, seafarers naturally look
for the ship corresponding to the contact and may miss items that
have not been detected by the radar.
While technology is of great help, several interviewed seafarers
pointed out that it cannot be relied on. They expressed pride in their
skills as they believe that their eyes are more reliable than the radar
system which occasionally fails to detect an obstacle. However, more
experienced seafarers also expressed some discontent with the
lookout skills of the younger mariners. They believe the younger
generations prefer to rely on the technology and lag behind the more
experienced seafarers in terms of sight and perception, as they
 p g p p y
consider a lookout to be a skill that must be constantly mastered.
This corresponds with the research of Bjørneseth et al. (2014) who
found that novice seafarers spend less time focusing on the outside
environment and important equipment than experts who focused on
this area for longer time periods and more frequently.

2.2: Working in night lighting conditions

Human vision operates differently depending on the level of light in
the environment, and it takes time for the eye and brain to adapt to
different conditions. Two kinds of cells exist in the human eye—rod
cells for black and white vision, light sensitivity in darkness, and
detection of movement in the periphery; and cone cells for color
vision and seeing fine details (Craik and Vernon, 1941:62). This is
exemplified by not being able to read out of the corner of one's eye
as the image is focused on the periphery of the retina, where there is
a small number of cones. The fovea, in contrast, has a high
concentration of cones in a small area at the center of one's field of
view, enabling clear vision when an eye is focused on an object
(Purves et al., 2001). It is helpful in the lay context to explain these
differences as two types of vision: one for fast movement and low
lighting conditions, and another for detailed vision in high lighting
conditions.
A distinct challenge present in the maritime industry is that both
types of vision are key to operating effectively and safely, due to the
characteristic of 24/7 sailing. Upon review of International Martine
Organisation (IMO) data on incident severity compared to incident
characteristics, a positive correlation between accident severity and
the “night” characteristic was observed, i.e., more maritime incidents
classified as “serious” and “very serious” occur at night than during
the day.
An example of a characteristic of night vision is the night blind
spot when looking directly at something for several seconds
(Gloriani and Schütz, 2019). This night blind spot is in the center of
one's visual field, which is heavily utilized in light conditions, with
an area of relative blindness in the dark roughly equivalent to the
size of a fist held out at arm's length—not an insignificant size. That
is why, to see a flickering star, one needs to look slightly to the side
of it. Unfortunately, the IMO dataset analyzed was limited in more
specific details surrounding these incidents, preventing a deeper
analysis of night incidents and their potential causes. With very few
exceptions, the maritime industry does not collect information on the
types, timing and severity of accidents or near misses in a consistent
manner. This is an important missed opportunity to systematically
devise methods to improve industry-wide safety and recognize best
practice.
Seafarers' eyes require time to adapt when moving between bright
and dimly lit sources and environments, such as ports, flashlights or
screens that are not sufficiently dimmed, in contrast to the unlit seas
(Fig. 2). The time required to adapt increases with age, and the
resulting night vision abilities are less good in older people (Harvard
Health, 2007). Seafarers tend to work in the industry for many years,
and the most experienced captains would consequently also have
their night vision hindered by age. It is understandable that the full
half-hour required for dark adaptation can rarely be afforded to
ensure complete dark adaptation due to seafarers' schedules and
shifts, but that can be mitigated through the light environment an
individual is exposed to prior to taking over a shift. Ensuring that
the environment before taking over is not too bright, and the bridge
upon taking over is not too dim would minimize the difference in
lighting conditions and thus the required adaptation time. To assist
the eye in adapting to working in low levels of light, spending some
time in an environment illuminated by reddish light is a possible
recommended strategy (Wharton, 2012). This is because the rod cells
of the eye are most sensitive at longer wavelengths, i.e., in red light.
As such, red moving objects are also the quickest to be detected
under dark conditions (Sakurai et al., 2007).
 FIG. 2 Time required for full adaptation of eye
cells to night vision.

2.3: Lighting
Sufficient lighting is a key factor in a safe and productive workplace.
The measure of sufficiency, however, is dependent on both the
quality of the external light source, but also an individual's own
requirements. Age is a key factor because age is positively related to
the need for light—older people need more light to read than
younger people do and find a range of visual tasks more difficult, for
example, motion detection, speed of motion, detection of the
unexpected, and they are also less able to work with dim displays
(Brody, 2007). Seafarers are asked particularly to see objects under
adverse lighting conditions, low contrast, glare and light scatter, mist
and fog, requiring an awareness of lighting conditions with respect
to each individual and making allowances for wearing spectacles.
 Light is not only about seeing. It also controls human biological
clocks that in turn regulate hormones, appetite, body temperature
and alertness (Baehr et al., 1999; Czeisler et al., 1999; Duffy and
Czeisler, 2009; Hirayama et al., 2007; Kolmos and Davis, 2007;
Warman et al., 2003). Consequently, light has much broader
implications for the body and health than simply the quality of
seafarers' vision. Rapidly switching between daylight or bright
artificial light and dim, dark-adapted conditions will confuse the
body's clock systems, thus reducing alertness on night duty and
slowing recovery from shift work. Thinking about lighting is
important—in both the short term to ensure the best conditions for
observation, and in the longer term because body clocks need
regularity. Apart from health and wellbeing advantages, good
lighting can also lead to better and faster work performance, fewer
errors and accidents and greater safety, improving quality and
efficiency of work for both the individual and their organizations.

2.4: What and where

Sailors and seafarers must be able to identify contact points at sea as
well as be able to determine what direction it is going in. There are
two different visual systems that are responsible for understanding
“Where” objects are and “What” objects are. The “What” system
relies on the center of the eye for detail and color and requires bright
light to work at its best. The “Where” system relies on peripheral
vision with the cells responsible for the vision found surrounding
the center of the eye. This system is better in dim light and can detect
transient events such as moving objects or flashing lights
(Ungerleider, 1994).
These two different kinds of information are processed by
different parts of the brain. This means that one can never optimize
the two systems at the same time. How people use their eyes also
makes a difference. People look slightly downwards to read, sew,
draw, look at screens and anything that requires accuracy. This is
because the lower visual field is more sensitive than the upper visual
field (Ungerleider, 1994). As a consequence, when seafarers are
looking down at ship instruments and then glance upwards to look
out to sea, they are not using their best field of vision. The difficulties
for locating and identifying objects while on a lookout also depend
on external factors. For example, while the position and brightness
of lights on larger vessels may be sufficient for seafarers to detect,
locate and identify, this will often not be the case on smaller craft.

2.5: Visual size and distance

In day to day activities, humans categorize objects they see by size,
shape and location. This experience of the world is called visual
space. However, visual space is not the same as the actual physical
space, as it is a distorted interpretation that the human brain uses to
process the information of the world around us. Within visual space,
the perceived size and distance and true size and distance often vary
(Loomis et al., 1992). If either size or distance is mistaken, both
factors will be incorrect as when an object's size is underestimated,
its distance will be overestimated, and vice versa. Moreover, more
errors in size-judgment appear with increasing distance, i.e., the
further the object is, the more likely it is to be perceived falsely. The
size, distance and the sense of space can change in different sea or
deck conditions, for example, in adverse weather conditions, when
seafarers are tired or when the light in the room is changing. Seeing
size and distance relies on the “Where” system for distance and both
the “What” and “Where” systems for size. Thus, perception proves
to be highly demanding for seafarers which is why it is crucial for
them to use as many clues as possible from different data points,
including their colleagues (Loomis et al., 1992; Ungerleider, 1994).

