Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Thirteenth Edition
Darrell S. Vodopich
Baylor University
Randy Moore
University of Minnesota
BIOLOGY LABORATORY MANUAL
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Contents
Preface v Exercise 16
Teaching and Learning Tools ix Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: DNA Isolation and Genetic
Transformation 175
Welcome to the Biology Laboratory xii
Exercise 1 Exercise 17
Genetics: The Principles of Mendel 183
Scientific Method: The Process of Science 1
Exercise 2 Exercise 18
Evolution: Natural Selection and Morphological Change in
Measurements in Biology: The Metric System and Data Analysis 11
Green Algae 199
Exercise 3 Exercise 19
The Microscope: Basic Skills of Light Microscopy 21
Human Evolution: Skull Examination 211
Exercise 4 Exercise 20
The Cell: Structure and Function 33
Ecology: Diversity and Interaction in Plant Communities 223
Exercise 5 Exercise 21
Solutions, Acids, and Bases: The pH Scale 51
Community Succession 233
Exercise 6 Exercise 22
Biologically Important Molecules: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and
Population Growth: Limitations of the Environment 241
Nucleic Acids 59
Exercise 7 Exercise 23
Pollution: The Effects of Chemical, Thermal, and Acidic Pollution 249
Separating Organic Compounds: Column Chromatography, Paper
Chromatography, and Gel Electrophoresis 73
Exercise 24
Survey of Prokaryotes: Domains Archaea and Bacteria 259
Exercise 8
Spectrophotometry: Identifying Solutes and Determining Their
Concentration 83 Exercise 25
Survey of Protists: Algal Autotrophs 275
Exercise 9
Diffusion and Osmosis: Passive Movement of Molecules in Biological Exercise 26
Systems 95 Survey of Protists: Protozoan Heterotrophs 289
Exercise 10 Exercise 27
Cellular Membranes: Effects of Physical and Chemical Stress 109 Survey of the Kingdom Fungi: Molds, Sac Fungi, Mushrooms, and
Lichens 299
Exercise 11
Enzymes: Factors Affecting the Rate of Activity 117 Exercise 28
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Liverworts, Mosses, and Hornworts of
Phyla Hepatophyta, Bryophyta, and Anthocerophyta 315
Exercise 12
Respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic Oxidation of Organic
Molecules 129 Exercise 29
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Seedless Vascular Plants of Phyla
Pterophyta and Lycophyta 325
Exercise 13
Photosynthesis: Pigment Separation, Starch Production, and CO2
Uptake 141 Exercise 30
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Gymnosperms of Phyla Cycadophyta,
Ginkgophyta, Coniferophyta, and Gnetophyta 337
Exercise 14
Mitosis: Replication of Eukaryotic Cells 153
Exercise 31
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Angiosperms 347
Exercise 15
Meiosis: Reduction Division and Gametogenesis 163
TOC–1 iii
Exercise 32 Exercise 43
Plant Anatomy: Vegetative Structure of Vascular Plants 363 Human Biology: Muscles and Muscle Contraction 507
Exercise 33 Exercise 44
Plant Physiology: Transpiration 377 Human Biology: Breathing 515
Exercise 34 Exercise 45
Plant Physiology: Tropisms, Nutrition, and Growth Regulators 385 Human Biology: Circulation and Blood Pressure 525
Exercise 35 Exercise 46
Bioassay: Measuring Physiologically Active Substances 397 Human Biology: Sensory Perception 539
Exercise 36 Exercise 47
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Porifera and Cnidaria 403 Vertebrate Anatomy: External Features and Skeletal
System of the Rat 549
Exercise 37
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Platyhelminthes and Exercise 48
Mollusca 419 Vertebrate Anatomy: Muscles and Internal Organs of the Rat 557
Exercise 38 Exercise 49
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Annelida and Nematoda 435 Vertebrate Anatomy: Urogenital and Circulatory Systems of the Rat 567
Exercise 39 Exercise 50
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phylum Arthropoda 449 Embryology: Comparative Morphologies and Strategies
of Development 579
Exercise 40
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Echinodermata and Exercise 51
Chordata 463 Animal Behavior: Taxis, Kinesis, and Agonistic Behavior 589
Exercise 41 Appendix I
Vertebrate Animal Tissues: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous Dissection of a Fetal Pig 595
Tissues 483
Appendix II
Exercise 42 Conversion of Metric Units to English Units 602
Human Biology: The Human Skeletal System 499
iv TOC–2
Preface
Contents
TO THE INSTRUCTOR
WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION
This manual’s simple, straightforward approach emphasizes
experiments and activities that optimize students’ investment Throughout the manual, we have expanded and improved
of time and your investment of supplies, equipment, and several of the most popular and effective features of
preparation. Simple, safe, and straightforward experiments previous editions, including
are most effective if you interpret the work in depth. Most ∙ Learning Objectives have been updated to provide an
experiments can be done easily by a student in 2 to 3 hours. overview of what students will do and learn in the exercise.
Terminology, structures, photographs, and concepts are lim-
ited to those that the student can readily observe and under- ∙ Procedures and Doing Biology Yourself require stu-
stand. In each exercise we have included a few activities dents to do biology as they apply skills they’ve learned to
requiring a greater investment of effort if resources are avail- develop and study hypotheses they formulate about biology.
able, but omitting them will not detract from the objectives. ∙ Questions throughout each exercise encourage students to
This manual functions best with an instructor’s guid- pause and think about their data and what they’ve learned.
ance and is not an autotutorial system. We've provided back-
∙ Questions for Further Study and Inquiry at the
ground information for context and understanding, but the
end of each exercise help students apply what they’ve
focus of each exercise remains on students doing interesting
learned to broader topics and issues in biology.
and meaningful activities to learn basic information about
P–1 v
∙ Writing to Learn Biology encourages students to use writ- ∙ Exercise 6—Replaced figure 6.9 with a better, more
ing to develop their ideas about what they learned in lab. informative image; Added a table for students to sum-
marize the biochemical tests they performed in the lab;
∙ Caution and Safety First icons make students aware of Added a question to emphasize the significance of acid
safety issues associated with the procedures they’ll use precipitation; Added a boxed insert about using the
in lab. iodine test to detect counterfeit money; Added a boxed
∙ Boxed readings titled Inquiry-Based Learning encour- insert about dietary fats
age students to apply what they’ve learned to indepen- ∙ Exercise 7—Reorganized the procedures for better use
dently answer questions about intriguing biological topics. of time in the lab
∙ Updated health-related exercises help students better ∙ Exercise 9—Revised the Introduction and Diffusion
understand how topics such as genetics, cell biology, sections to emphasize the relevance of osmosis and dif-
blood pressure, atherosclerosis, and their risk of cardio- fusion to general physiology; Enhanced the safety notice
vascular disease relate to our health. to use appropriate PPE; Added question for problem-
∙ Several illustrations have been replaced with photographs solving based on experimental data; Revised captions for
to provide more realistic images to support the Exercise figures 9.7 and 9.9 to emphasize the flow of water into
content. and out of cells
∙ Approximately 90 illustrations and photos have been ∙ Exercise 10—Revised the Introduction to reinforce
revised. understanding of how membranes regulate the move-
ment of materials into and out of cells
∙ Questions within procedures now include lines on which
students can write their answers. ∙ Exercise 12—Replaced figure 12.1 (i.e., rising bread
dough) to show the production of carbon dioxide; Edited
∙ An assignable, updated library of videos and Connect questions for improved understanding; Updated the ter-
questions helps students prepare for lab and understand minology for the citric acid cycle
the instruments and techniques that will be important
for their investigations. Instructors may assign these ∙ Exercise 13—Replaced figure 13.1 to emphasize the
videos before class time to help ensure that students production of oxygen by photosynthesis; Edited the text
arrive prepared for lab. for improved readability and understanding; Corrected
figure 13.10 for improved entry of data by students
∙ Exercise 14—Enhanced the readability of the Introduc-
Exercise-Specific Changes
tion; Expanded the description of chromatids versus
∙ Exercise 1—Edited text for improved readability and chromosomes; Added new figure 14.6 showing the
relevance (e.g., climate change, COVID-19); Improved metaphase plate and chromosomal alignment
questions to help students better understand what sci-
∙ Exercise 15—Revised the Introduction to emphasize
ence is and how science is done
the value of genetic recombination for adaptation to
∙ Exercise 2—Improved the readability of the text and the changing environments; Revised labels of figure 15.1 to
presentation of metric units; Specified the differences better distinguish maternal homologues from paternal
in using a triple-beam balance and an electronic scale; homologues; Revised figure 15.2 to emphasize (1) the
Emphasized the importance of significant figures in replication of chromosomes and (2) the formation of
measurements; Emphasized that in biology, the mean is chromatids; Added new figure 15.6 of spermatogenesis
usually preferred to the median when reporting descrip- to emphasize the steps of maturation from spermatogo-
tive statistics; Added a question about measurements of nium to spermatozoa
COVID-19
∙ Exercise 16—Updated the information about the use
∙ Exercise 3—Improved the instructions for how to use a and yield of genetically modified crops; Edited questions
compound light microscope to emphasize critical thinking about genetically modi-
∙ Exercise 4—Added an objective for understanding the fied crops
relative sizes of cells and organelles; Added a boxed ∙ Exercise 17—Edited the text for improved readability
insert about surface-area-to-volume ratios in cells; Added and understanding; Added updates about phenylketon-
a boxed insert about cellular structure and human disease uria, Huntington’s disease, and familial hypercholester-
∙ Exercise 5—Reorganized and edited the text for emia; Added information and a new image to improve
increased understanding and readability students’ understanding of transposons
vi P–2
∙ Exercise 18—Added an example of calculating Hardy- of Zygomycota; Expanded explanation of asexual versus
Weinberg frequencies sexual reproduction in Zygomycota; Revised figure 27.6b
to emphasize distinctions between sexual reproduction
∙ Exercise 19—Revised figure 19.2 to reflect recent
discoveries about human evolution; Revised Procedure and asexual reproduction in bread molds; Expanded
19.2 to compare the sizes of brain cases in apes versus descriptions in Procedure 27.3 to help students better
humans; Added new figure 19.10 comparing skeletons interpret conjugation plates of Rhizopus; Revised figure
of humans and chimpanzees 27.9 to better distinguish between a sporangium and
conidiophore; Revised figure 27.13 to better distinguish
∙ Exercise 20—Clarified the definitions of soil types; asexual from sexual reproductive structures and processes;
Revised Procedure 20.3 to clarify calculations Revised figure 27.15 to emphasize sexual reproduction in
∙ Exercise 21—Edited the objectives for improved mushrooms; Included coverage and new procedures for
understanding examining Glomeromycota and other mycorrhizae; Added
descriptions and illustrations of mycorrhizae, including
∙ Exercise 22—Plagues; Added a boxed insert about arbuscular and ectomycorrhizae forms; Added new figure
