ISE Biology Laboratory Manual

(Thirteenth Edition) Darrell S. Vodopich

Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/ise-biology-laboratory-manual-thirteenth-edition-darre
ll-s-vodopich/
Biology
Laboratory Manual

Thirteenth Edition

Darrell S. Vodopich
Baylor University

Randy Moore
University of Minnesota
BIOLOGY LABORATORY MANUAL

Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10019. Copyright ©2023 by
McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system,
without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to, in any network or other
electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the
United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LMN 27 26 25 24 23 22

ISBN 978-1-265-13673-4
MHID 1-265-13673-4

Cover Image: ©Darrell S. Vodopich

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website
does not indicate an endorsement by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not
guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these sites..

mheducation.com/highered
Contents

Preface ​ ​v Exercise 16
Teaching and Learning Tools ​  ix Molecular Biology and Biotechnology: DNA Isolation and Genetic
Transformation ​ 175
Welcome to the Biology Laboratory ​xii

Exercise 1 Exercise 17
Genetics: The Principles of Mendel ​183
Scientific Method: The Process of Science ​1

Exercise 2 Exercise 18
Evolution: Natural Selection and Morphological Change in
Measurements in Biology: The Metric System and Data Analysis ​11
Green Algae ​199

Exercise 3 Exercise 19
The Microscope: Basic Skills of Light Microscopy ​21
Human Evolution: Skull Examination ​211

Exercise 4 Exercise 20
The Cell: Structure and Function ​33
Ecology: Diversity and Interaction in Plant Communities ​223

Exercise 5 Exercise 21
Solutions, Acids, and Bases: The pH Scale ​51
Community Succession ​233

Exercise 6 Exercise 22
Biologically Important Molecules: Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, and
Population Growth: Limitations of the Environment ​241
Nucleic Acids ​59

Exercise 7 Exercise 23
Pollution: The Effects of Chemical, Thermal, and Acidic Pollution ​249
Separating Organic Compounds: Column Chromatography, Paper
Chromatography, and Gel Electrophoresis ​73
Exercise 24
Survey of Prokaryotes: Domains Archaea and Bacteria ​259
Exercise 8
Spectrophotometry: Identifying Solutes and Determining Their
Concentration ​ 83 Exercise 25
Survey of Protists: Algal Autotrophs ​275
Exercise 9
Diffusion and Osmosis: Passive Movement of Molecules in Biological Exercise 26
Systems ​ 95 Survey of Protists: Protozoan Heterotrophs ​289

Exercise 10 Exercise 27
Cellular Membranes: Effects of Physical and Chemical Stress ​109 Survey of the Kingdom Fungi: Molds, Sac Fungi, Mushrooms, and
Lichens ​ 299
Exercise 11
Enzymes: Factors Affecting the Rate of Activity ​117 Exercise 28
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Liverworts, Mosses, and Hornworts of
Phyla Hepatophyta, Bryophyta, and Anthocerophyta ​315
Exercise 12
Respiration: Aerobic and Anaerobic Oxidation of Organic
Molecules ​ 129 Exercise 29
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Seedless Vascular Plants of Phyla
Pterophyta and Lycophyta ​325
Exercise 13
Photosynthesis: Pigment Separation, Starch Production, and CO2
Uptake ​ 141 Exercise 30
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Gymnosperms of Phyla Cycadophyta,
Ginkgophyta, Coniferophyta, and Gnetophyta ​337
Exercise 14
Mitosis: Replication of Eukaryotic Cells ​153
Exercise 31
Survey of the Plant Kingdom: Angiosperms ​347
Exercise 15
Meiosis: Reduction Division and Gametogenesis ​163

TOC–1 iii
Exercise 32 Exercise 43
Plant Anatomy: Vegetative Structure of Vascular Plants ​363 Human Biology: Muscles and Muscle Contraction ​507

Exercise 33 Exercise 44
Plant Physiology: Transpiration ​377 Human Biology: Breathing ​515

Exercise 34 Exercise 45
Plant Physiology: Tropisms, Nutrition, and Growth Regulators ​385 Human Biology: Circulation and Blood Pressure ​525

Exercise 35 Exercise 46
Bioassay: Measuring Physiologically Active Substances ​397 Human Biology: Sensory Perception ​539

Exercise 36 Exercise 47
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Porifera and Cnidaria ​403 Vertebrate Anatomy: External Features and Skeletal
System of the Rat ​549
Exercise 37
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Platyhelminthes and Exercise 48
Mollusca ​ 419 Vertebrate Anatomy: Muscles and Internal Organs of the Rat ​557