3: Decision making at sea

The cliché “two heads are better than one” is based in some truth.
Research suggests that collective perception tends to be better than
that of the individual perception. When a group is asked to estimate
the size and distance of an object, they produce more accurate results
than any single individual. Within a group, people tend to
communicate and reach a compromise, which is more accurate than
individual estimates (see Miner, 1984). This is at the root of good
crew decision making (Figs. 3 and 4).

FIG. 3 Simplified diagram of brain regions related

to perception and decision making.
 FIG. 4 The key components of decision-making
that affect safety at sea.

3.1: Communication and culture

The culture of communication between the crew onboard a vessel is
one of the most, if not the most important aspects for keeping a
vessel running effectively and avoiding emergency situations. The
culture and communication on a vessel can vary from ship to ship,
crew to crew or even shift to shift. Every ship develops its own
culture, and it is important to take this culture into account when
communicating important information. It is important to ensure
clarity of communication by using closed-loop communication in
which clear answers and feedback are provided at every stage of the
process. Crews that do not promote questioning of actions and clear
communication between their members can fall into the trap of
allowing events to unfold even when they know them to be
dangerous. This can happen when other crew members discourage
an individual from intervening in an emergency situation. This is
known to happen in particular when people are fearful of
communicating with their superior officers or have low confidence
because of tiredness, politeness or fear of embarrassment or
reprimand. This is exemplified by the 1999 KoreanAir Cargo Flight
8509 which crashed shortly after take-off. The black-box revealed
that the crew present in the cockpit did not question their captain on
his course of action, which was directly counter to what he was told
by ground control, and also did not inform or challenge him on any
information being given by the numerous alarms and gauges. The
crash killed all on board and while extreme, is a good example
where the failure to communicate coupled with a strict and closed
culture, at the time the norm for the airline, can have devastating
consequences (Halsey, 2013).

3.2: Trusting our guts

The interface between individual and machine is part of everyday
operations. Seafarers perform a balancing act between trusting each
other, their perception, instincts, experience, and the electronic
equipment, which is vital for making quality decisions. In a decision-
making act, one can either opt for an intuitive decision, or an
analytical one (Dane et al., 2012). Understanding the benefits and
limits of both is essential to improve the performance of all seafarers.
In the case of seafarers, intuition involves decisions based on
experience, perception, interpersonal trust, and instincts.
Conversely, analytical decisions would be driven by reason,
evaluating the costs and benefits, reviewing electronic equipment
and protocol, or discussion and communication.
Traditionally one would associate intuitive decision making with
bias and risk, which lead scholars to promote analytical decision
making in the past (Dawes et al., 1989; Tversky and Kahneman,
1982). However, recent research such as Dane et al. (2012), Sinclair
and Ashkanasy (2005), have demonstrated a strong link between
high domain expertise and the effectiveness of intuitive decision
making. In some particular conditions, heuristics could improve
decision making (Gigerenzer, 2008). Experience and expertise are
consequently essential conditions that enhance the efficiency of our
decision making and trust in our intuition. They have the advantage
of being rapid and operating within automatic cognitive operations
(Gigerenzer, 2008). This shows the importance of being confident
with one's expertise and intuition rather than relying solely on
electronic instruments. It is important to note that intuition over
analysis has only been demonstrated in non-decomposable tasks (see
Hammond et al., 1987). Therefore, non-decomposable tasks and high
expertise are two essential conditions to intuition.
There are, of course, limits to intuition. Primarily, as mentioned, it
is not suited for all tasks. Decomposable tasks tend to be resolved
more efficiently through analytical decision making (Hammond et
al., 1987), due to the nature of the tasks. In addition, relying solely on
intuition can lead to overconfidence. It is important to distinguish
expertise from familiarity. Poor decision making and failure to
follow protocols can lead to bad habits which become ingrained in
the experience. This can lead even the most experienced seafarer to
forget to focus or disregard important information. For example, a
seafarer's experience helps to develop rules of thumb or habits, such
as prioritizing information from screens over eyes or vice versa, as
each situation demands.
The sea is a constantly changing environment with unstable
variables and a high degree of unpredictability. By knowing the
limits of some acquired habits, knowing when to trust their
intuitions, respecting the expertise of the experienced, seafarers can
prevent incidents and collisions. Research on intuition and its
effectiveness is still scarce and empirical data continues to be very
limited. Hence, its application to the maritime industry remains
unexplored territory.
3.3: Group decisions
Human error continues to be the main cause of most maritime
casualties (Marine Insight Network, 2020). Naturally, some level of
human error is a factor in any industry that involves human labor.
However, there are effective ways of limiting these errors, and one of
them is by favoring group decisions over individual ones. Many
collisions are due to crew members making decisions on their own
and avoiding discussions with others. As individuals, people have
different biases and succumb to different forms of illusions. By
involving two or more crew members in the decision-making
process, seafarers are less reliant on individual biases and lessen the
chances of a mistake. Questioning other team members about one's
actions is a habit that should be encouraged. The lessons learned
from Bridge Resource Management and Engine Room Control
Management training promote an appreciation of the need for
challenge, intervention, teamwork and effective closed-loop
communications. By making group decisions seafarers are able to
catch each other's errors earlier, preventing them from leading to a
mistaken course of action. In addition, when navigating, seafarers
are all individually exposed to different inputs, but they do not
necessarily have access to the same information. Focusing on one
specific element makes people ignore other elements and factors.
This can lead to making decisions based purely on individual
perceptions, which can be misleading. This is why it is important to
communicate information clearly with the crewmates—it provides a
broader view of events and helps to come up with more relevant and
useful solutions.
Nevertheless, it is important to acknowledge the limits and pitfalls
of group decision making. Group decision making implies the
expression of each member's information. However, the optimal
decision will greatly depend on which information is shared or not
shared. Sub-optimal group choices also occur, usually because of a
lack of proper communication skills. The work of Stasser and Titus
(1985) has greatly improved our understanding of hidden profiles in
group decision making. Hidden profiles represent a situation in
which unshared information during group discussion could provide
an optimal group choice (Stasser and Titus, 2003). These situations
usually occur because of a shared information bias (Baker, 2009;
Forsyth, 2009). One tends to discuss information that is known by all
group members. Not discussing unshared information leads to a
hidden profile, which can lead to harmful consequences. In the case
of shared information biases and hidden profiles, members of a
group do not provide all of the relevant information. In fact, partial
information sharing can lead to wrong decision making. It is
therefore essential to identify methods to limit such situations.
To maximize the efficiency of group decision making, members
need to put all their attention to pooling and integrating information
in a way that takes unshared information into account. Schulz-Hardt
et al. (2006), as well as Brodbeck et al. (2002), have shown that pre-
discussion dissent, i.e., a diversity of preferences within the group,
can favor the use of unshared information, limiting hidden profiles.
Indeed, dissent provides greater divergence, consideration of
different perspectives, and intensity during discussion. This allows a
deeper consideration of the available information, encouraging
members to share all of their available information. Considering the
influence of dissent on hidden profiles, not only is it beneficial to
provide better awareness and training regarding these issues, it is
equally important to enhance the degree of dissent within members.
This can be done by engaging seafarers in divergent roles, focusing
on different inputs. For instance, if a seafarer, at night, solely relies
on the radar and another on the visible lights on deck, input
information may differ, providing space for dissent. Conversely, if
they were both to rely on both sources of input, there would be less
room for exhaustive discussion, which would limit the questioning
of incoherencies in the shared information. Nevertheless, specific
research needs to be done to provide more solid evidence
highlighting this effect in the case of seafarers.
Multiple points can already be taken into account to improve
decision making on a vessel. Encouraging communication and
discussion as a group is essential. In addition, proper training aimed
to improve communication skills can considerably improve the
 p y p
efficiency of group decision making, reducing potential pitfalls.
Improving the ability of expressing information in a clear way, as
well as identifying and tackling faulty listening habits that impede
information processing, can positively impact the decision-making
process. Indeed, focusing on such skills would allow greater pooling
and integration of each member's information.