Population Growth and Our Carbon Footprint; Updated 27.18e illustrating the structure of a lichen cross section
information in the text about population and population
growth; Expanded table 22.1 to include 10 generations ∙ Exercise 28—Updated classification information;
of bacterial growth; Emphasized and added a question Replaced figures 28.6 and 28.11 to help students better
about how population growth affects public health, eco- understand the information
nomic stability, social structure, and the well-being of our ∙ Exercise 29—Enhanced figures 29.1 and 29.11 for bet-
environment ter understanding
∙ Exercise 23—Edited text to improve readability and ∙ Exercise 30—Edited text for better readability and
accuracy understanding; Added a question about the distinguish-
∙ Exercise 24—Relabeled figure 24.6 to help students ing features of the groups of plants that students exam-
better understand the structure of bacterial cell walls; ined in this lab
Replaced figure 24.7 to better show steps of the Gram ∙ Exercise 31—Improved table 31.1 and figure 31.5 for
stain procedure; Revised the description and interpreta- better understanding; Improved “Dichotomous Key to
tion of antibiotic effectiveness apparent on bacterial Major Types of Fruit”; Replaced figure 31.18 with bet-
sensitivity plates ter, more informative images and information; Added a
∙ Exercise 25—Enhanced explanations of autotrophic question to emphasize the differences between mono-
versus heterotrophic protistans; Added new figure 25.1 cots and eudicots
to distinguish between algae and protozoans; Replaced ∙ Exercise 32—Edited text for improved readability and
figure 25.5 to better explain Chlamydomonas life cycle; understanding; Improved the description of the endoder-
Expanded the explanation of asexual versus sexual mis and its function; Replaced figure 32.1 to better show
reproduction in unicellular algae; Rearranged the descrip- the differences in tap versus fibrous root systems; Added
tions of brown algae and red algae to adhere to current scale-markers to figures; Edited the text to better empha-
phylogeny based on molecular taxonomic techniques size the differences between gymnosperms and angio-
∙ Exercise 26—Moved the coverage and procedures about sperms; Enhanced figure 32.16 for better understanding;
slime molds forward to better reflect current phylogeny; Added a question to emphasize the differences between
Added new figure 26.8 showing a scanning electron stomata and lenticels
micrograph that emphasizes the cell surface of a ciliate ∙ Exercise 33—Edited the Introduction for improved
∙ Exercise 27—Multiple clarifications of the structures and understanding; Removed the redundant instruction in
processes of asexual versus sexual reproduction in fungi; Procedure 33.2; Added an alternate procedure for making
Revised figure 27.1 to highlight aseptate hyphae; Revised a leaf-impression for counting and visualizing stomata
figure 27.2 to distinguish between sporangia and sporan- ∙ Exercise 34—Emphasized and added a question about
giophores; Expanded the coverage of the major phyla of how plants, unlike animals, have a small number of growth
fungi to include phylum Glomeromycota; Added new regulators that influence many traits; Added scale-markers
figure 27.3b to show infection by chytrid fungi; Revised to figures; Added information about the use of 2,4-D;
table 27.1 to include description and artwork of key repro- Added information about how gibberellic acid is important
ductive features of Glomeromycota; Updated figure 27.4 for increasing yields and profits for grape growers
to better illustrate stolons, spores, and sporangiophores
P–3 vii
∙ Exercise 35—Added text to improve understanding ∙ Exercise 43—Modified labels of figure 43.2 to show the
about bioassays and standard curves; Added a more spe- origin and insertion of triceps brachii
cific question to the “Inquiry-Based Learning” assign- ∙ Exercise 44—Revised figure 44.4 to emphasize how
ment; Added graph paper for reporting students’ results changes of internal air pressure affect the mechanics
∙ Exercise 36—Clarified functional relationships among of breathing; Emphasized the value of measuring lung
spicules, spongin fibers, porocytes, and amoebocytes; capacity to understanding respiratory disease; Clarified
Expanded the description of water flow through a wall Procedure 44.2 to better describe the use of a spirometer
of a sponge as depicted in figure 36.4; Revised figure ∙ Exercise 45—Expanded the procedure for examining a
36.12 to show the relative size of cnidarian medusae; cow heart to include the use of a heart model; Added a
Revised figure 36.16 to show the relative size of ephy- new question to describe heartbeat sounds heard with
rae; Expanded the description of corals to include infor- a stethoscope; Revised figure 45.2 to better show dif-
mation about coral bleaching and coral symbioses with ferences in the walls of arteries versus veins; Revised
algae Procedure 45.2 to better describe the steps to measure
∙ Exercise 37—Significantly revised the sequence of cover- blood pressure; Added new figure 45.7 to illustrate the
age of invertebrate phyla to adhere to current phylogeny anatomy of venous valves; Updated the table for scoring
based on molecular taxonomic techniques; Included risk factors of cardiovascular disease; Questions for Fur-
taxonomic classifications of lophophorazoa and ecdy ther Thought and Inquiry now include library research
sozoa; Positioned coverage of nematodes to immediately to understand diseases of the heart and circulatory
precede coverage of arthropods, as both are now consid- system
ered ecdysozoans; Mollusk coverage now immediately ∙ Exercise 46—Quantified differences in retinal resolu-
follows that of flatworms, as they are both considered tions among humans and other animals; Described and
lophophorazoans; Added new figure 37.3 to illustrate a distinguished sensorineural versus nerve deafness;
trochophore larva; Revised table 37.1 to replace nematode Clarified the steps of Procedure 46.8 to better determine
descriptions with mollusk descriptions; Replaced figure nerve deafness; Updated figure 46.6 to show the size of
37.3 with new art illustrating flatworm anatomy; Replaced the ear drum; Modified Procedure 46.1 to include safety
figure 38.5 with new art illustrating molluscan radula procedures
∙ Exercise 38—Coverage of nematodes now follows that ∙ Exercise 47—Expanded Questions for Further Study
of annelids and Inquiry include an analysis of bipedalism
∙ Exercise 39—Revised figure 39.16 to clarify position of ∙ Exercise 48—Added new figure 48.7 to include art and
retinula cells a photograph showing the structure of microvilli; Rela-
∙ Exercise 40—Revised legend of figure 40.18 to better beled figure 48.6 to show the common bile duct
describe the evolution of jaws among fish ancestors; ∙ Exercise 49—Added new figure 49.4 to illustrate kidney
Changed common name of chordate class Actinopteriy- anatomy with sagittal section
gii from boney fish to ray-finned fish; Added new table
40.3 to provide space for students to organize classes of ∙ Exercise 50—Clarified the distinction between an
vertebrates and their major characteristics embryo and a zygote; Expanded the description of gray
crescent formation; Added new figure 50.5 to illustrate
∙ Exercise 41—Revised Procedure 41.1 to emphasize the formation of a gray crescent; Added new figure 50.8
safety when using stains; Revised figure 41.5 to clearly to illustrate differences between the vegetal pole and
label nuclei of simple columnar epithelial cells; Clari- animal pole; Relabeled figure 50.9 to clearly distinguish
fied the varied functions of connective tissues; Expanded the endoderm and mesoderm; Quantified the egg sizes
Procedure 41.3 to describe the appearance of red blood among birds to emphasize variety in egg anatomy; Rela-
cells and leukocytes on prepared slides; Included new beled figure 50.12 to show albumin
terminology of central canals in place of Haversian sys-
tems of bones ∙ Exercise 51—Added questions to encourage students to
think about agonistic behaviors in humans and why it is
∙ Exercise 42—Clarified the differences between ten- important to try to integrate all aspects of an organism’s
dons and ligaments; Added new figure 42.1 to illustrate behavior
the parts of the human skeleton; Revised figure 42.2
to include labels of the ileum, ischium, and pubis; ∙ Appendix II Updated information about the metric
Expanded the Questions for Further Study and Inquiry system
viii P–4
Teaching and Learning Tools
Contents
T–1 ix
Instructors: Student Success Starts with You
Tools to enhance your unique voice
Want to build your own course? No problem. Prefer to use an
OLC-aligned, prebuilt course? Easy. Want to make changes throughout
65%
Less Time
the semester? Sure. And you’ll save time with Connect’s auto-grading too.
Grading
Top: Jenner Images/Getty Images, Left: Hero Images/Getty Images, Right: Hero Images/Getty Images
Welcome
Contents
to the Biology Laboratory
100
A
B
80
C
D
60
Grade (%)
40
20
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Attendance (% of classes attended)
Figure 1 Relationship of students’ grades in an introductory biology course to their rates of class attendance.
xii W–1
showing how students’ grades in an introductory biology 4. Discuss your observations, results, and conclusions
course correlate to their rates of class attendance. Data are with your instructor and lab partners. Perhaps their
from a general biology class at the University of Minnesota. comments and ideas will help you better understand
On page xv, write an analysis of the data shown in figure 1. what you’ve observed.
What do these data mean? 5. Always follow instructions and safety guidelines pre-
sented by your instructor. Speak up!
6. If you have questions, ask your instructor.
BEFORE COMING TO LAB
Watch the lab video. Videos are provided for several of the SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
labs in this manual. Be sure to watch any assigned video
associated with the lab you will be completing. These videos Laboratory accidents can affect individuals, classes, or the
will help you know more about what you will be doing, what entire campus. To avoid such accidents, the exercises in this
principles you will be investigating, and what concepts you manual were designed with safety as a top priority. You’ll
need to understand before coming to lab. be warned about any potentially hazardous situations or
Read the exercise before coming to lab. This will give chemicals with this image:
you a general idea about what you’re going to do, as well as
why you’re going to do it. Knowing this will not only save
time, it will also help you finish the experiments and make
you aware of any safety-related issues associated with the lab.
Review any of the lab safety concerns. Before doing
When you see this image, pay special attention to the
any procedures, you’ll encounter a section of each exercise
instructions.
titled “SAFETY FIRST” that is marked with its icon:
The laboratory safety rules listed in table 1 will help
make lab a safe place for everyone to learn biology. Remem-
ber, it is much easier to prevent an accident than to deal with
its consequences.
Read the laboratory safety rules listed in table 1. If
This icon will warn you of safety concerns (e.g., solvents, you do not understand them, or if you have questions, ask
acids, bases, hotplates) associated with the work. If you have your instructor for an explanation. Then complete table 1
questions about these safety issues, contact your lab instructor and sign the statement at the bottom of page xv.
before starting the lab work.
Notify your instructor if you are pregnant, are color-
blind, are taking immunosuppressive drugs, have allergies, BEFORE YOU LEAVE LAB
or have any other conditions that may require precautionary
measures. Also, before coming to lab, cover any cuts or Put away all equipment and glassware, and wipe clean your
scrapes with a sterile, waterproof bandage. work area.
W–2 xiii
Table 1
Laboratory Safety Rules
Why is this rule important?