Exercise 38 Exercise 49
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Annelida and Nematoda ​435 Vertebrate Anatomy: Urogenital and Circulatory Systems of the Rat ​567

Exercise 39 Exercise 50
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phylum Arthropoda ​449 Embryology: Comparative Morphologies and Strategies
of Development ​579
Exercise 40
Survey of the Animal Kingdom: Phyla Echinodermata and Exercise 51
Chordata ​ 463 Animal Behavior: Taxis, Kinesis, and Agonistic Behavior ​589

Exercise 41 Appendix I
Vertebrate Animal Tissues: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous Dissection of a Fetal Pig ​595
Tissues ​ 483
Appendix II
Exercise 42 Conversion of Metric Units to English Units ​602
Human Biology: The Human Skeletal System ​499

iv TOC–2
Preface
Contents
W e have designed this laboratory manual for an intro-
ductory biology course with a broad survey of basic
laboratory techniques. The experiments and procedures are
simple, safe, easy to perform, and especially appropriate for
large classes. Few experiments require more than one class
meeting to complete the procedure. Each exercise includes
many photographs and illustrations, traditional topics, and
experiments that help students do biology as they learn about
life. Procedures within each exercise are numerous and dis-
crete so that an exercise can be tailored to the needs of the stu-
dents, the style of the instructor, and the facilities available.
TO THE STUDENT
We hope this manual is an interesting guide to many areas
of biology. As you read about these areas, you’ll probably
spend equal amounts of time observing and experimenting.
Don’t hesitate to go beyond the observations that we’ve
outlined—your future success as a scientist and an informed
citizen depends on your ability to seek and notice things that
others may overlook. Now is the time to develop this ability
with a mixture of hard work and relaxed observation. Have
fun, and learning will come easily. Also, remember that this
manual is designed with your instructors in mind as well. Go
to them often with questions—their experience is a valuable
tool that you should use as you work.
TO THE INSTRUCTOR
This manual’s simple, straightforward approach emphasizes
experiments and activities that optimize students’ investment
of time and your investment of supplies, equipment, and
preparation. Simple, safe, and straightforward experiments
are most effective if you interpret the work in depth. Most
experiments can be done easily by a student in 2 to 3 hours.
Terminology, structures, photographs, and concepts are lim-
ited to those that the student can readily observe and under-
stand. In each exercise we have included a few activities
requiring a greater investment of effort if resources are avail-
able, but omitting them will not detract from the objectives.
This manual functions best with an instructor’s guid-
ance and is not an autotutorial system. We've provided back-
ground information for context and understanding, but the
focus of each exercise remains on students doing interesting
and meaningful activities to learn basic information about
P–1
biology. We’ve tried to guide students from observations to
conclusions, to help students make their own discoveries,
and to make the transition from observation to understand-
ing biological principles. But discussions and interactions
between student and instructor are major components of a
successful laboratory experience. Be sure to examine the
“Questions for Further Study and Inquiry” in each exercise.
We hope they will help you expand students’ perceptions
that each exercise has broad application to their world.
DIGITAL INTEGRATION
Today’s students are digital learners, and this lab manual
integrates that learning with interesting activities that help
students learn about biology. Virtually every exercise of this
manual is accompanied by tailor-made digital resources,
including assignable questions and a variety of high-definition
videos, PowerPoint images, and other resources that demon-
strate basic techniques, emphasize biological principles, test
for understanding, and engage students as they learn biology
in the laboratory.
Digital resources are available to instructors at connect
.mheducation.com. Instructors will want to assign these
resources to help students know what they’ll be doing, what
principles they’ll be investigating, and what concepts they’ll
need to understand before coming to lab.
WHAT’S NEW IN THIS EDITION
Throughout the manual, we have expanded and improved
several of the most popular and effective features of
previous editions, including
∙ Learning Objectives have been updated to provide an
overview of what students will do and learn in the exercise.
∙ Procedures and Doing Biology Yourself require stu-
dents to do biology as they apply skills they’ve learned to
develop and study hypotheses they formulate about biology.