3.4: Fatigue
Fatigue at sea takes many forms and has many different causes.
Fatigue is an important factor in human errors and incidents at sea,
especially at night. First of all, what is known as visual fatigue is a
key component. Human brains can only pay attention to a limited
amount of information at a time. By continuously looking at radars,
ECDIS or machinery space screens, there are a number of things
seafarers need to focus on and as a result, they are constantly at the
limits of perception as well as decision making. Indeed, being
exposed to screens for long amounts of time has been shown to
cause visual fatigue. This can be due to temporal or spatial
inconsistencies, unsatisfactory representation of depth, or
disturbances of the accommodation-vergence linkage (Lambooij et
al., 2009), that can confuse human perception. This causes
unpleasant visual fatigue and discomfort which decreases
performance (Lambooij et al., 2009). The constant pressure on
seafarers' perception can lead to omitting some information, that
their brain is no longer capable of perceiving. This can then, in turn,
result in worsened decision making.
What is more, shift work is known for its disruptive effects on
one's normal body clocks as well as one's social life. Rotating shift
work has been associated with a decrease in cognitive ability and
this association becomes stronger over time. Indeed, it interferes
with the circadian and homeostatic regulation which in the long run
can lead to sleep disorders (Åkerstedt and Wright, 2009) and be
damaging for the seafarer's health with adverse effects on physical
and mental health, increasing risks of cancer, depression, multiple
sclerosis and immunodeficiency disorder, to name a few (Shen et al.,
2006).
Consequently, managing fatigue is important for life at sea,
onshore, and even in retirement. When working shifts, days can pass
without seafarers seeing daylight—if a seafarer works during the
day, they are usually in a room with artificial lighting and if they
work night shifts, they sleep during the day. This is another cause of
fatigue as well as insomnia. The result is a decreased ability to make
decisions and to understand one's environment. Shift workers are
more likely to have vitamin D deficiency (Sowah et al., 2017) as their
exposure to the sun is minimal, and this has also been linked to
worsened cognitive functioning as well as to low mood and
depression, especially in older adults (Wilkins et al., 2006).
Shift work can considerably impact the wellbeing and
performance of a seafarer, which can have dangerous consequences
on the security of a ship. Consecutive night shifts, for instance,
reduce alertness and reaction time (Totterdell et al., 1995). Social
satisfaction, as well as ability to perform, increases with the number
of rest days (Totterdell et al., 1995). For this reason, it is essential to
consider rest periods to recover. Research specifically conducted on
the amount of rest needed for seafarers, taking into the account the
length of a voyage, remains to be done. Regardless of the length of
the voyage, the MARTHA report (Barnett et al., 2017) indicates that
61% of seafarers feel more tired at the end of the voyage than at its
beginning. However, much higher levels of sleepiness were recorded
on the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale for seafarers on board for more
than 6 months (Barnett et al., 2017). In-depth research on the optimal
length of a voyage should be conducted. Combining all these factors
—shift work, lack of daylight, stress and pressure—fatigue may
negatively impact health as well as how the jobs are carried out.

4: Conclusion: Using neuroscience to improve

safety at sea
Having surveyed perception, decision making and fatigue at sea, it is
clear that an understanding of a psychological and neuroscientific
basis of these processes plays a crucial role for safety at sea.
Understanding of the processes is not only important for seafarers
during their day-to-day operations, but should be also considered by
the designers and manufacturers of vessels, operation managers as
well as policy makers and maritime regulators.
As it has been emphasized throughout the paper, the seafarers are
constantly working at their perceptual limits, having to constantly
process a large amount of information. Consequently,
understanding the limits of human perception, as in the case of the
number of objects being tracked and held in the working memory, is
vital. Because of the limits of perception, it is not optimal for
individuals to work alone on safety-critical activities but the
seafarers should rather closely cooperate with their colleagues.
Comparing individual perception to that of another individual
decreases the likelihood of occurrence of human errors and is good
practice for safety at sea. In addition, multiple clues should be used
to judge size, distance and motion when on a lookout. It has been
found that safety at sea is especially critical during night when limits
of human perception are pushed even further in addition to working
at times when the human body should be asleep. One of the key
issues of perception at sea during the night is inadequate adaptation
of the eyes to darkness. It has been identified through the interviews
that seafarers spend much less time adapting their eyes to the
darkness before starting their shift at the bridge than the
recommended 30 min. The seafarers' night vision is also being
compromised by exposure to bright screens and use of torches. We
suggest that the maritime industry sets recommendations for
luminance levels of workstations and for the use of red light instead
of blue light when possible.
As in the case of perception, it is equally true for decision making
that cooperation with colleagues is essential for safety at sea.
Decisions should be made by groups instead of by an individual
whenever possible. Workplace culture that promotes questioning of
decisions, including those of senior crew members by lower-ranked
members will help to counteract the errors caused by individual
decision making. Equally, an explicit layout of the hierarchy on
 g q y p y y
board will favor effective and successful decision making, where
every member of crew knows who to report to, and upon whom the
final call lies. Closed-loop decision making, meaning to question and
agree on an outcome as well as to evaluate a decision at each stage of
decision making, will also help to improve safety as verifying
information with colleagues increases the likelihood of the
information being unbiased. Crucially, participation of all crew
members should be encouraged for successful decision making and
to avoid the bystander effect. Finally, stress can lead to risky
decisions, especially in emergency situations, and thus it is again
necessary to cooperate with colleagues to decrease the likelihood of
making a wrong decision.
The physical, as well as mental wellbeing of the seafarers, is
critical for their ability to prevent accidents at sea. They are
commonly operating under stressful conditions, being severely
sleep-deprived and not being exposed to sufficient amount of
daylight. Thus it is central for safety at sea to ensure a healthy
working environment for the seafarers and to provide them with a
possibility of having regular doctor appointments. We hope that
future studies will continue to be concerned with the safety and
wellbeing of seafarers and apply their findings to real-world
concerns.