Rule What could happen if this rule is not followed?
Behave responsibly. No horseplay or fooling around while in lab.
Do not bring any food or beverages into lab, and do not eat, drink, smoke,
chew gum, chew tobacco, or apply cosmetics when in lab. Never taste
anything in lab. Do not put anything in lab into your mouth. Avoid touch-
ing your face, chewing on pens, and other similar behaviors while in lab.
Always wear shoes in lab.
Unless you are told otherwise by your instructor, assume that all chemicals and
solutions in lab are poisonous, and act accordingly. Never pipette by mouth.
Always use a mechanical pipetting device (e.g., a suction bulb) to pipette solu-
tions. Clean up all spills immediately, and report all spills to your instructor.
Wear safety goggles when working with chemicals. Carefully read the labels
on bottles and know the chemical you are dealing with. Do not use chemicals
from an unlabeled container, and do not return excess chemicals back to their
container. Report all spills to your instructor immediately.
Unless your instructor tells you to do otherwise, do not pour any solutions
down the drain. Dispose of all materials as per instructions from your
instructor.
If you have long hair, tie it back. Don’t wear dangling jewelry. If you are
using open flames, roll up loose sleeves. Wear contact lenses at your own
risk; contacts hold substances against the eye and make it difficult to wash
your eyes thoroughly.
Treat living organisms with care and respect.
Your instructor will tell you the locations of lab safety equipment, including
fire extinguishers, fire blanket, eyewash stations, and emergency showers.
Familiarize yourself with the location and operation of this equipment.
If anything is splashed into your eyes, wash your eyes thoroughly and
immediately. Tell your lab instructor what happened.
Notify your instructor of any allergies to latex, chemicals, stings, or other
substances.
If you break any glassware, do not pick up the pieces of broken glass with
your hands. Instead, use a broom and dustpan to gather the broken glass.
Ask your instructor how to dispose of the glass.
Unless told by your instructor to do otherwise, work only during regular,
assigned hours when the instructor is present. Do not conduct any unau-
thorized experiments; for example, do not mix any chemicals without your
instructor’s approval.
Do not leave any experiments unattended unless you are authorized by your
instructor to do so. If you leave your work area, slide your chair under the lab
table. Keep walkways and desktops clean and clear by putting books, back-
packs, and so on along the edge of the room, in the hall, in a locker, or in an
adjacent room. Keep your work area as clean and uncluttered as possible.
Don’t touch or put anything on the surface of hotplates unless told to do
so. Many types of hotplates have no visible sign that they are hot. Assume
they are hot.
Know how to use the equipment in lab. Most of the equipment is expen-
sive; you may be required to pay all or part of its replacement cost. Keep
water and solutions away from equipment and electrical outlets. Report
malfunctioning equipment to your instructor. Leave equipment in the same
place and condition that you found it. If you have any questions about or
problems with equipment, contact your instructor.
Know what to do and whom to contact if there is an emergency. Know the
fastest way to get out of the lab. Immediately report all injuries—no matter
how minor—to your instructor. Seek medical attention immediately if needed.
If any injury appears to be life-threatening, call 911 immediately.
At the end of each lab, clean your work area, wash your hands thoroughly
with soap, slide your chair under the lab table, and return all equipment
and supplies to their original locations. Do not remove any chemicals or
equipment from the lab.
xiv W–3
Name _________________________________________
Your lab instructor may require that you submit this page at the end of today’s lab.
2. I have read and I understand and agree to abide by the laboratory safety rules described in this exercise and discussed
by my instructor. I know the locations of the safety equipment and materials. If I violate any of the laboratory safety
rules, my instructor will lower my grade and/or remove me from the lab.
____________________________________________
Signature
____________________________________________
Name (printed)
____________________________________________
Date
W–4 xv
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EXER CISE
Scientific Method
The Process of Science 1
Learning Objectives
By the end of this exercise you should be able to:
1. Define science and understand the logic and sequence of the scientific method.
2. Develop productive observations, questions, and hypotheses about the natural world.
3. Calculate the range, mean, and standard deviation for a set of replicate measurements.
4. Design and conduct a controlled experiment to test a null hypothesis.
5. Understand the difference and connection between a hypothesis and a scientific theory.
Question 1
What practices besides science are used among world
cultures to learn about the natural world?
2 EXERCISE 1 1–2
Specific Question 1
Formulate Hypotheses
©BiologyImaging.com
Well-organized experiments to answer questions require that
Figure 1.2 Pillbugs are excellent experimental organisms to test questions be restated as testable hypotheses. A hypothesis is
hypotheses about microenvironments, such as those under logs and a statement that clearly states the relationship between bio-
within leaf litter. Pillbugs are readily available and easily cultured in logical variables. A good hypothesis identifies the organism
the lab (10×).
or process being investigated, identifies the variables being
recorded, and implies how the variables will be compared.
A further clarification might be “Does yeast absorb A hypothesis is a statement rather than a question, and an
and metabolize carbohydrates better than it absorbs and analysis of your experimental data will ultimately determine
metabolizes proteins?” This is a good, specific question whether you accept or reject your hypothesis. Remember
because it clearly refers to organisms, processes, and vari- that even though a hypothesis can be falsified, it can never
ables that are likely involved. It also suggests a path for be proved true.
investigation—that is, it suggests an experiment. Enter this Accepting or rejecting a hypothesis, with no middle
as Specific Question 2 in Worksheet 1. ground, may seem like a rather coarse way to deal with ques-
tions about subtle and varying natural processes. But using
Question 3
controlled experiments to either accept or reject a hypothesis
Consider the questions “What color is your roommate’s
is effective. The heart of science is gathering and analyzing
car?” and “How many legs do cats have?” To answer these
experimental data that lead to rejecting or accepting hypoth-
questions, would you use the scientific method, or would
eses relevant to the questions we want to answer.
you rely on observation? Why?
In this exercise, you are going to do science as you
investigate yeast nutrition and then experiment with food
choice by pillbugs. As yeast ferments its food, CO2 is pro-
duced as a by-product. Therefore, we can measure the growth
Procedure 1.2 Posing and refining questions of yeast by measuring the production of CO2 (fig. 1.3).
1. Examine the following two questions. A hypothesis related to our question about the growth
of yeast might be:
Question 1: Do songbird populations respond to the
weather? H0: CO2 production by yeast fed sugar is not signifi-
cantly different from the CO2 production by yeast
Question 2: Do songbirds sing more often in warm
fed protein.
weather than in cold weather?
A related alternative hypothesis can be similarly stated:
Which of those questions is more useful for further
investigation? Why? Ha: Yeast produces more CO2 when fed sugar than
when fed protein.
4 EXERCISE 1 1–4
firmly against the inside bottom of the cover tube and Procedure 1.5 Quantify and summarize the data
invert the assembly. Your instructor will demonstrate
1. Examine your raw data in Worksheet 1.
how to slip this slightly larger empty tube over the top of
each yeast tube and invert the assembly. If done properly, 2. Calculate the mean of the response variable (CO2
no bubble of air will be trapped at the top of the tube of production) for the four control replicates. To calcu-
yeast after inversion. late the means for the four replicates, sum the four
values and divide by four. Record the mean for the
7. Place the tubes in a rack and incubate them at 50°C.
control replicates in Worksheet 1.
8. Measure the height (mm) of the bubble of accumu-
lated CO2 after 10, 20, 40, and 60 minutes. Record 3. The CO2 production for each glucose and protein
your results in Worksheet 1 and graph them here: replicate must be adjusted with the control mean.
This ensures that the final data reflect the effects of
only the treatment variable and not the solvent. Sub-
tract the control mean from the CO2 production of
each glucose replicate and each protein replicate, and
Height of CO2
Bubble (mm)
about the mean is standard deviation. It’s easy to calculate: The summation sign ( Σ ) means to add up all the squared
i=1
calculate the mean, calculate the deviation of each sample from deviations from the first one (i = 1) to the last one (i = N).
the mean, square each deviation, and then sum the deviations. The sum of squared deviations (10) divided by the num-
This summation is the sum of squared deviations. For example, ber of samples minus one (4 − 1 = 3) produces a value of
data for CO2 production by yeast in four replicate test tubes 10/3 = 3.3 mm2 (the units are millimeters squared). This is
might be 22, 19, 18, and 21 mm. The mean is 20 mm. the variance:
sum of squared deviations
CO2 Production (mm) Mean Deviation Deviation2 Variance =
N−1
22 20 2 4 The square root of the variance, 1.8 cm, equals the standard
19 20 −1 1 deviation
18 20 −2 4 SD = √Variance = √3.3 = 1.8
21 20 1 1
The standard deviation is often reported with the mean in state-
Sum of squared deviations = 10 ments such as, “The mean CO2 production was 20 ± 1.8 mm.”
The standard deviation helps us understand the spread or
The summary equation for the sum of squared deviations is
variation among replicated treatments. For example, if the
N
– 2 standard deviation is zero, all of the numbers in the set are
Sum of squared deviations = Σ (x
i=1
i
− x)
the same. A larger standard deviation implies that individual
where numbers are farther from the mean.
N = total number of samples
For example, consider these two means and their stan- Answer the Questions
dard deviations (SD):
The results of testing the hypotheses are informative, but
Meana = 10 SD = 5 Meanb = 20 SD = 10 it still takes a biologist with good logic to translate these
Meana − (½)SD = 7.5 Meanb − (½)SD = 15 results into the answers of our specific and general ques-
Meana + (½)SD = 12.5 Meanb + (½)SD = 25 tions. If your specific questions were well stated, then
answering them based on the results of your experiment and
Are Meana and Meanb significantly different according to our hypothesis testing should be straightforward.
test for significance? Yes they are, because 7.5 ↔ 12.5 does
not overlap 15 ↔ 25.
6 EXERCISE 1 1–6
5. Does your experiment adequately answer Specific 4. Calculate the range and standard deviation for your
Question 1? Why or why not? treatments, and record them in Worksheet 2.
5. Test your hypothesis. Determine if the null hypoth-
esis should be accepted or rejected. Record the results
in Worksheet 2.
6. The General Question was “Which nutrients can yeast 6. Answer the Specific Question 2, Specific Question 1,
most readily metabolize?” After testing the hypoth- and General Question posed in Worksheet 2.
eses, are you now prepared to answer this general
question? Why or why not?
Procedure 1.9 Answering the questions: food
preference by pillbugs
1. Examine the results of your hypothesis testing pre-
sented in Worksheet 2.
EXPERIMENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS: 2. Enter your answer to Specific Question 2 in
FOOD PREFERENCE BY PILLBUGS Worksheet 2. Does your experiment adequately
answer this question? Why or why not?