∙ Questions throughout each exercise encourage students to
pause and think about their data and what they’ve learned.
∙ Questions for Further Study and Inquiry at the
end of each exercise help students apply what they’ve
learned to broader topics and issues in biology.
v
∙ Writing to Learn Biology encourages students to use writ-
ing to develop their ideas about what they learned in lab.
∙ Caution and Safety First icons make students aware of
safety issues associated with the procedures they’ll use
in lab.
∙ Boxed readings titled Inquiry-Based Learning encour-
age students to apply what they’ve learned to indepen-
dently answer questions about intriguing biological topics.
∙ Updated health-related exercises help students better
understand how topics such as genetics, cell biology,
blood pressure, atherosclerosis, and their risk of cardio-
vascular disease relate to our health.
∙ Several illustrations have been replaced with photographs
to provide more realistic images to support the Exercise
content.
∙ Approximately 90 illustrations and photos have been
revised.
∙ Questions within procedures now include lines on which
students can write their answers.
∙ An assignable, updated library of videos and Connect
questions helps students prepare for lab and understand
the instruments and techniques that will be important
for their investigations. Instructors may assign these
videos before class time to help ensure that students
arrive prepared for lab.
Exercise-Specific Changes
∙ Exercise 1—Edited text for improved readability and
relevance (e.g., climate change, COVID-19); Improved
questions to help students better understand what sci-
ence is and how science is done
∙ Exercise 2—Improved the readability of the text and the
presentation of metric units; Specified the differences
in using a triple-beam balance and an electronic scale;
Emphasized the importance of significant figures in
measurements; Emphasized that in biology, the mean is
usually preferred to the median when reporting descrip-
tive statistics; Added a question about measurements of
COVID-19
∙ Exercise 3—Improved the instructions for how to use a
compound light microscope
∙ Exercise 4—Added an objective for understanding the
relative sizes of cells and organelles; Added a boxed
insert about surface-area-to-volume ratios in cells; Added
a boxed insert about cellular structure and human disease
∙ Exercise 5—Reorganized and edited the text for
increased understanding and readability
vi
∙ Exercise 6—Replaced figure 6.9 with a better, more
informative image; Added a table for students to sum-
marize the biochemical tests they performed in the lab;
Added a question to emphasize the significance of acid
precipitation; Added a boxed insert about using the
iodine test to detect counterfeit money; Added a boxed
insert about dietary fats
∙ Exercise 7—Reorganized the procedures for better use
of time in the lab
∙ Exercise 9—Revised the Introduction and Diffusion
sections to emphasize the relevance of osmosis and dif-
fusion to general physiology; Enhanced the safety notice
to use appropriate PPE; Added question for problem-
solving based on experimental data; Revised captions for
figures 9.7 and 9.9 to emphasize the flow of water into
and out of cells
∙ Exercise 10—Revised the Introduction to reinforce
understanding of how membranes regulate the move-
ment of materials into and out of cells
∙ Exercise 12—Replaced figure 12.1 (i.e., rising bread
dough) to show the production of carbon dioxide; Edited
questions for improved understanding; Updated the ter-
minology for the citric acid cycle
∙ Exercise 13—Replaced figure 13.1 to emphasize the
production of oxygen by photosynthesis; Edited the text
for improved readability and understanding; Corrected
figure 13.10 for improved entry of data by students
∙ Exercise 14—Enhanced the readability of the Introduc-
tion; Expanded the description of chromatids versus
chromosomes; Added new figure 14.6 showing the
metaphase plate and chromosomal alignment
∙ Exercise 15—Revised the Introduction to emphasize
the value of genetic recombination for adaptation to
changing environments; Revised labels of figure 15.1 to
better distinguish maternal homologues from paternal
homologues; Revised figure 15.2 to emphasize (1) the
replication of chromosomes and (2) the formation of
chromatids; Added new figure 15.6 of spermatogenesis
to emphasize the steps of maturation from spermatogo-
nium to spermatozoa
∙ Exercise 16—Updated the information about the use
and yield of genetically modified crops; Edited questions
to emphasize critical thinking about genetically modi-
fied crops
∙ Exercise 17—Edited the text for improved readability
and understanding; Added updates about phenylketon-
uria, Huntington’s disease, and familial hypercholester-
emia; Added information and a new image to improve
students’ understanding of transposons
P–2
∙ Exercise 18—Added an example of calculating Hardy-