Acknowledgments
This project was carried out at the request of CHIRP Maritime in a
collaborative study funded by the Lloyd's Register Foundation. We
are especially grateful to Captain John Rose and Captain Jeff Parfitt
for their guidance.

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Another random document with
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during our stay amongst the ice. When I say “in a rush” it is only
relatively speaking. For a rush was impossible in our circumstances.
The pilot’s room offered good sleeping accommodation for two people
if they went to bed quietly and carefully. There were so many uprights,
struts, and pipes that our bedroom had the appearance of a birdcage.
The making of a miscalculated movement landed one against a pipe or
a strut, sometimes both. In addition to this one could not stand at full
height. To speak of a rush under such conditions is therefore stupid.
The sight which met us when we put our heads through the trap-door
was interesting, but not altogether inviting. It was interesting to note
how much four desperate men can straighten out. The pool we had
made was now covered with ice in the center of which N 25 was stuck.
The pressure was tremendous and a catastrophe seemed
unavoidable. Gathering all his strength, Riiser-Larsen sprang like a
tiger. He jumped high in the air in order to land anywhere on the ice
which jammed the seaplane. The result was always the same. The ice
broke under him without resistance. Omdal had got hold of a tool (I
don’t know which one) and helped his comrade splendidly with its aid.
Larsen pushed for all he was worth against the seaplane’s nose and
tried to free it from the ice pressure. By this united work they managed
to loosen the machine about 45° and thereby lighten the pressure
against the sides. In the meantime Ellsworth and I were occupied in
putting the provisions and equipment on the old ice. We were masters
of the situation at last, but it was a near thing that time.
To return to our old quarters was unthinkable, so we looked round
for a safe place somewhere else. We lay in a favorable position for
crossing to N 24 and decided it might be wise to pursue this course.
There was a possibility that we might reach it by way of the new ice,
but this seemed unlikely after our last experience. However we would
try our best to get over because it would be an advantage to be able to
use N 24’s petrol without transporting it. Moreover it appeared that
conditions across there were calmer and offered a safer resting place.
That this was not the case we shall see later.
Thus we began again to hack and to level and by breakfast time
the track was finished. Exactly as though we ourselves had dispersed
it the fog lifted, and we could soon start. This reminds me of an
amusing occurrence, amusing for others, but not exactly for me. On
account of the small accommodation in the machines it was necessary
for us always to move about in tabloid form, bent, drawn together and
compact. The result of this was cramp, sometimes in the legs, in the
thighs, in the stomach, in the back. These attacks came on at the most
inopportune moments and the martyr was a never-failing object of
general amusement. Everything was ready that morning for departure
and I suddenly remembered my glasses which I had forgotten in the
mess and which I now rushed to fetch. But it was a mistaken move on
my part. My first hasty jerk gave me cramp in both thighs with the
result that I could not move from the spot. I heard titters and giggles
and notwithstanding the infernal pain I could not do otherwise than join
in the general amusement.
The second start was not more fortunate than the first. The ice
broke all the way and N 25 became famous as an icebreaker. One
good result came from it, however, namely, that we got near to the
other machine. That presented a sad appearance as it lay there lonely
and forlorn with one wing high in the air, and the other down on the ice.
They had been lucky enough to get its nose up on to a grade of the old
ice floe, but the tail lay right out in the ice.
The conditions here seemed quite promising. We had an open
waterway about 400 meters long with fine new ice quite near. The third
attempt to start was undertaken the same afternoon but without result.
We decided to join up the waterway and the new ice. It was possible
that the great speed one could attain on the waterway would carry one
up onto the ice and if that happened there was a big chance of rising in
the air as the track would then have become about 700 meters long. At
2 a.m. on the 4th June we started the work, continuing all day. As by
eventide we had got the track finished, down came the fog and
prevented us from starting. A little later the ice got rather lively,
beginning to screw during the night. Fortunately it was only the new-
frozen ice, but even it was eight inches thick. There were pipings and
singings all round us as the ice jammed against the machine. The
methods and tools we now used were most original. Dietrichson armed
himself with a four-yard-long aluminium pole with which he did
wonderful work. Omdal used the film camera tripod, which was very
heavy, ending in three iron-bound points. Every blow therefore was
trebled and was most effective. Riiser-Larsen was the only one who
had brought rubber boots with him; these reached to his waist. As the
ice encroached it was met by ringing blows. The battle against it
continued the whole night and by morning we could once again look
back upon a conquest. Meantime the old ice had crept up nearer to us.
It now appeared as though the “Sphinx” was taking aim at us; this was
an ugly forbidding iceberg, formed in the shape of the Sphinx. The
movements of the ice had caused the sides of the waterway to set
together and our starting place was ruined again. The fog lay thick on
the 5th of June while fine rain was falling. The ice cracked and piped
as though it would draw our attention to the fact that it still existed.
Now what should one do?
With his usual energy Riiser-Larsen had gone for a walk that
afternoon amongst the icebergs accompanied by Omdal; they wished
to see if they could find another place which could be converted into a
starting place. They had already turned round to return home, as the
fog was preventing them from seeing anything, when suddenly it lifted
and there they stood in the center of the only plain which could be
used. This was 500 meters square and not too uneven to be made
level by a little work and patience. They came back happy and full of
hope and shouted to the “Sphinx”: “You may be amused and smile
even when others despair—even when the position is hopeless we still
sing with pleasure aha! aha! aha! Things are improving day by day.”
The “Sphinx” frowned! It did not like this!
 COLLECTING SNOW BLOCKS FOR A RUN-WAY
The way to the plain which the two men had found was both long
and difficult, but we lived under conditions where difficulties frightened
us no more. First of all the machine must be driven there—about 300
meters through new ice to a high old plain. Here we would have to
hack out a slide to drive the machine up. From here the road crossed
over to the Thermopylæ Pass, which was formed by two moderately
sized icebergs, and ended in a three-yards-wide ditch over which the
machine must be negotiated on to the next plain. On the other side
one could see the last obstacle which must be overcome in the form of
an old crack about five yards wide with sides formed of high icebergs
and loose snow—rotten conditions to work in. Early on the morning of
the 6th the work was started. After breakfast we took all our tools and
attacked the old ice where the grade should be built. In order to get to
this spot we had to pass round a corner which took us out of sight of
N 25. Under general circumstances one would not have left the
machine unattended, but conditions were otherwise than general and
we had no man we could spare. Singing “In Swinemunde träumt man
im Sand,” the popular melody associated with our comfortable days in
Spitzbergen, we used our knives, axes, and ice-anchor to the best
advantage, and fragments of ice flew in all directions. It is with pride
and joy that I look back on these days, joy because I worked in
company with such men, proud because our task was accomplished.
Let me say quite frankly and honestly that I often regarded the
situation as hopeless and impossible. Ice-walls upon ice-walls raised
themselves up and had to be removed from our course; an
unfathomable gulf seemed to yawn before us threatening to stop our
progress. It had to be bridged by cheeky heroes who, never grumbling,
tackled the most hopeless tasks with laughter and with song.