In the previous procedures you developed and recorded
observations, questions, and hypotheses concerning food
preference by pillbugs. Pillbugs may be attracted to dead
leaves as food, or they may be attracted to fungi growing on 3. Enter your best response to Specific Question 1
the leaves as food. Leaves dipped in a yeast suspension can in Worksheet 2. Does your experiment adequately
simulate fungi growing on leaves. Use the following proce- answer this question? Why or why not?
dures as a guide to the science of experimentation and data
analysis to test the hypothesis you recorded in Worksheet 2.
Procedure 1.8 Design an experiment to test 4. After testing the hypotheses, are you now prepared to
food preference by pillbugs answer your General Question “What influences the
distribution of pillbugs?” Why or why not?
1. Design an experiment to test your hypothesis in
Worksheet 2 about food preference by pillbugs. To do
this, specify:
Experimental setup
Question 5
What are some examples of biological theories?
Treatment 1 to be tested
Treatment 2 to be tested
Response variable Throughout this course you will make many predictions and
observations about biology. When you account for a group
of these observations with a generalized explanation, you
Treatment variable have proposed a scientific theory.
In science, as opposed to common usage, a theory is a
well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural
Number of replicates world that usually incorporates many confirmed observa-
tional and experimental facts. A scientific theory makes pre-
Means to be compared dictions consistent with what we see. It is not a guess; on the
contrary, a scientific theory is widely accepted within the
scientific community—for example, the germ theory claims
2. Conduct your experiment and record the data in
that certain infectious diseases are caused by microorgan-
Worksheet 2.
isms. Scientific theories do not become facts; scientific the-
3. Analyze your data. Record the control means and ories explain facts.
adjusted treatment-means in Worksheet 2.
2. Experimental results in science are usually reviewed by other scientists before they are published. Why is this done?
3. Have all of our discoveries and understandings about the natural world been the result of testing hypotheses and
applying the scientific method? How so?
4. Suppose that you hear that two means are significantly different. What does this mean? Can means be different but
not significantly different? Explain your answer.
5. Why do scientists refrain from saying, "These results prove that . . ."?
6. How can science be used to address “big” issues such as climate change and COVID-19?
7. Some people dismiss evolution by natural selection as being “only a theory.” Biologists often respond that yes,
evolution is a scientific theory. What does this mean?
8. A hallmark of a scientific theory is that it is falsifiable. What does this mean, and why is it important?
8 EXERCISE 1 1–8
Worksheet 1 The Process of Science: Nutrient Use by Yeast
OBSERVATION
QUESTIONS
General Question:
Specific Question 1:
Specific Question 2:
HYPOTHESIS H0:
TEST HYPOTHESIS
Glucose x– − (½)SD = Protein x– − (½)SD =
Do the half standard deviations surrounding the means of the two treatments overlap? Yes No
Are the means for the two treatments significantly different? Yes No
ANSWER QUESTIONS
Answer to Specific Question 2
OBSERVATION
QUESTIONS
General Question:
Specific Question 1:
Specific Question 2:
HYPOTHESIS H0:
Treatment 1 Treatment 2
Adjusted for Adjusted for
Replicate Control Replicate Treatment 1 Replicate Treatment 2 the Control –x the Control –x
1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4
Control x– = Treatment 2 x– =
Treatment 1 x– = Treatment 2 range = −
Treatment 1 range = − Treatment 2 SD =
Treatment 1 SD =
TEST HYPOTHESIS
Treatment 1 x– − (½)SD = Treatment 2 x– − (½)SD =
Do the half standard deviations surrounding the means of the two treatments overlap? Yes No
Are the means for the two treatments significantly different? Yes No
ANSWER QUESTIONS
Answer to Specific Question 2
10 EXERCISE 1 1–10
EXER CISE
Measurements in Biology
The Metric System and Data Analysis 2
Learning Objectives
By the end of this exercise you should be able to:
1. Understand the difference between accuracy and precision in measurements.
2. Identify the metric units used to measure length, volume, mass, and temperature.
3. Measure length, volume, mass, and temperature in metric units.
4. Convert one metric unit to another (e.g., grams to kilograms).
5. Use measures of volume and mass to calculate density.
6. Practice the use of simple statistical calculations such as mean, median, range, and standard deviation.
7. Analyze sample data using statistical tools.
12 EXERCISE 2 2–2
Thus, multiply by
Procedure 2.1 Make metric measurements of
0.01 to convert centimeters to meters length and area
0.001 to convert millimeters to meters Most biologists measure lengths with metric rulers or
1000 to convert kilometers to meters metersticks.
0.1 to convert millimeters to centimeters 1. Examine intervals marked on the metric rulers and
For example, there are 10 millimeters per centimeter. There- metersticks available in the lab.
fore, to convert 62 centimeters to millimeters, 2. Make the following measurements. Be sure to include
10 mm units for each measurement.
62 cm × = 620 mm
cm Length of this page
In these conversion equations, the units being converted from Width of this page
(in this case, centimeters) cancel out, leaving you with the Area of this page
desired units (in this case, millimeters). Also note that when (Area = Length × Width)
units are converted to smaller units, the number associated
with the new units will increase, and vice versa. For exam- Your height
ple, 620 meters = 0.620 kilometer = 620,000 millimeters = Thickness of this manual
62,000 centimeters. Height of a 200-mL beaker
Question 2 Height of your chair
a. Make the following metric conversions: Length of your cell phone
1 meter = centimeters = millimeters
92.4 millimeters = meters = centimeters
Question 3
82 centimeters = meters = millimeters
What are some potential sources of error in your
3.1 kilograms = grams = milligrams
measurements?
281 milliliters = liters = deciliters
To help you appreciate the size of each of these units, here To help you appreciate the size of each of these units,
are the lengths and areas of some familiar objects: here are the volumes of some familiar objects:
Length Chicken egg 60 mL
Housefly 0.5 cm Coke can 355 mL
Diameter of penny 1.9 cm One breath of air 500 cm3
Diameter of baseball 7.4 cm
Scientists often measure volumes with pipets and graduated
Soda can 12.2 cm
cylinders. Pipets are used to measure small volumes, typi-
Toyota Camry 4.7 m
cally 25 mL or less. Liquid is drawn into a pipet using a bulb
Mt. Everest 8848 m
or pipet pump (fig. 2.2). Never pipet by mouth.
Area Graduated cylinders are used to measure larger vol-
Credit card 46 cm2 umes. To appreciate how to make a measurement accurately,
Total skin area of adult human male 1.8 m2 pour 40–50 mL of water into a 100-mL graduated cylinder,
Ping-pong table 4.18 m2 and observe the interface between the water and air. This
Surface area of human lungs 80 m2 interface, called the meniscus, is curved because of surface
Football field (goal line to goal line) 4459 m2 tension and the adhesion of water to the sides of the cylinder.
Central Park (New York City) 3.4 km2 When measuring the liquid in a cylinder such as a graduated
14 EXERCISE 2 2–4
a c d
Calibration
(tare) Button
Power Switch
©BiologyImaging.com ©BiologyImaging.com
b
Figure 2.4 Biologists use balances to measure mass. (A) The parts of a triple-beam balance include the (a) zero-adjustment knob, (b) measuring
pan, (c) movable masses on horizontal beams, and (d) balance marks. (B) A top-loading balance has a measuring pan, a power switch, and a zero cali-
bration (“tare”) button.
Question 4 marked with graduations: the closest beam has 0.1-g gradu-
What volume of liquid did you measure? ations, the middle beam has 100-g graduations, and the
farthest beam has 10-g graduations.
Significant Figures
Let’s suppose that you’re measuring the length of a bone, as having the least number of significant figures. For exam-
shown in figure 2.5. How would you record this length—as 8 cm? ple, suppose the air temperature in an incubator drops from
8.3 cm? 8.33 cm? 8.33333 cm? To answer this question, you 8.663°C to 8.2°C. This is a difference of 8.663°C – 8.2°C
need to know something about significant figures. = 0.5°C, not 0.463°C. If the second temperature reading
Significant figures are the number of figures required to had been 8.200°C, then the correct answer would have been
record a measurement so that only the last digit in the number 0.463°C.
is in doubt. For example, if the ruler you’re using is calibrated ∙∙ When converting measurements from one set of units
only in centimeters and you find that the object you’re measur- to another, do not introduce precision that is not present
ing is between 8 and 9 cm long (fig. 2.5), then you should esti- in the first number. For example, 8.3 cm = 83 mm, not
mate your measurement only to a tenth of a centimeter. That is, 83.0 mm.
a measurement of 8.3 cm is acceptable, but 8.33 is not because
it implies a precision that did not exist in the equipment you ∙∙ When manipulating two measurements simultaneously, the
used to make the measurement. If, however, your ruler was precision of the final measurement should not exceed that
calibrated in millimeters, then 8.33 cm would be acceptable. of the least number of significant figures. For example, the
Remember this: When recording measurements, include all of calculation for the mass of 17.2 mL of water is 17.2 mL ×
the digits you are sure of plus an estimate to the nearest one- 0.997821 g mL–1 = 17.2 g, not 17.162521 g.
tenth of the next smaller digit.
Here are some other guidelines for using the correct
number of significant figures in your measurements: 6 7 8 9
cm
∙∙ When adding or subtracting measurements, the answer Figure 2.5 How long is this
should have no more precision than the measurement bone? 8 cm? 8.3 cm? 8.33 cm?
16 EXERCISE 2 2–6
is impossible, so you must choose apples that represent all
Rounding Numbers
of the other apples—that is, you must be working with a
representative sample. A statistical analysis of those sam-
Do not change the value of the last significant digit if that
ple apples reduces the sample values to a few characteristic
digit is followed by a number that is less than 5. For exam-
measurements (e.g., mean mass). As you increase the size
ple, if two significant figures are required, 6.449 rounds to
of the sample, these characteristic measurements provide an
6.4, 66.449 rounds to 66, 66.641 rounds to 67, and 6.591
ever-improving estimation of what is “typical.”
rounds to 6.6. Here is how an original measurement of
There are a variety of software programs that perform
49.5149 rounds to various numbers of significant figures:
statistical analyses of data; all you have to do is enter your data
Five significant figures: 49.515
into a spreadsheet, select the data that you want to analyze,
Four significant figures: 49.51 and perform the analysis. Although these software packages
Three significant figures: 49.5 save time and can increase accuracy, you still need to under-
Two significant figures: 50 stand a few of the basic variables that you’ll use to understand
your numerical data. We’ll start with the mean and median:
One significant figure: 50
Statisticians disagree on what to do when the number follow- The mean is the arithmetic average of a group of measurements.
ing the last significant figure is exactly 5, as in 89.5 (and, in Chance errors in measurements tend to cancel themselves
this case, the precision is limited to two significant figures). when means are calculated for relatively large samples;
Some round the measurement to the higher number, while a value that is too high because of random error is often
others claim that doing so introduces bias into the data. You balanced by a value that is too low for the same reason.
can decide which approach to take, but be consistent. The median is, after arranging the measurements from the
smallest to the largest, the middle value that divides
the set of measurements into two subsets of equal
2. Determine the range of the temperatures that can be size. If there are an even number of measurements, the
measured with your thermometer by examining the median is the mean of the two middle values. In biol-
scale imprinted along the barrel of the thermometer. ogy, the mean is usually preferred to the median when
reporting descriptive statistics.