Weinberg frequencies
∙ Exercise 19—Revised figure 19.2 to reflect recent
discoveries about human evolution; Revised Procedure
19.2 to compare the sizes of brain cases in apes versus
humans; Added new figure 19.10 comparing skeletons
of humans and chimpanzees
∙ Exercise 20—Clarified the definitions of soil types;
Revised Procedure 20.3 to clarify calculations
∙ Exercise 21—Edited the objectives for improved
understanding
∙ Exercise 22—Plagues; Added a boxed insert about
Population Growth and Our Carbon Footprint; Updated
information in the text about population and population
growth; Expanded table 22.1 to include 10 generations
of bacterial growth; Emphasized and added a question
about how population growth affects public health, eco-
nomic stability, social structure, and the well-being of our
environment
∙ Exercise 23—Edited text to improve readability and
accuracy
∙ Exercise 24—Relabeled figure 24.6 to help students
better understand the structure of bacterial cell walls;
Replaced figure 24.7 to better show steps of the Gram
stain procedure; Revised the description and interpreta-
tion of antibiotic effectiveness apparent on bacterial
sensitivity plates
∙ Exercise 25—Enhanced explanations of autotrophic
versus heterotrophic protistans; Added new figure 25.1
to distinguish between algae and protozoans; Replaced
figure 25.5 to better explain Chlamydomonas life cycle;
Expanded the explanation of asexual versus sexual
reproduction in unicellular algae; Rearranged the descrip-
tions of brown algae and red algae to adhere to current
phylogeny based on molecular taxonomic techniques
∙ Exercise 26—Moved the coverage and procedures about
slime molds forward to better reflect current phylogeny;
Added new figure 26.8 showing a scanning electron
micrograph that emphasizes the cell surface of a ciliate
∙ Exercise 27—Multiple clarifications of the structures and
processes of asexual versus sexual reproduction in fungi;
Revised figure 27.1 to highlight aseptate hyphae; Revised
figure 27.2 to distinguish between sporangia and sporan-
giophores; Expanded the coverage of the major phyla of
fungi to include phylum Glomeromycota; Added new
figure 27.3b to show infection by chytrid fungi; Revised
table 27.1 to include description and artwork of key repro-
ductive features of Glomeromycota; Updated figure 27.4
to better illustrate stolons, spores, and sporangiophores
P–3
of Zygomycota; Expanded explanation of asexual versus
sexual reproduction in Zygomycota; Revised figure 27.6b
to emphasize distinctions between sexual reproduction
and asexual reproduction in bread molds; Expanded
descriptions in Procedure 27.3 to help students better
interpret conjugation plates of Rhizopus; Revised figure
27.9 to better distinguish between a sporangium and
conidiophore; Revised figure 27.13 to better distinguish
asexual from sexual reproductive structures and processes;
Revised figure 27.15 to emphasize sexual reproduction in
mushrooms; Included coverage and new procedures for
examining Glomeromycota and other mycorrhizae; Added
descriptions and illustrations of mycorrhizae, including
arbuscular and ectomycorrhizae forms; Added new figure
27.18e illustrating the structure of a lichen cross section
∙ Exercise 28—Updated classification information;
Replaced figures 28.6 and 28.11 to help students better
understand the information
∙ Exercise 29—Enhanced figures 29.1 and 29.11 for bet-
ter understanding
∙ Exercise 30—Edited text for better readability and
understanding; Added a question about the distinguish-
ing features of the groups of plants that students exam-
ined in this lab
∙ Exercise 31—Improved table 31.1 and figure 31.5 for
better understanding; Improved “Dichotomous Key to
Major Types of Fruit”; Replaced figure 31.18 with bet-
ter, more informative images and information; Added a
question to emphasize the differences between mono-
cots and eudicots
∙ Exercise 32—Edited text for improved readability and
understanding; Improved the description of the endoder-
mis and its function; Replaced figure 32.1 to better show
the differences in tap versus fibrous root systems; Added
scale-markers to figures; Edited the text to better empha-
size the differences between gymnosperms and angio-
sperms; Enhanced figure 32.16 for better understanding;
Added a question to emphasize the differences between
stomata and lenticels
∙ Exercise 33—Edited the Introduction for improved
understanding; Removed the redundant instruction in
Procedure 33.2; Added an alternate procedure for making
a leaf-impression for counting and visualizing stomata
∙ Exercise 34—Emphasized and added a question about
how plants, unlike animals, have a small number of growth
regulators that influence many traits; Added scale-markers
to figures; Added information about the use of 2,4-D;
Added information about how gibberellic acid is important
for increasing yields and profits for grape growers