TRYING OUT OUR BULB SEXTANTS

 FAST IN THE ICE
At 1 p.m. we went on board for soup. The ice was then calm. The
“Sphinx” lay in the same position. Oh! how good the thick pemmican
soup tasted! Five hours’ hard work on a cup of chocolate and three
small oatcakes gives one a good appetite. At 4 p.m. Dietrichson went
on board to fetch something, and on his return remarked that it
seemed to him that the old ice was approaching the seaplane. Now,
he, during the last days, had suffered a little from snow blindness and
we thought accordingly he had made a mistake. It was indeed a
mistake. We should have gone at once and looked into the matter.
One must however remember that every second is precious and that
we grudged stopping work. At 7 p.m. we went on board to eat our three
biscuits. The sight which then met us would have filled the bravest
heart with despair. The great pack had approached the seaplane to
within some meters. The “Sphinx” seemed to bow and chuckle with
amusement. Now it would have us! But it had laughed too soon. The
six men that it now looked upon were not the same six who some days
ago had arrived through the air from a place full of life’s comforts; the
six now were hardened by obstacles, weariness and hunger, and they
feared nothing on earth, not even the “Sphinx.” “Hurrah! heroes.
Hurrah for home and all we hold dear. The devil take the ‘Sphinx.’” And
so the work began and in its performance we got more self-confident
than ever before, as we managed to turn the heavy machine round in
the course of a few minutes. What task each person specially
performed it is difficult to say, but it was a Herculean task. We lay
down, we pulled, we toiled, we scratched. “You shall go round!” Before
we realized it there it was, turned 180° and the course set for the new
slide. The “Sphinx” hung its head and looked sad; but the next day it
lay exactly on the spot where N 25 had lain. During this performance
N 24 was pushed on to the plain beside which it had lain. Still a little
more leveling and the slide was ready. To shouts of joy the machine, in
the evening at eleven o’clock, was driven over the track and stopped
exactly beside the Thermopylæ Pass. To-morrow there would not be
much to be done.
The 7th of June. Norway’s Day! At home they would be wearing
light summer clothes and enjoying life, while flags flew over the whole
land from the North Cape to Neset. But don’t think that we forgot this
day. No! From the N 25’s highest point our silk flag flew and our
thoughts—oh! don’t let us think at all of them!
The side of the pass was formed by two gigantic icebergs which
would have to be more than half cut down before the wings could pass
over and the great ditch had to be filled up with ton after ton of snow.
But the 7th of June is a good day to work for homesick folk. The knives
are driven with greater certainty, the axes swung with greater power,
and in a remarkably short time the ice giants dwindled to dwarfs. We
experienced a very exciting episode on this occasion. While Riiser-
Larsen drove the machine over the snow glacier Dietrichson went past
and did not get out of the way. At the last moment he threw himself
down flat on the ground and the tail-skid passed so near to him that I
could not see daylight between. It was in the words’ fullest meaning a
narrow escape. “I saw you all right,” remarked the pilot later. “But I
could not stop in the middle of the bridge.” That his words were true
was proved by looking back and noting that the bridge was no longer
there. It was a delightful feeling to sit on a “flynder” and rush across the
snow plains. It was not often we got the satisfaction, as we usually had
to stand by ready to push or haul the machine over the snow. But this
intermediate plain was hard and the pilot could manage to steer with
the wheel. And thus we stood before the last ditch which had to be
filled and leveled. It took us six hours before it was finished and the
machine landed in safety on the big plain. It had been thawing the
whole day and was uncomfortably warm for working, but one could
always throw some clothes off. We were not so particular about our
appearance.
The 8th of June brought us fog and half a degree of heat. It
drizzled the whole time and we were exceptionally uncomfortable. We
were now faced by another hard task, namely, turning the machine
round in the deep wet snow. We were unused to this work and
consequently were fairly clumsy. In addition to this we had to decrease
our daily rations from 300 to 250 grammes, insufficient to keep up our
strength. Our work in the deep wet snow of this plain was wearying.
More wearying than ever before. Do you remember, comrades, how
we made the turning platform? You will scarcely have forgotten that?
The machine had to be driven up to the starting place and then swung
round 180° to face the right direction. The snow as already said was
deep and wet, and any turning of the machine under these conditions
was hardly possible. What should we do now? There was only one
thing to be done, namely, to dig down to the ice and turn the machine
on that. The snow here was from two to three feet deep and every
spadeful was a heavy weight to lift, particularly as we used the big
shovels. We cleared a circular place with a diameter of fifteen meters.
That got the name “turning-table.” Had we solved our problem by this
you might have forgotten the turning-table by now, but when we tried to
turn the machine, we found that the skids caught in the ice and
stopped the whole progress. Again we were faced with the question
—“What shall we do?” And some one was struck by a bright idea—to
lay a snow-skate underneath. We all agreed the idea was good, but to
accomplish it was not easy. We must lift the machine and it weighed
four and one-half tons. But even that did not frighten us. It was not to a
great height that we had to lift it—just about two centimeters, but only
five men were available while the sixth must place the snow-skate
underneath. Never mind, come on, my heroes. Lay your shoulders to
the wheel and lift. And then five backs are bent in unison, and one!
two! three!—we had got it up on the snow-skate at last. We continued
working steadily, regardless of time’s flight, from 4 a.m. on the 8th of
June to 4 a.m. the next day. During that time starting place No. 5 was
worked on, tried, and approved. The fog lay thick and heavy while the
drizzle continued all day on the 9th, but Riiser-Larsen insisted that the
track should be completed. Think now what a problem we had before
us when we started to work that morning. A track—500 meters long—
twelve meters broad—should be made in wet snow three feet in depth.
The snow cleared away from the track must be thrown at least six
yards away from each side so that it should not get in the way of the
machine. We had lived on 250 grammes daily for several days so you
will not be astonished when I say that by evening we were absolutely
worn out. I watched, with wonder, the two giants who wielded the
shovels all day. We others did what we could, but our work was trifling
compared to theirs. On the 11th we set to again after breakfast, but we
could not keep up this strenuous work; an observer would have
noticed at once that he had a number of worn-out people before him.
The clang of the spades got slower, the rest-intervals longer and
longer till in the end we stood quite still and stared at each other. It
seemed an impossibility to get the snow shoveled aside in a
reasonable time. Whilst we stood discussing it, Omdal walked up and
down in the snow. It was only a chance that he did so, but a chance
which brought about important results. “See,” he shouted suddenly,
“this is what we can do instead of shoveling.” The place where he had
trekked was quite hard and with a little frost would give a splendid
surface. In the afternoon we started our great trek. Foot by foot of the
track of soft wet snow was trodden into a solid road. It was still
thawing, but we knew that if it turned frosty it would become a perfect
track—and it was only natural to expect that frost would come. To
make the surface even we had to remove long and high stretches of
ice-formation containing tons upon tons of ice. On the 14th of June as
we laid down our tools I don’t think I exaggerate when I say that all in
all we had removed 500 tons of ice and snow. That day we made two
starts, 6 and 7, but the foundation was still too soft as we had had no
constant frost. Certainly the temperature that day had been as low as
-12° c., but then it rose immediately after to 0° again. It was impossible
to get up sufficient speed to rise, the machine sank down into the
snow, and in a number of places dragged the whole of the underlying
snow with it. Now will it freeze or not?
The 15th of June was fixed as the latest day for our next attempt to
start. If that was not successful we must collaborate and decide what
could be done. There were not many courses to choose. Either we
must desert the machine and attempt to reach the nearest land, or we
must stay where we were and hope for an opportunity to rise in the air.
We had performed the miracle of leaving Spitzbergen with one month’s
provisions, and yet after four weeks had passed we found we had
provisions for six weeks. We could thus hold out until the 1st of
August. In my lifetime I have often been faced by situations where I
found it difficult to decide on the right course of action, but to choose in
this case with any degree of certainty was more difficult than the
making of any previous decision. The first alternative—to set off in
search of land—appeared to me to be the most sensible as, should our
provisions run out, it was possible further south that we might find
edible animal life. In addition this plan had the great advantage that it