3. Measure the following temperatures:
Room temperature °C
Cold tap water °C The median is less sensitive to extreme values than is
the mean. To appreciate this, consider a sample consisting of
Hot tap water °C
14 leaves having the following lengths (all in mm):
Inside refrigerator °C
80 69 62 74 69 51 45 40 9 64 65 64 61 67
Question 7
a. What is responsible for this difference between the
mean and median?
The standard deviation indicates how measurements
vary about the mean. The standard deviation is easy to cal-
culate. Begin by calculating the mean, measuring the devia-
tion of each sample from the mean, squaring each deviation,
b. How would the median change if the 9-mm-long leaf
and then summing the deviations. This summation results
was not in the sample?
in the sum of squared deviations. For example, consider
a group of shrimp that are 22, 19, 18, and 21 cm long. The
mean length of these shrimp is 20 cm.
c. How would the mean change if the 9-mm-long leaf was
not in the sample? Sample
Value Mean Deviation (Deviation)2
22 20 2 4
19 20 −1 1
d. Consider these samples:
21 20 1 1
Sample 1: 25 35 32 28
18 20 −2 4
Sample 2: 15 75 10 20
What is the mean for Sample 1? Sum of Squared Deviations = 10
What is the mean for Sample 2? The summary equation for the sum of squared deviations is:
N
In most of the exercises in this manual, you’ll have time to Sum of squared deviations = Σ (x i
− x)2
make only one or two measurements of a biological struc- i=1
Variability N
This formula is simple. The summation sign ( Σ ) means to add
i=1
As you can see, the samples in Question 7d are different, but up all the squared deviations from the first one (i = 1) to the
their means are the same. Thus, the mean does not reveal all last one (i = N). The sum of squared deviations (10) divided by
there is to know about these samples. To understand how the number of samples minus one (4 − 1 = 3) produces a value
these samples are different, you need other statistics: the of 10/3 = 3.3 cm2 (note that the units are centimeters squared).
range and standard deviation. This is the variance:
The range is the difference between the extreme sum of squared deviations
measurements (i.e., smallest and largest) of the sample. In Variance =
N−1
Sample 1, the range is 35 − 25 = 10; in Sample 2 the range is
75 − 10 = 65. The range provides a sense of the variation of the The square root of the variance, 1.8 cm, equals the standard
sample, but the range can be artificially inflated by one or two deviation (SD):
extreme values. Notice the extreme values in the sample of leaf
SD = √Variance = √3.3 = 1.8
measurements previously discussed. Moreover, ranges do not
tell us anything about the measurements between the extremes.
The standard deviation is usually reported with the mean
Question 8 in statements such as, “The mean length of the shrimp was
a. Could two samples have the same mean but different 20 ± 1.8 cm.”
ranges? Explain. The standard deviation helps us understand the
spread or variation of a sample. For many distributions
of measurements, the mean ± 1 SD includes 68% of the
18 EXERCISE 2 2–8
measurements, whereas the mean ± 2 SD includes 95% of
Range
the measurements.
All classmates to
Male classmates to
Female classmates to
Procedure 2.7 Gather and analyze data Standard deviation
statistically All classmates ±
1. Use a meterstick or tape measure to measure your Male classmates ±
height in centimeters. Record your height here:
Female classmates ±
cm
2. Record your height and gender (male or female) on
the board in the lab. If there is sufficient time, obtain a newspaper that adver-
3. After all of your classmates have reported their tises cars, groceries, or other common commodities. Choose
heights, calculate the following: one example (e.g., new cars) and determine its average price
(e.g., determine the average price of a new car).
Size of sample
All classmates Question 9
Male classmates a. What does your calculation tell you?
Female classmates
Mean height
All classmates b. What are the limitations of your sample?
Male classmates
Female classmates
Median height Your instructor may ask you to do other statistical tests,
All classmates such as Student’s t, chi-square, and analysis of variance
Male classmates (ANOVA). The type of test you’ll do will depend on the
amount and type of data you analyze, as well as the hypoth-
Female classmates
eses you are trying to test.
INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING
How much do the areas and shapes of leaves vary?
Observation: Leaves, which are the primary photosynthetic indoors. Choose and record your group’s best question
organ of most plants, are adapted for absorbing light. This for investigation.
involves exposing large surface areas to the environment. c. Translate your question into a testable hypothesis and
record it.
Question: How do the surface area and shape of leaves vary on
d. Outline on Worksheet 2 your experimental design
different parts of plants?
and supplies needed to test your hypothesis. Ask your
a. Establish a working lab group and obtain Inquiry-Based instructor to review your proposed investigation.
Learning Worksheet 2 from your instructor. e. Conduct your procedures, record your data, answer
b. Discuss with your group well-defined questions relevant your question, and make relevant comments.
to the preceding observation and question. If leaves are f. Discuss with your instructor any revisions to your
not available from outdoor plants (e.g., during winter), questions, hypothesis, or procedures. Repeat your work
use the plants provided by your instructor that were grown as needed.
1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using the metric system of measurements?
2. Why is it important for all scientists to use a standard system of measures rather than the system that may be most
popular in their home country or region?
3. Do you lose or gain information when you use statistics to reduce a population to a few characteristic numbers?
Explain your answer.
4. Suppose that you made repeated measurements of your height. If you used good technique, would you expect the range
to be large or small? Explain your answer.
5. Suppose that a biologist states that the average height of undergraduate students at your university is 205 cm plus or
minus a standard deviation of 17 cm. What does this mean?
6. What does a small standard deviation signify? What does a large standard deviation signify?
9. Consider these measurements of the diameter (in nm) of viral particles (“virons”) of COVID-19: 0.12, 0.14, 0.10, 0.12,
0.11, 0.13, 0.14, 0.13, 0.08, 0.13, 0.13. What is the mean? What is the range? What is the median?
20 EXERCISE 2 2–10
EXER CISE
The Microscope
Basic Skills of Light Microscopy 3
Learning Objectives
By the end of this exercise you should be able to:
1. Identify and explain the functions of the primary parts of a compound microscope and dissecting (stereoscopic)
microscope.
2. Carry and focus a microscope properly.
3. Use a compound microscope and dissecting microscope to examine biological specimens.
4. Prepare a wet mount, determine the magnification and size of the field of view, and determine the depth of field.
20 μm 2 μm 0.2 μm
20 nm 2 nm 0.2 nm
Figure 3.1 The size of cells and their contents. This diagram shows the size of human skin cells, organelles, and molecules. In general, the
diameter of a human skin cell is about 20 micrometers (µm), of a mitochondrion is 2 µm, of a ribosome is 20 nanometers (nm), of a protein
molecule is 2 nm, and of an atom is 0.2 nm.
at the base of the microscope. The light source illuminates resolution, and correct aberrations in the image. The most
the specimen by passing light through a thin, almost trans- common configuration for student microscopes includes
parent part of the specimen. The condenser lens, located four objectives: low magnification (4×), medium magnifi-
immediately below the specimen, focuses light from the cation (10×), high magnification (40×), and oil immersion
light source onto the specimen. Just below the condenser is (100×). Using the oil immersion objective requires special
the condenser iris diaphragm, a knurled ring or lever that instructions, as explained in Exercise 24 to study bacteria.
can be opened and closed to regulate the amount of light To avoid damaging your microscope, do not use the oil
reaching the specimen. When the condenser iris diaphragm immersion objective during this exercise.
is open, the image will be bright; when closed, the image The magnifying power of each objective is etched
will be dim. on the side of the lens (e.g., 4×). The ocular is the lens
that you look through. Microscopes with one ocular are
monocular microscopes, and those with two are binocular
Imaging System microscopes. Oculars usually magnify the image 10 times.
The imaging system improves resolution and magnifies the The body tube is a metal casing through which light
image. It consists of the objective and ocular (eyepiece) passes to the oculars. In microscopes with bent body-tubes
lenses and a body tube. The objectives are three or four and inclined oculars, the body tube contains mirrors and a
lenses mounted on a revolving nosepiece. Each objective is prism that redirect light to the oculars. The stage secures
a series of several lenses that magnify the image, improve the glass slide on which the specimen is mounted.
22 EXERCISE 3 3–2
Heritage Image Partnership Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo
Figure 3.2 “Egad, I thought it was tea, but I see I’ve been drinking a blooming micro-zoo!” says this horrified, proper 19th-century
London woman when she used a microscope to examine her tea. People were shocked to learn that there is an active, living world too small
for us to see.
Oculars
Body tube
Arm
Nosepiece
Objectives
Slide holder
to adjust Stage
position Stage clip
Condenser
Fine focus
adjustment Light source
Base
©BiologyImaging.com
Figure 3.3 Major parts of a compound light microscope.
24 EXERCISE 3 3–4
Question 1
notice that the image remains near focus and that the
a. As you view the letter e, how is it oriented? Upside
field-of-view has gotten smaller. Most light microscopes
down or right side up?
are parfocal, meaning that the image will remain nearly
focused after the 40× objective lens is moved into place.
Most light microscopes are also parcentered, meaning
that the image will remain centered in the field of view
b. How does the image move when the slide is moved to
after the 40× objective lens is in place.
the right or left? Toward you or away from you?
5. You may need to readjust the iris diaphragm because
the high-magnification objective allows less light to
pass through to the ocular.
c. What happens to the brightness of the view when you 6. To fine-focus the image, locate the fine adjustment
go from 4× to 10×? knob on the side of the microscope. Turning this knob
changes the specimen-to-objective distance slightly
and therefore makes it easy to fine-focus the image.
Use only the fine adjustment when using the
40× (or higher) objective.
Magnification
Never use the coarse adjustment knob to focus
an image on high power.
Procedure 3.2 Determine magnification
1. Estimate the magnification of the e by looking at the
magnified image on lowest magnification (4×), and
then at the e without using the microscope. Question 2
2. Examine each objective and record the magnifica- a. How many times is the image of the e magnified when
tions of the objectives and oculars of your microscope viewed through the high-power objective?
in table 3.1.
3. Calculate and record in table 3.1 the total magnifica-
tion for each objective following this formula:
MagTot = MagObj × MagOcu
b. If you didn’t already know what you were looking at,
could you determine at this magnification that you
where
were looking at a letter e? How?