vii
∙ Exercise 35—Added text to improve understanding
about bioassays and standard curves; Added a more spe-
cific question to the “Inquiry-Based Learning” assign-
ment; Added graph paper for reporting students’ results
∙ Exercise 36—Clarified functional relationships among
spicules, spongin fibers, porocytes, and amoebocytes;
Expanded the description of water flow through a wall
of a sponge as depicted in figure 36.4; Revised figure
36.12 to show the relative size of cnidarian medusae;
Revised figure 36.16 to show the relative size of ephy-
rae; Expanded the description of corals to include infor-
mation about coral bleaching and coral symbioses with
algae
∙ Exercise 37—Significantly revised the sequence of cover-
age of invertebrate phyla to adhere to current phylogeny
based on molecular taxonomic techniques; Included
taxonomic classifications of lophophorazoa and ecdy­
sozoa; Positioned coverage of nematodes to immediately
precede coverage of arthropods, as both are now consid-
ered ecdysozoans; Mollusk coverage now immediately
follows that of flatworms, as they are both considered
lophophorazoans; Added new figure 37.3 to illustrate a
trochophore larva; Revised table 37.1 to replace nematode
descriptions with mollusk descriptions; Replaced figure
37.3 with new art illustrating flatworm anatomy; Replaced
figure 38.5 with new art illustrating molluscan radula
∙ Exercise 38—Coverage of nematodes now follows that
of annelids
∙ Exercise 39—Revised figure 39.16 to clarify position of
retinula cells
∙ Exercise 40—Revised legend of figure 40.18 to better
describe the evolution of jaws among fish ancestors;
Changed common name of chordate class Actinopteriy-
gii from boney fish to ray-finned fish; Added new table
40.3 to provide space for students to organize classes of
vertebrates and their major characteristics
∙ Exercise 41—Revised Procedure 41.1 to emphasize
safety when using stains; Revised figure 41.5 to clearly
label nuclei of simple columnar epithelial cells; Clari-
fied the varied functions of connective tissues; Expanded
Procedure 41.3 to describe the appearance of red blood
cells and leukocytes on prepared slides; Included new
terminology of central canals in place of Haversian sys-
tems of bones
∙ Exercise 42—Clarified the differences between ten-
dons and ligaments; Added new figure 42.1 to illustrate
the parts of the human skeleton; Revised figure 42.2
to include labels of the ileum, ischium, and pubis;
Expanded the Questions for Further Study and Inquiry
viii
∙ Exercise 43—Modified labels of figure 43.2 to show the
origin and insertion of triceps brachii
∙ Exercise 44—Revised figure 44.4 to emphasize how
changes of internal air pressure affect the mechanics
of breathing; Emphasized the value of measuring lung
capacity to understanding respiratory disease; Clarified
Procedure 44.2 to better describe the use of a spirometer
∙ Exercise 45—Expanded the procedure for examining a
cow heart to include the use of a heart model; Added a
new question to describe heartbeat sounds heard with
a stethoscope; Revised figure 45.2 to better show dif-
ferences in the walls of arteries versus veins; Revised
Procedure 45.2 to better describe the steps to measure
blood pressure; Added new figure 45.7 to illustrate the
anatomy of venous valves; Updated the table for scoring
risk factors of cardiovascular disease; Questions for Fur-
ther Thought and Inquiry now include library research
to understand diseases of the heart and circulatory
system
∙ Exercise 46—Quantified differences in retinal resolu-
tions among humans and other animals; Described and
distinguished sensorineural versus nerve deafness;
Clarified the steps of Procedure 46.8 to better determine
nerve deafness; Updated figure 46.6 to show the size of
the ear drum; Modified Procedure 46.1 to include safety
procedures
∙ Exercise 47—Expanded Questions for Further Study
and Inquiry include an analysis of bipedalism
∙ Exercise 48—Added new figure 48.7 to include art and
a photograph showing the structure of microvilli; Rela-
beled figure 48.6 to show the common bile duct
∙ Exercise 49—Added new figure 49.4 to illustrate kidney
anatomy with sagittal section
∙ Exercise 50—Clarified the distinction between an
embryo and a zygote; Expanded the description of gray
crescent formation; Added new figure 50.5 to illustrate
the formation of a gray crescent; Added new figure 50.8
to illustrate differences between the vegetal pole and
animal pole; Relabeled figure 50.9 to clearly distinguish
the endoderm and mesoderm; Quantified the egg sizes
among birds to emphasize variety in egg anatomy; Rela-
beled figure 50.12 to show albumin
∙ Exercise 51—Added questions to encourage students to
think about agonistic behaviors in humans and why it is
important to try to integrate all aspects of an organism’s
behavior
∙ Appendix II Updated information about the metric
system
P–4
Teaching and Learning Tools
Contents