would occupy our thoughts with the work we had ahead. Against this
plan the fact of our modest equipment and our probably weakened
condition must be weighed. When I privately considered these two
alternatives I always came to the conclusion that to look for land was
the most sensible, but as soon as I decided on this course a voice
whispered in my ear: “Are you mad, Boy? Will you leave a complete
and good machine, filled with petrol, and go down into the high broken
ice where you know you may perish miserably? A waterway may open
up before you to-morrow and then you will be home in eight hours’
time.” Will any one blame me for my indecision when I found it so
difficult to choose.
On the evening of the 14th we unloaded everything on the ice
except the most necessary, and that we placed in a canvas boat. We
kept sufficient petrol and oil for eight hours, one canvas boat, two
shotguns, six sleeping bags, one tent, cooking utensils and provisions
for a few weeks. Even our splendid ski-shoes had to be set aside as
they were too heavy. Of our clothes we only kept what we could not do
without. All told it amounted to about 300 kg.
On the 15th of June we had a temperature of -3° c. with a little
breeze from the southeast, just the very wind we required. The track
was frozen fine and hard during the night, but the sky was not too
promising—low-lying clouds—but what in all the world did we care
about the sky! The thickest fog would not have kept us back. In this
light the track was very difficult to see; small black objects were
therefore placed at each side so that the pilot would be certain to make
no mistake. A little too much to one side or the other could be fatal. At
9:30 p.m. everything was clear and ready for a start. The solar-
compasses and the engines started. They were three-quarters warmed
up. I cast a last glance over the track and walked along it to pass the
time. It ran from northeast towards southeast. A few yards in front of
the machine there was a small crack across the ice. It was only a few
inches wide, but there it was, and at any moment it might open and
separate the little corner we stood upon from all the rest. For the
distance of 100 meters the track rose quite gradually in order to
become level. Two hundred meters away, on the floe’s southeast end,
there also lay a crack right across, but this was of a much more
serious nature, and had caused us many uneasy moments. It was
about two feet wide and filled with water and mush. This seemed to
show that it was connected with the sea and could give us a few
unpleasant surprises sooner or later. Should this crack widen and tear
away 200 meters of our track, the latter would be entirely ruined. The
floe ended in a three-foot broad water-lane; on the other side of it,
direct in the line of the track, lay a flat forty-meter long plain, which one
will understand was far from ideal, but absolutely the best which the
place could offer us. At 10:30 everything was in order. In the pilot’s
seat sat Riiser-Larsen, behind him Dietrichson and I, in the petrol tank
Omdal and Feucht, and Ellsworth in the mess. Dietrichson was to
navigate us homewards and should really have taken his place in the
observer’s seat in front of the pilot. But as that was too exposed in
view of the nature of the task we were undertaking, his place was
allotted further back at the start. This was undeniably a most anxious
moment. As soon as the machine began to glide one could notice a
great difference from the day before. The hasty forward glide was not
to be mistaken. One hundred meters off, we started at top-speed,
2,000 revolutions a minute. It trembled and shook, shivered and piped.
It was as though N 25 understood the situation. It was as though the
whole of its energy had been gathered for one last and decisive spring
from the floe’s southern edge. Now—or never.
We rushed over the three-meter wide crack, dashed down from the
forty-meter broad floe and then? Was it possible? Yes, indeed! The
scraping noise stopped, only the humming of the motor could be
heard. At last we were in flight. A smile and a nod and Dietrichson
disappeared into the observation compartment.
 And now started the flight which will take its place amongst the
most supreme in flying’s history. An 850-kilometer flight with death as
the nearest neighbor. One must remember that we had thrown
practically everything away from us. Even though we had managed by
a miracle to get away with our lives, after a forced landing, still our
days were numbered.
The sky was low and for two hours we were compelled to fly at a
height of fifty meters. It was interesting to observe the ice conditions,
so we eased down. We believed that in different places we observed
from the sky we could distinguish open water all around us. But it was
not the case. Not a drop was to be seen anywhere, nothing but ice in a
chaotic jumble all around. It was interesting also to see that the floe,
which from first to last had given us freedom, was the only floe within a
radius of many miles which could have been of any use to us. N 24 got
a farewell wave and was lost to sight for ever. Everything worked
excellently, the engines went like sewing machines and gave us
unqualified confidence. Both solar-compasses ticked and worked, and
we knew that if only the sun would appear, they would be of invaluable
assistance to us. The speedometers were placed. By the wheel sat the
pilot, cool and confident as always. In the navigating compartment was
a man I trusted absolutely, and by the engines two men who knew their
work perfectly. Ellsworth spent his time making geographical
observations and photographs. I myself managed to get what was
impossible on the journey north, a splendid opportunity to study the
whole flight. The course was set towards Spitzbergen’s north
coastland, around Nord Kap. In the two first hours we steered by the
magnetic compass. This had been considered an impossibility,
hitherto, so far north, but the result was excellent. When the sun broke
through after two hours and shone direct on the solar-compass, it
showed us how exactly we had steered. For three hours the
atmosphere had been clear, but now it turned to thick fog. We rose to a
height of 200 meters, flying over it in brilliant sunshine. Here we
derived much benefit from the solar-compasses and were able to
compare their readings with the magnetic-compass. We had fog for an
hour and then it cleared again. The condition of the ice was as on the
northern trip, small floes, with icebergs on all sides. There was
apparently no system in its formation; everything was a jumble. There
was more open water than on the northern tour, but no waterways,
only basins.
In 82° N. Lat. the fog descended again. The pilot tried for some
time to fly under it, and this was a flight which would have delighted
people who seek nerve-splitting thrills. The fog came lower and lower
till at last it stretched right over the icebergs. With a speed of about
120 miles at a low altitude one gets a new impression of flying. With a
rush we passed over the top of the icebergs one after the other. At a
great height one does not notice the terrific speed. One is, on the
contrary, astonished how slowly one appears to be traveling. Several
times icebergs peeped up directly under us, so close in fact that I
thought, “We shall never clear that one!” But the next moment we were
across it. There could not have been more than a hair’s breadth to
spare. At last the conditions became impossible; fog and ice blended
into one. We could see nothing. There was another matter as well
which was of special weight, namely, the nearness of Spitzbergen.
Should we fly into the high cliff walls with a speed of 120 kilometers
there would not be much left of us. There was only one thing to do—to
fly over the fog and that was exactly what the pilot decided to do.
Up 100 meters high—and we were above the fog in brilliant
sunshine. It was observable soon that the fog was thinning, it began to
lift more and more in big masses, and soon we could see territory
under it. It was not inviting; nothing but small ice with a little water.
When I speak of the impossible landing conditions it is only to show
that to land here would have meant certain death. Such a landing
would have crushed the machine and sent it to the bottom. The fog
lifted steadily and soon disappeared entirely. It was a fresh southerly
breeze which brought about this welcome change. The fog had lain
thickest in the south, but now that began to move away as well. Large
sections of it tore themselves away from the great mass and
disappeared in small driving clouds. Where was Spitzbergen? Had we
steered so mistakenly that we had flown to the side of it? It was quite
possible. One had no experience in the navigation of the air in these
regions. Over and over again the general opinion of the magnetic
compass’s uselessness in this district came back to my mind as I sat
there. The solar-compass had—as soon as we got the sun—shown a
reading in agreement with the magnetic compass, but it was set at
——? At what? If only I knew! There was probably no ground for
anxiety, yet I felt dubious. We ought to see land by now. We had not
enough petrol to last long—and still no land. Then suddenly a big
heavy fog-cloud tore itself away and rose slowly, disclosing a high
glittering hill-top. There was scarcely any doubt. It must be
Spitzbergen. To the north lay some islands. They coincided with
Syvöene and the land stretched out in a westerly direction. But even if
it were not Spitzbergen, it was still land—good, solid land. From the
islands there stretched a dark strip northwards. It was water—the great
open sea. Oh! what a delightful feeling—sea and land and no more
ice. Our course lay southwards, but to get more quickly away from the