MagTot = total magnification of the image
MagObj = magnification of the objective lens
MagOcu = magnification of the ocular lens
For example, if you’re viewing the specimen with a 4× Determine the Size of the Field of View
objective lens and a 10× ocular, the total magnifica-
tion of the image is 4 × 10 = 40×. That is, the specimen
The field of view is the area that you can see through the
appears 40 times larger than it is.
ocular and objective (fig. 3.4). Knowing the size of the field
of view is important because you can use it to estimate the
4. Slowly rotate the high-power (i.e., 40×) objective into
size of an object you are examining. The field of view can
place. Be sure that the objective does not touch the slide!
be measured with ruled micrometers (fig. 3.5). An ocu-
If the objective does not rotate into place without touch-
lar micrometer is a small glass disk with thin lines num-
ing the slide, do not force it; ask your lab instructor to
bered and etched in a row. It was put into an ocular on your
help you. After the 40× objective is in place, you should
microscope so that the lines superimpose on the image and
Table 3.1
Total Magnifications and Areas of Field of View (FOV) for Three Objective Lenses
Objective Objective Ocular Total FOV FOV Measurement (mm)
Power Magnification × Magnification = Magnification Diameter (mm) Area (mm2) for 1 Ocular Space
4× × =
10× × =
40× × =
x=
View of
ocular
micrometer
View of
stage
micrometer
©BiologyImaging.com
Figure 3.5 Stage and ocular micrometers. A stage micrometer is used to calibrate a microscope with its ocular micrometer to measure the
size of specimens.
26 EXERCISE 3 3–6
The smallest space on a stage micrometer = 6. The ruler cannot be used to measure the diameters of
0.01 mm, so the field of view at medium and high magnifications
because the markings are too far apart. Therefore,
y ocular spaces (mm) = x stage spaces × 0.01
these diameters must be calculated using the follow-
1 ocular space (mm) = (x/y) × 0.01 ing formula:
4. Calculate the distance in millimeters between lines of FOVlow × Maglow = FOVhigh × Maghigh
the ocular micrometer. For example, if the length of
10 spaces on the ocular micrometer equals the length where
of seven spaces on the stage micrometer, then FOVlow = d
iameter of the field of view of the
y = 10 low-power objective
x=7 Maglow = m
agnification of the low-power
objective (Be consistent and use
10 ocular spaces (mm) = 7 stage spaces × 0.01 mm the magnification of the objective,
1 ocular space (mm) = (7 × 0.01 mm)/10 not total magnification.)
1.
Question 4
2. a. Are all three colored threads in focus at low power?
2.
3.
b. Can all three threads be in focus at the same time
using the high-power objective?
3.
28 EXERCISE 3 3–8
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— Ah, quasi — ella ripetè cupamente. — Ci son dunque esempi di
navigli perduti senza che rimanga alcuna traccia di loro, senza che si
salvi un uomo dell’equipaggio, senza che una tavola galleggiante sul
mare dia un indizio della catastrofe?
Non potei negarle che di questi casi ce ne fossero, ma erano così
rari, così eccezionali da non doverci fermare il pensiero.
— Perchè vede, Ceriani — ella ripigliò — non so come sopporterei
l’annunzio positivo d’una sciagura; so che l’incertezza mi
ucciderebbe.... Ma, in nome del cielo — seguitò la povera signora
attorcigliando nervosamente il fazzoletto alle dita — si è poi fatto
tutto quello che si doveva per chiarire questo mistero?... Mio marito
lo afferma; io non lo credo.
Le enumerai le lettere, i telegrammi che si erano spediti; l’assicurai
che si sarebbe tornato a scrivere, a telegrafare.
Ella si strinse nelle spalle. — Scrivere? Telegrafare?... Ah se fossi un
uomo!
Qualcuno s’avvicinava, ed ella mi lasciò con queste parole,
slanciandomi uno sguardo metà di preghiera, metà di rimprovero.
Che pretendeva mai la signora Agnese? Ch’io andassi alla ricerca
del King Arthur come Stanley era andato alla ricerca di
Livingstone?... Ohimè, l’impresa dello Stanley era stata una follia
sublime; la mia non sarebbe stata che una follia ridicola.
Nè la signora Agnese me ne riparlò nei giorni seguenti. La sua
agitazione febbrile aveva ceduto il posto a una calma apparente che
ci impensieriva ancora di più. Ella stava per lunghe ore sdraiata sulla
sua poltrona nel salottino giapponese, senza un libro, senza un
lavoro, immersa in un cupo silenzio. A colazione, a pranzo, toccava
appena il cibo, pronunziava appena qualche monosillabo, si faceva
una legge di non menzionar mai nè il King Arthur, nè il capitano
Atkinson, nè la piccola Ofelia. Solo una volta ella scattò dalla
seggiola quando il dottor Gandolfi le suggerì un viaggetto di un
mese. — Quest’anno non mi muovo da Venezia — ella risposo in
tuono secco, reciso.
Passavano i giorni, passavano le settimane. Eravamo venuti a
sapere d’un tifone che aveva infuriato nei mari della China fra il 25 e
il 28 di giugno ed era penetrato nei nostri animi il convincimento che
in quella occasione appunto il King Arthur si fosse perduto con tutto
l’equipaggio. Ma mentre si conoscevano i nomi d’altri legni ch’erano
scampati miracolosamente al pericolo, e sbattuti, malconci avevano
dovuto ripararsi in qualcheduno di quei porti, del King Arthur
nessuno poteva dir nulla. Nessuno lo aveva visto dopo la sua
partenza da Hiogo.
Anche i danni materiali d’un simile stato di cose erano gravissimi. Le
rimesse fatte a Londra per rimborsare il nostro banchiere
importavano circa ottocentomila lire, somma della quale c’era forza
rimaner scoperti finchè fosse spirato il termine necessario per
acquistare il diritto d’abbandono verso le compagnie assicuratrici, e
non c’è casa di commercio, per potente che sia, a cui non dia
degl’impicci l’immobilizzare un capitale di quasi un milione.
Inoltre tutti i vantaggi sperati da un’iniziativa che doveva riaffermare
la superiorità della nostra ditta andavano in fumo per esser raccolti in
gran parte dai nostri rivali, i Gelardi, che avevano commesso a
Hiogo un carico di riso dopo di noi e che lo aspettavano entro
l’ottobre col vapore inglese The Iron Duke. Noi l’odiavamo questa
Iron Duke che seguiva la via tenuta dal King Arthur, che
probabilmente sarebbe passato sul punto ove il King Arthur era stato
inghiottito dalle onde. Non credo che nessuno di noi gli augurasse
un disastro, ma è certo che a sentirlo nominare ci si rimescolava il
sangue. E lo si sentiva nominare così spesso. I sensali, che in attesa
del King Arthur avevano imbastito degli affari con noi, adesso, con la
compunzione di chi fa una visita di condoglianza, venivano a
sciogliersi da ogni impegno e a dirci della dolorosa necessità in cui si
trovavano di trattare coi Gelardi per l’acquisto della merce di
prossimo arrivo con l’Iron Duke. E poi gli stessi Gelardi, alquanto
vanitosi per loro natura, stimavano opportuno di comunicare ai
giornali cittadini le varie tappe del loro bastimento. Era partito il tal
giorno da Hiogo; aveva nel tal altro toccato Point-de-Galle; era
passato per Aden, era a Suez.... Il comandante dell’Iron Duke non
faceva economia di telegrammi.
Finalmente, ai primi di novembre, una mattina, il bastimento entrò in
porto e andò ad ancorarsi alla Giudecca, proprio dove, in aprile, era
ancorato il King Arthur. Ed io procurai nella giornata medesima di
vedere il capitano per chiedergli se gli fosse venuta all’orecchio
nessuna voce circa al vapore che due mesi prima di lui aveva
lasciato il Giappone alla volta di Venezia. Ma egli non ne sapeva più
di quello che ne sapevamo noi.
Quando tornai in banco dopo questa mia pratica vana, il principale
mi disse: — Mia moglie ha ragione. L’incertezza è il peggiore dei
mali, e una speranza voluta conservare a ogni costo è una fonte
perenne d’inquietudine.... Ma che speranza? — egli corresse con un
gesto d’impazienza. — Noi non ne abbiamo più; noi non dubitiamo
che il King Arthur sia perduto.... Ci manca però la forza di
rassegnarvisi finchè non abbiamo in mano un documento, una
prova.... Ah, questa prova, questa prova chi ce la darà?
Mi guardò in un modo singolare e soggiunse: — Senta, Ceriani. Il
viaggio d’esplorazione che l’Agnese parve consigliarle tempo
addietro è, anche a’ miei occhi, una cosa assurda. Nondimeno
qualche passo si potrebbe fare. Una corsa in Inghilterra per
esempio, tanto da vedere gli armatori, da consultarsi con persone
esperimentate, da recarsi agli uffici del Lloyd ove ci son notizie di
tutto il mondo?... Andrei io, se non avessi scrupolo di piantar quella
disgraziata.... Lei, Ceriani, lei ch’è giovine, ch’è libero, avrebbe
difficoltà di partire per Londra al più presto, domani sera, per
esempio?...
Sollevai alcuni dubbi sull’utilità di questa gita, ma difficoltà ad
abbandonar Venezia per un quindici o venti giorni non ne avevo
affatto. In fondo, lo confesso, l’offerta mi tornava gradita, perchè
ormai il King Arthur pesava sul banco come un incubo. Ora,
quest’incubo io l’avrei subìto anche durante le mie peregrinazioni
che avevano per iscopo preciso di far nuove indagini sulla sorte del
naviglio: ma mi sorrideva l’idea di cambiar aria, di sostituire una
ricerca attiva (fosse pure infruttuosa) a una preoccupazione inerte e
opprimente.
VI.
· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ·
NELL’ANDARE AL BALLO.
John turned eagerly toward her, and she said gayly, "Very well, Mr.
Dorning, and you may drive just as slowly and carefully as you know how."
"Fine," returned John. "We'll take a turn in the park on the way. It's a
wonderful afternoon." He hurried to open the door for her.
"Good afternoon, Count Torriani, the tea was delicious," she said
suavely, dark, ironic eyes upon his grave face. He glanced at the undisturbed
tea things upon the little taboret, shrugged his shoulders, and bent over her
hand. Vexed as he was with her, he could not kiss her hand without feeling a
little emotion within him.
He watched her disappear into the hall. To John Dorning, following her,
he called suddenly, "John, you'll need your hat, won't you?" John
shamefacedly returned for it. Rodrigo handed it to him with a smile.
It was an hour later that John returned, flushed by the wind and
something that had nothing to do with the elements. Rodrigo was still in the
chair, trying to read.
"You didn't mind my running off with Miss Van Zile?" John asked, with
a strange indication in his voice that he didn't care whether his friend minded
or not. He was excited, eager to confide.
John had lighted a cigarette and was walking around the room. "She's
wonderful, isn't she, Rodrigo?" he said suddenly. "A very remarkable and
very beautiful girl. She's never been to New York before, she says. She's
frightened with the city, but eager to see the sights. I've made several
engagements with her to show them to her."
Rodrigo was silent.
John enthused on. "Rodrigo, if I fell in love, it would be with that kind of
a girl—frank, unspoiled, sweet and lovely. She has something Eastern
women utterly lack. They are all so sophisticated and blasé. You could never
imagine such a woman marrying me for my money, for instance."
And so, he decided, for the time being, that he would keep silent.
CHAPTER XI
Rodrigo attended a private auction of Flemish art the next morning and
did not reach the office until noon-time. Having glanced through his mail, he
thrust his head into John's office to tell him of the purchases he had made.
He was quite well pleased with himself and was looking forward to
Dorning's commendation on his bargains. Mary Drake was alone in the
office.
He saw with a little uneasiness that something of the usual warmth with
which she greeted him had fled from her eyes and voice. "Yes, he is lunching
with a Miss Van Zile at the Plaza."
She regarded him seriously and said rather pertly, "I would make very
sure first that my opinion of the man's unworthiness was correct."
She gave a little helpless gesture. She was so serious that he was on the
point of asking her what was troubling her. "How can you make sure?" she
asked gravely. And went on, "I used to think that first impressions of people
were instinctively the right ones. That everything after that just had the
effect of clouding things, of leading to wrong judgments. Recently I changed
my mind. I decided that what a person has been in the past has nothing to do
with the present. I thought people could change, could find themselves, and
become new men—or women. Now—I don't know."
He tried to take her delicate, white hand, but it eluded his. "Mary," he
asked softly, "are you thinking of me when you say these things about—first
opinions?"
Mary, who was never one for groping about in the dark, replied, "A girl
by the name of Sophie Binner was in this morning. She asked for you. When
she found you weren't here, she grew quite loud and troublesome, and Mr.
Madison referred her to John. I couldn't help but hear some of the
conversation between them, though I left when I discovered its private
nature."
"Why, what do you mean, Mary?" He had never seen the usually calm
and capable Mary agitated so. It agitated him in turn. Sophie was not above
making trouble, he knew, especially after the unfriendly manner of their last
parting.
"I don't want you to question me any further, Rodrigo," said Mary
nervously. "I have told you quite all I know. You will have to get the rest
from John. Probably he won't mention it to you. He hates trouble of all kinds
—particularly sordid troubles—and he will be anxious to shield you. And I
think you shouldn't allow yourself to be shielded, in this case."
But Rodrigo did not have the opportunity to broach the subject of Sophie
to his partner during the remainder of the day. John did not return from his
luncheon engagement until after three, when he hurried in breezily, a
carnation in his buttonhole and a flush upon his face that caused the
employees out in the gallery to look significantly at each other and smile
approvingly. The head of the concern had never looked so happy. John
closeted himself at once with a couple of art buyers who acted in the
capacity of scouts for Dorning and Son. By the time Rodrigo judged
Dorning was free and went in search of him, John had again disappeared,
this time, Mary said, to dress for dinner.
"I understand that you saw another friend of mine to-day, also," Rodrigo
said, lighting a cigarette and flicking the match into the open grate.
John dropped his thin fingers from his tie and replied quietly. "Did Mary
tell you? I asked her not to."
"She evidently thought it better that I should know, and I think she is
right, as usual. What did Sophie Binner want of me—and you?"
John walked over to his friend and put his hands upon Rodrigo's
shoulders. He suggested, "Please don't ask me any more about her, Rodrigo.
You'll never see or hear from her again. Why not let it go at that?"
Rodrigo replied impatiently, "I'm not a baby, John, I know more about
women like Sophie than you do. What was she up to?"
John shrugged his shoulders and decided to make a clean breast. "She
looked like the devil—thin and badly dressed. She said her show had failed,
left the whole company stranded out in Pocatello, Idaho. Christy and the
company manager skipped and went back to England. Sophie pawned her
jewels and clothes and just scraped together enough money to get her to
New York. So she came to you for help."
Rodrigo relaxed with relief. "Fair enough," he admitted. "I'll stake her to
a trip home. Why didn't you tell her to go away and come back again when I
was there?"
John hesitated. "She insisted upon some money at once. She had—some
letters from you. I read a couple of them, and they were really pretty serious
stuff, Rodrigo. You were never a calm letter-writer. And writing letters to a
certain type of woman is very had business in this country. There are always
shyster lawyers around ready to pounce upon them and turn them into
money. And she said—well, that you were in her apartment the night her
show opened. She mentioned a colored elevator man whom she could
summon as a witness, if necessary. But, damn it, I don't believe you were,
Rodrigo." John looked at his friend anxiously.
"I was just there for a minute, and it was perfectly harmless," Rodrigo
said at once. "It didn't mean a thing and she probably played it up merely to
give me a black eye with you. As a matter of fact, I recall that the elevator
boy did ride us up and wasn't there when I came down the stairs later. I had a
fearful row with her and she's probably out for revenge. But what's Sophie's
game anyway—blackmail? She can't get away with it."
John replied, "She threatened to sue you for breach of promise to marry
her, said you had jilted her in London once before. She wanted five thousand
dollars to call it off. I knew she didn't have a case, but I thought it was just as
well to keep her quiet. So I gave her two thousand dollars. Then I stopped in
at the apartment house address she gave me and for a fifty dollar bill
persuaded the colored elevator boy that you had never been there."
Rodrigo shook his head and smiled. Was there ever a friend like this
innocent-wise John Dorning?
"You're a prince, John," Rodrigo said sincerely. "But you shouldn't have
done it. You should have let me face the music." He turned almost fiercely
and paced the floor a moment. Returning, he faced John and cried, "I don't
know why you have such a sublime faith in me, John. God knows I've given
you no reason for it. I was in trouble when you first met me. And that wasn't
the first time, as you must have known. And yet you accepted me as a friend
and you gave me a start that's resulted in the happiest time of my life. Now,
damn it, I throw you down again. I guess I'm just bad."
John laid his hand on the Italian's shoulder. "No, I won't have you
condemning yourself. You've been strictly business since you've been over
here, I know. This Binner affair is a carry-over from the past. Your letters
didn't mean anything, even though they sounded pretty intimate. And that
episode in her apartment was just a peculiar combination of circumstances, I
can see that."
"Oh, don't make me out a saint, John," Rodrigo cried impatiently. "If
those crooks in the hall hadn't jolted it out of my head—oh, well, what's the
use. Once a weakling, always a weakling."
"Not at all," John retorted. "I'll admit there's one kink in your character I
don't understand. I don't see why a chap who is as unselfish, straightforward
and worldly wise as you are, can—well, make a fool out of himself with a
certain type of woman. It's uncanny."
"You'll be sure of yourself," John was saying, "when the right girl comes
along." He smiled, and Rodrigo realized with a pang that John was thinking
of his right girl, Elise Van Zile.
"What chance will I ever have with the right sort of girl when the wrong
sort may come along first?" And Rodrigo too was thinking of Elise. He
suddenly realized that his fingers were digging into something hard until
they hurt. He looked down at the figurine, and lifted it.
"Here I am!" he cried. "I'm this tiger! I never told you why I brought this
figurine with me, why I've always cherished it, have I? Well, one reason is
because my father gave it to me when I was a boy as the memento of a very
exciting afternoon. It happened in India when I was about fourteen years old.
We were riding on an elephant, and we could see over a high wall into a sort
of a lane that led to an enclosure where a chap who used to make a business
of capturing wild animals for museums and circuses kept his stock. He let
the beasts roam around in there, and my father would take me to the other
side of the wall to see them.
"Well, on this afternoon, a big, silky tiger came walking down the lane.
Suddenly, when he was just about opposite us, he stopped short—like this
statue—his head down. He stared at something. We followed his shining
eyes. A cobra had slipped out of the box in which the chap kept his snakes.
The tiger stared as if paralyzed, fascinated, a yard from the snake's head. A
cobra! That's the wrong kind of a girl—a cobra. Mind you, this tiger could
have killed the thing with one blow of his paw. He could have killed a lion,
or scattered a regiment. Yet he stood there, his eyes held by the eyes of the
cobra. All at once he tossed his head up and took a step backward—and the
cobra struck."
"I don't know. I felt sick. My father saw how white I was, and we left at
once. Several months later he saw this figurine in a shop in Calcutta and
bought it. He gave it to me."
John looked at him and said slowly, "Perhaps a cobra can't really kill
anything as big and strong as a tiger."
"It can make it bad for him, though. I can remember Dad cursing that he
didn't have a gun with him. A gun! That's you, John. When I've been
walking lately, I've usually had you along, and I've been pretty safe from
cobras."
"Well, even a tiger has to have some diversion," Rodrigo tried to lighten
up the serious turn the conversation had taken. As John walked over to the
mirror and resumed his adjusting of his cravat, Rodrigo said suddenly, "And
guns too, John—sometimes guns don't act as they should, very good guns,
too. And cobras raise the dickens with them too."
But John had hardly heard him, much less gotten the meaning of his
friend's cryptic speech. And Rodrigo was instantly glad. John was so
infatuated with Elise that mere words would never undeceive him. It must be
something stronger than words. Likewise, Rodrigo must make very sure that
Elise Van Zile was what he had described to John as the cobra type of
woman.
After John left, Rodrigo sat down and tried to interest himself in a large,
profusely illustrated volume on interior decoration. But he was in no mood
to concentrate upon the hopelessly conventional illustrations and the dry,
prosaic text. He flung the book down at length, and, lighting his pipe,
walked nervously about the apartment. He was thinking of John and Elise
Van Zile, and of himself. His feeling toward the sudden infatuation of his
friend for Mrs. Palmer's niece and Elise's sudden interest in John contained
not one atom of jealousy. Had she been the girl John thought she was,
Rodrigo would have been delighted and would have rendered the match
every assistance.
But Elise, Rodrigo kept telling himself, was the girl he thought she was.
This business to-day of Sophie Binner, this tale of the cobra he had related to
John, this whole raking up of his past had had a depressing effect upon him.
The world looked awry that evening.
There was silence for a moment, and then her smooth tones came over
the wire, "Why, certainly. Aunt Helen and I will be delighted to see you any
time."
He lowered his accents. "Not, Auntie—you, you alone. You said you
would like to come again to our apartment. And this time I will promise we
won't be interrupted. Not even by John. I want so badly to see you—Elise.
Won't you come?"
Another long pause, and then she said faintly, "I shall be there."
Rodrigo hung up the receiver and took a long, deep breath. Then he
walked into John's office and, taking advantage of Mary's temporary
absence, said, "John, I want you to promise me something."
"What is it, old man? And why the terrifically serious look on your
face?"
Rodrigo forced a smile. "I want you to stay away from the apartment
until three-thirty next Saturday afternoon," he said. "At that time I want you
to meet me there, and probably I'll have something very interesting to show
you?"
"But my birthday isn't until next month, Rodrigo?" John bantered. "Did
you go out and buy that Gainsborough original I fancied so much—or
what?"