ugly conditions beneath us, the course was set westwards and
downwards to the open sea. It was more than a clever move on the
part of the pilot—it was refreshing to see how instinct came to his aid—
because the controls were showing signs of wear. It is enough to say
before we had got right across the sea the controls jammed and an
immediate landing was necessary. The wind blew with a cold blast
from what we learned later was Hinlopen Strait and the sea was high
and rough. The forced landing was accomplished with all the
assurance and experience which always distinguished our pilot. We
left our places and all went aft in order to allow the nose to lift as high
as possible. The pilot was the only one left forward. He flew most
carefully, guiding the boat and maneuvering it against the highest
waves, which were of tremendous dimensions. We who were aft kept
warm and dry, but it was a different matter for the man at the wheel.
Time after time the waves lashed over him, wetting him to the skin in a
few minutes. It was not “spray” which we shipped when the waves
broke over us. Unused as I was to maneuvers of this kind I expected
every moment to see the bottom stove in. It was seven in the evening
when the forced landing was accomplished, and it was not until eight
that we reached land. It was a fairly shoal bay we entered and the
landing places it offered us were not of the best. We found a sloping
side of the coast ice where we could climb ashore. The wind now died
away and the sun shone on the heavy stones which lay on the beach.
Here and there a little fresh rill ran between them singing as it
descended from the hillsides. The sweet voices of birds fitted in with
our gentle mood of eventide and inspired in us a feeling of solemnity.
There was no need to look for a church wherein to praise God the
Almighty and offer up to Him our burning thanks. Here was a spot
amidst His own wonderful nature. The sea lay smooth and calm with
here and there tremendous pieces of ice protruding from the water.
The whole scene made an ineradicable impression on us which we
shall never forget. The plane was moored to a large piece of ice so
that it swung free, and all of us went ashore. There were two things
which it was necessary for us to do in our own interests. First to
discover our whereabouts and then to have a little food. The chocolate
and the three biscuits we had taken at 8 a.m. no longer satisfied us.
While Dietrichson “took the sun” the rest of us got the meal ready—a
repetition of breakfast. How good it tasted! How fine it was to jump
about among the big rocks! We became children again. All around lay
driftwood which we could use for firing if we remained here any time.
The ninety liters of petrol which we had must be used sparingly.
Omdal, who had been our cook during the whole trip, wished to set
the Primus going, as there was still a little drop of petrol left in it, and
he was busy with it when suddenly Riiser-Larsen shouted, “There is a
ship.” And truly there in the east round the nearest point came a little
cutter, gliding along. Had misfortune earlier been our lot luck seemed
now to overwhelm us. It was now 9 p.m. and Dietrichson had just
completed his observations. We found that we were exactly at Nord
Kap on Nordostland, the very spot we had steered for in the morning.
Thus the flight was a master-stroke on the part of the man who
directed the machine, while the navigator shares the distinction with
him. It was a splendid deed! But—the little cutter had changed her
course and apparently had not noticed us. She moved quickly and was
probably fitted with a motor engine. What should we do? What should
we do to communicate with it? “Nothing easier,” said the flying-men.
“Just sit tight and you shall see.” In a second everything was brought
on board the plane, the motor started and we rushed over the sea
stopping exactly beside the cutter. It was the cutter “Sjöliv” of Balsfjord
—Captain Nils Wollan. A jolly-boat was lowered and with two men
rowed across to us. They seemed in doubt as to who we could be,
dirty and bearded as we were. But when I turned slightly round I
exposed my profile—and they knew us at once. Would they tow us
down to King’s Bay as our petrol was almost done? They would be
delighted to do this, in fact Wollan would have certainly towed us to
China if we had asked him, so glad was he to see us, so beaming with
kindness and goodwill. We had a rope attached to N 25 and we all
went on board the “Sjöliv.” There for the first time we felt that the
expedition was finished. Quietly and calmly we shook hands with each
other—it was a handshake that said much. We were received by all
the crew with hearty welcome and shown down to the cabins. While
this part of the ship was not exactly a ballroom, the cabins on “Sjöliv”—
2 × 2 meters—compared with what we had had in the last four weeks,
were roomy and comfortable. These good people cleared out of them
absolutely and handed over the whole place to us. In the two broad
bunks four of us were able to sleep, while two found berths in the
men’s quarters. “Will you have coffee?” was the first question. Would
we! Yes, certainly, and as quickly as possible with a smoke thrown in.
We had been tobaccoless for the last days and now were longing for a
smoke. The first coffee was not an unqualified success; the coffee pot
was set on the fire to warm and, on a mighty roll the cutter gave, it flew
straight onto Riiser-Larsen’s back. He was thus the first to get coffee,
but if he appreciated the honor, his language expressed a totally
different opinion. They apologized to us for the egg pancake and the
seal-flesh which comprised the next course, but apologies were
unnecessary. All the food disappeared as though a whirlwind had
passed over the table—and this, despite the fact that we had decided
to eat sparingly after our long restriction.
The towing of N 25 proceeded satisfactorily in the beginning, but
during the night a southerly breeze came up blowing directly down
from the hills. The waves increased steadily and as we steered
westwards towards Hinlopen Strait we decided that we must turn
landwards and anchor. We only got to bed at 5:30 a.m., after traversing
an endless number of roods.
At eleven o’clock the next morning we were up again. It was
blowing a gale and we lay badly. We decided therefore that we should
go into the nearest bay to find a calm and safe harborage for N 25, let
it remain there while we went on to King’s Bay for assistance, return
for the seaplane and fly it down. The nearest harbor was Brandy Bay.
We looked at each other as much as to say, “Can we really permit
ourselves to enter a place with such a name?” The ice here lay at the
bottom of the Bay and we towed the machine safely through it. At 8
p.m. we steered for King’s Bay. It was a windy passage through
Hinlopen Strait. The sea was high and rough and the “Sjöliv” enjoyed
herself royally. If our feelings agreed with hers, I should not like to say.
On the 17th we sailed along Spitzbergen’s north coast in summer
sunshine and warmth. We passed a few vessels and asked if they had
seen “Hobby”—but “No, they had not.”
As we passed Virgo-havn we hoisted all our flags and the little
“Sjöliv” was in gala attire. We wanted to honor the memory of the man
who, for the first time, sought to reach the Pole through the air—
Salomon August Andrëe. Was there any one in the world who had
more right to honor the memory of this man than we six who stood
here looking over the place from which he set out on his sad
expedition. I scarcely think so. We lowered our flag and continued.
At 11 p.m. we rounded Cape Mitra and there lay King’s Bay before
us. It was a wonderful sensation to sail back through the Bay and see
all the old well-known places again. The ice had vanished, melted by
the sunshine as loon and auk gamboled in its rays. Anxiety was rife
among us as we sailed in as to whether “Hobby” was here or not? The
skipper looked out, came back and announced that “Hobby” was not
here; only a coal-boat lay by the quay. As we approached one or other
of us went continually to look out; suddenly some one cried, “Yes,
there is ‘Hobby.’ And another boat lies there also, but I can’t distinguish
which it is.” Our relief was great. There lay “Hobby” and many of our
dear friends were near. “Hullo,” some one cried from above, “the other
boat is the Heimdal.’” “No, you must be mad. What would the ‘Heimdal’
be doing here?” answered another. We had not the slightest idea what
awaited us. Nearer and nearer we approached. “Shall we raise the
flag?” said the skipper. “No,” I answered, “there is no reason to do so.”
But a little later some one said, “Surely we must greet the naval flag.”
“Yes, naturally. I have forgotten my good manners on the trip,” I had to
admit. So up went the flag and the “Sjöliv” approached the quay. We
continually had our glasses directed on the ships ahead; suddenly
some one exclaimed, “Good gracious, two flying machines are lying
there.” And, true enough, there lay two Hansa-Brandenburgers ready
for flight. Surely they were destined for a North Coast charting survey,
as that had been discussed last year. Yes, that seemed quite possible!
That we were the reason for all this excitement never entered our
minds. We came on nearer and nearer. We could now see that they
were beginning to direct glasses on us from the Coast, showing
interest in the little cutter. As we sailed in one of our people who saw a
comrade on board the “Hobby” shouted, “Hullo, Finn, how is everything
at home?” That was the signal for great excitement. We saw them run
round each other in jubilation, shouting and gesticulating. What in the
world was the reason for all this? Soon we were to know. The motor
stopped and the “Sjöliv” sailed up alongside “Hobby.”