"Please don't ask any questions, John. And believe that I'm deadly
serious. Three-thirty. Will you be there?"
During the rest of the week, Rodrigo was like a man who has had the
date of his electrocution set. He could not work, eat, nor sleep. John
remarked about it. Mary Drake regarded him anxiously from behind his
back.
At noon the following Saturday, Rodrigo heard John leaving his office
and hastened to stop him. He had not reminded John of his engagement of
the afternoon, but now he said,
JOHN.
He walked falteringly over to the deep armchair and sat down before he
had the courage to open the other yellow container.
For the first time in his life, Rodrigo cursed a lady. But mingled with his
resentment against her was a frank tribute to her cleverness. For he hadn't a
doubt in the world now but that Elise had seen through his stratagem and had
taken this decisive step to outwit him.
CHAPTER XII
One glorious morning, three weeks later, when the June sunshine bathed
Fifth Avenue in a benevolent light and the staff of Dorning and Son edged
over as near the doors and windows as possible and made lugubrious
remarks about their luck at being shut up from the paradise outdoors, the
door of Rodrigo's office was flung open and John Dorning burst in.
"Rodrigo!" he cried, and stood there near the door smiling happily and
blushing furiously, looking wonderfully well and boyish.
"I'm the happiest man in the world," John repeated the words of the
fateful telegram, and, Rodrigo admitted, he looked it. His face was bronzed
and suffused with health, the result of many hours upon the golf links and in
the lake adjoining the elaborate Adirondack "lodge" where the Dornings had
been spending their honeymoon. A feeling of relief for the moment and
optimism for the future swept through Rodrigo. Perhaps, after all, he had
misjudged Elise. Though, he told himself, it is a very rare marriage that does
not at least survive the honeymoon.
"Sit right down and tell me how the elopement all happened," invited
Rodrigo gayly, "you old scoundrel."
"Great stuff!" Rodrigo enthused. "John, for a lad who has always fought
shy of the ladies, you certainly put it over in whirlwind style. What are you
going to do now?"
John hitched his chair nearer, beaming with high spirits. "My luck has
kept right on rolling in, Rodrigo. I happened to meet a chap from home at
the place we were staying. He mentioned that Ned Fernald was putting his
new place on the market. It seems Ned isn't so well off as he's supposed to
be, and building the place and outfitting it has strapped him so completely
that now he's anxious to sell. It's a peach of a big house, with lots of ground,
in the Millbank section, a new development. I'm going to get in touch with
Ned, and Elise and I have agreed that if we can arrive at the proper price,
we'll buy it."
"She's on her way to Greenwich. I just said good-bye to her and her aunt
at Grand Central. She's going to stop with Dad and Alice in Greenwich until
we get a place of our own."
"She's never met your folks, has she?" asked Rodrigo. He wondered
what Henry Dorning would think of his daughter-in-law, whether his
experienced old eyes would penetrate to things in her that his infatuated son
had never dreamed of.
"I'm sure they'll love her as much as I do," John enthused. "They can't
help it. She's the greatest ever. Dad knows Mrs. Palmer, Elise's aunt, very
well, so I got her to go along up."
Two hours later, he came back into Rodrigo's office to announce that he
was leaving to subway down-town and seek out Edward Fernald, who was a
minor partner in a brokerage house on Nassau Street. John confided further
that he was, as yet, quite unable to settle down to the workaday problems of
Dorning and Son. He was still walking upon air.
"You'll have to put up with my incompetence for a while, till I get used
to the idea of being married to the world's greatest wife," he pleaded
smilingly with Rodrigo.
"Take your time," soothed the latter. "I'll be indulgent. We don't have a
marriage in the firm every day."
"I wish some nice girl like Elise would capture you," John offered
seriously.
Rodrigo laughed. "Oh, that's what all you newlyweds preach to us happy
old bachelors."
"Mrs. Dorning is very lucky," said Mary. "John is the sort who will
devote his whole life to making his wife happy."
She said it so positively that she put him a trifle on the defensive. "Any
normal husband would do that, wouldn't he?" he asked a little challengingly.
She was silent a moment, and then she said, evidently out of a troubled
mind and into her typewriter, "Some men aren't equipped to be normal
husbands."
He looked at her gravely, his eyes full of love for her. Some day soon he
was going to have it out with Mary, he told himself. He would have to.
Things couldn't go on with them as they had been. He had called upon her
many times now out of office hours, met her mother, taken Mary to the
theatre, to art exhibitions, and to concerts and the opera. Always he had
avoided making love to her, because he was desperately afraid of losing her
through having his intentions misunderstood. He had wanted, on many
occasions, to sweep her into his arms, to cover her face with kisses, to claim
her for his own, but he was afraid. He could not risk kissing Mary until he
was very sure she loved him. Before the Sophie Binner blackmailing
episode, he had been optimistic about Mary's feelings toward him. But
during the last few months the issue had been cast again into doubt.
Frequently he told himself almost bitterly that if Mary loved him she
would be willing to forget utterly anything that had happened to him in the
past. But this, in his more rational moments, he knew was asking too much.
She was not the sort of girl who rushes blindly into love. Her whole
character and training were influences in the opposite direction. Love must
come upon her gradually. She must be very sure. Americanized though he
was by this time, the very fact that Rodrigo was a man of another country
from her own, with other ideals and up-bringing, made the process of falling
in love with him for this serious-minded American girl groping and slow.
But, once he had won her, he knew that she would be his forever, utterly,
without question or regret. That was Mary Drake's way too.
Two weeks later John Dorning announced that he had bought the Fernald
house, and he eagerly discussed with Rodrigo furnishing the place according
to their high artistic standards. The Italian, on one pretext or another,
declined several invitations to go to Greenwich and look over the Fernald
property and the married Elise. John was insistent that Rodrigo rush up and
congratulate Elise in person, and then just try and deny that John was the
luckiest fellow ever born. Elise had been asking for Rodrigo, John said, had
urged John to invite him up. Rodrigo smiled benevolently, and declined. He
did not, for the time being, wish to face this clever, attractive, and
triumphant young lady.
But, at last, when the John Dornings had actually moved into the Fernald
house and the rare old furniture and objets d'art, which Rodrigo had helped
to select, were installed to the young householder's liking, Rodrigo could no
longer decline the invitation to spend a weekend with them without
offending his friend.
Elise met them at the Greenwich station in a trim new little sedan.
Rodrigo congratulated her heartily, and she gave him very pretty thanks. She
was looking exceptionally alluring, lending an exotic distinction even to the
tweedy sport clothes she was wearing.
"I am especially grateful to you, Rodrigo—I suppose I may call you that
now," she added, "because you were instrumental in bringing John and me
together." Rodrigo glanced at her a little sharply, wondering if there was a
double meaning in this. But her smile was serene, though those enigmatic
eyes were just a little narrower than normal.
"It is glorious out here. I love it," she tossed over her shoulder to him, as
he sat, unusually quiet in the tonneau of the moving car beside his bag and
golf sticks. And as she swept the car into the newly made driveway of their
artistic home of field-stone and stucco, "Aren't we lucky to get this place? It
is the first home of my own that I have ever had. I love every stone in it."
John showed him through the house later, and Rodrigo was very sincere
in his praise of their dwelling and its broad, attractive surroundings. The
close-cropped lawn sloped down gradually to a small lake, surrounded by
willow trees, a body of fresh water that eventually found its way into the
neighboring sound. John explained that there was a concrete dam below,
with a private bathing beach of white sand and crystal-clear water. Millbank
was a new development, very much restricted and exclusive, with a fine
nine-hole golf course just across the lake. When Rodrigo cast pleased eyes
upon the links, John recalled that Warren Pritchard, on learning of Rodrigo's
coming, had immediately spoken for the guest's company on Sunday
morning at the Greenwich Country Club.
"I believe Ben Bryon and Lon Sisson are anxious for a revenge match on
account of the beating you and Warren gave them the last time," John
explained, indicating by his tone of voice that he didn't consider the
engagement so pressing as Warren evidently did, and that he would have
preferred to retain Rodrigo's company himself.
"That will be fine," Rodrigo enthused. "That is, if you haven't other plans
for me, John?" John shook his head in the negative.
He motored to Stamford that evening with his host and hostess and
attended the first night of a polite comedy, destined for its New York
premiere the following week. The play was not particularly interesting, and
Rodrigo paid more attention to the audience than to the stage. It was a mixed
crowd of typical small-towners, well dressed and highly sun-tanned people
from adjacent Long Island Sound resorts, and professionals from Broadway
who were either interested in the production or the players. He recognized
the producer of the piece, a jolly, corpulent individual whom he had met at
the Coffee House Club. They ran into each other in the outside lobby
between the first and second act, and the theatrical admitted blithely that he
had a "flop" and was debating whether to dismiss the company at once and
forfeit his deposit on the lease of the Broadway theatre or chance a
performance in New York.
To Rodrigo, walking down the aisle as the orchestra was playing the
unmelodious prelude to the second act, came the realization anew that Elise
was quite the most striking-looking woman he had ever known. Her creamy
white shoulders billowing up from her black evening dress, her raven hair
sleeked tightly against her skull, her dark eyes either feeling or feigning
vivacious interest as she inclined her head to listen to John's animated
conversation, she was easily the most beautiful person in front or behind the
footlights. He sensed the strong magnetism of her presence as he took the
seat on the other side of her, and she said smilingly to him, "I was telling
John how bad this play is, but he seems only to have noticed that the settings
are in atrocious taste."
"He's right," Rodrigo acknowledged, and, thinking this was rather curt,
added, "And so are you."
"Yes, part of it," he said quickly, without thinking, and then cursed
himself for betraying that she exerted some of her old spell over him. A
sudden enigmatic smile crinkled her eyes and mouth as she gazed full at him
an instant, then turned abruptly to John.
He played golf with John's brother-in-law and his two companions the
next morning and had the satisfaction of being largely responsible for
another victory for Pritchard and himself. The latter was as tickled as if he
had captured a championship. "Come again next week-end, Rodrigo, and
we'll give these birds a real ride," he proclaimed loudly for the defeated ones'
benefit. But Rodrigo would not promise.
"Isn't she the most wonderful wife in the world?" John whispered to him
as he grasped the step-rods of the train.
Going back in the train, he thought of her and John, and of their chances
for happiness. He recalled the conversation Warren Pritchard had hesitantly
started on the way to the golf links that morning, and then dropped.
"I say, Rodrigo," Warren had begun, after fumbling around obviously for
an opening, "I know it may sound caddish of me, and I shouldn't be talking
this way, but what really do you know of this lady whom my brother-in-law
has married?"
"Oh, I only know her slightly," Rodrigo had replied offhandedly. "She
comes of an excellent San Francisco family, I believe, connected with the
Palmers—your father-in-law knows the Palmers well."
"I wasn't thinking of her family. But will she make old John happy?"
"Why not?"