MEMBERS OF THE EXPEDITION ARRIVING AT KING’S BAY

The reception we received will never be forgotten, not even when
other things fill our thoughts. Our friends wept, they took hold of us,
they looked at us with unbelieving glance—“But, Great God, is it you?”
They simply did not realize that we had returned. But they explained
how they had waited and waited, insisting that they had never given us
up, while in their hearts they knew they had. And suddenly there we
stood among them—the dead returned to life. No wonder that the
reaction was great. Not one sensible word was said during the first half
hour. There stood all our dear old friends: Captain Hagerup, Lieutenant
Horgen, Zapffe, Ramm, Berge, etc. They looked so happy. And there
were the dear fellows who had been sent to our relief: Captain Blom of
the “Heimdal” and First Lieutenant F. Lutzow-Holm with the air fleet.

ROALD AMUNDSEN AND LINCOLN ELLSWORTH AT THE

RECEPTION BY THE KING OF NORWAY
The last to come down, not because he wished to be late, but
because it took him a long time to traverse the road from the Director’s
house, was our dear host, Stakkars Knutsen. He had run so fast that
he had to stand for a time to regain his breath. It was a warm reunion.
Among all who had missed us in that time there was scarcely anybody
whom our absence had made more uneasy. Late and early, we were
told, he had scanned the horizon looking for us. Never had we been
out of his thoughts. Big, strong man as he was, he had the warmest
and softest of hearts. No wonder then that the meeting with Knutsen
was regarded as an outstandingly important incident.
We had to be photographed from all sides, although a record
would appear on the plate of a month’s whiskers and dirt. In an hour
both would have vanished. And so we set off to our old King’s Bay
quarters where we had passed unforgettable days before our
departure. It was like a delightful dream to see it again. Every day as
we had sat in our little mess on N 25 taking our humble meal, it was
remarked on every side, “Oh! if only we were back at Knutsen’s.” And
now we were there. We felt we wanted to pinch ourselves and ask, “Is
this really possible? Can you really eat as many biscuits as you wish?”
There was no time to shave and wash first. No! Berta had now taken
command, and we should first and foremost have food. As we stepped
into the room, cheering broke out. The Station welcomed us back, and
never has our National Anthem sounded finer than it did as we stood in
the little square room listening to the tones of what is our dearest
hymn. I believe there was not one dry eye in the company. “Gud sygne
dig landet vaart. Vi gir dig med glede alt.”
On the next day about three or four o’clock the steam bath was
ready and a change was effected; hair and whiskers disappeared. We
were all very thin, but we noticed it now more distinctly. It looked as
though Riiser-Larsen could have put his collar twice round his neck—
the same size collar which had even been tight for him when he set out
for the north.
What time we went to bed that night I really cannot say, but I do
know that when I came out next morning and looked around, one of
the finest sights met me, making an ineradicable impression. On the
flagstaff, right before the house, waved our big, beautiful National flag
in a light summer breeze. The sun was blazing down and the glaciers
around shone like silver in its rays. All seemed to be in festal dress.
The hills blushed with the finest little flowers, and the birds twittered
and sang. In the harbor lay the boats fully be-flagged. Yes! it was