McGraw Hill Connect® McGraw Hill CreateTM

McGraw Hill Connect provides online presentation, assign- With McGraw Hill Create, you can easily rearrange exer-
ment, and assessment solutions. It connects your students cises, combine material from other content sources, and
with the tools and resources they’ll need to succeed at quickly upload content you have written, such as your course
connect.mheducation.com. syllabus or teaching notes. Find the content you need in Create
by searching through thousands of leading McGraw Hill text-
books. Arrange your book to fit your teaching style. Create
With Connect Biology, you can deliver assignments and even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance
quizzes online. A robust set of questions and activities is by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and
presented and aligned with this lab manual’s learning out- course information. Order a Create book and you’ll receive
comes. Pre-lab worksheets and Investigation worksheets a complimentary print review copy in 3–5 business days or a
are also included within Connect. As an instructor, you can complimentary electronic review copy (eComp) via e-mail in
edit existing questions and write entirely new questions. minutes. Go to create.mheducation.com today and register
Track students’ performance—by question, by assignment, or to experience how McGraw Hill Create empowers you to
in relation to the class overall—with detailed grade reports. teach your students your way.
Integrate grade reports easily with Learning Management
Systems (LMS), such as Blackboard—and much more. Laboratory Resource Guide
The Laboratory Resource Guide is essential for instructors
and laboratory assistants and is available free to adopters of
Virtual Labs and Lab Simulations the Laboratory Manual within Connect under the Instructor
Resources tab.
While the biological sciences are hands-on disciplines,
instructors are now often being asked to deliver some of
their lab content online, as full online replacements, supple-
ments to prepare for in-person labs, or make-up labs.
These simulations help each student learn the practical
and conceptual skills needed, then check for understanding and
provide feedback. With adaptive pre-lab and post-lab assess-
ment available, instructors can customize each assignment.
From the instructor’s perspective, these simulations
may be used in the lecture environment to help students visu-
alize complex scientific processes, such as DNA technology
or Gram staining, while at the same time providing a valu-
able connection between the lecture and lab environments.

T–1 ix
Instructors: Student Success Starts with You
Tools to enhance your unique voice
Want to build your own course? No problem. Prefer to use an
OLC-aligned, prebuilt course? Easy. Want to make changes throughout
65%
Less Time
the semester? Sure. And you’ll save time with Connect’s auto-grading too.
Grading

Study made personal

Incorporate adaptive study resources like
SmartBook® 2.0 into your course and help your
students be better prepared in less time. Learn
more about the powerful personalized learning
experience available in SmartBook 2.0 at
www.mheducation.com/highered/connect/smartbook

Laptop: McGraw Hill; Woman/dog: George Doyle/Getty Images

Affordable solutions, Solutions for

added value your challenges
Make technology work for you with A product isn’t a solution. Real
LMS integration for single sign-on access, solutions are affordable, reliable,
mobile access to the digital textbook, and come with training and
and reports to quickly show you how ongoing support when you need
each of your students is doing. And with it and how you want it. Visit www.
our Inclusive Access program you can supportateverystep.com for videos
provide all these tools at a discount to and resources both you and your
your students. Ask your McGraw Hill students can use throughout the
representative for more information. semester.

Padlock: Jobalou/Getty Images Checkmark: Jobalou/Getty Images

Students: Get Learning that Fits You
Effective tools for efficient studying
Connect is designed to help you be more productive with simple, flexible, intuitive tools that maximize
your study time and meet your individual learning needs. Get learning that works for you with Connect.

Study anytime, anywhere “I really liked this

Download the free ReadAnywhere app and access app—it made it easy
your online eBook, SmartBook 2.0, or Adaptive to study when you
Learning Assignments when it’s convenient, even don't have your text-
if you’re offline. And since the app automatically
syncs with your Connect account, all of your work is book in front of you.”
available every time you open it. Find out more at
www.mheducation.com/readanywhere - Jordan Cunningham,
Eastern Washington University

Everything you need in one place

Your Connect course has everything you need—whether reading on
your digital eBook or completing assignments for class, Connect makes
it easy to get your work done.

Calendar: owattaphotos/Getty Images

Learning for everyone

McGraw Hill works directly with Accessibility Services
Departments and faculty to meet the learning needs
of all students. Please contact your Accessibility
Services Office and ask them to email
accessibility@mheducation.com, or visit
www.mheducation.com/about/accessibility
for more information.

Top: Jenner Images/Getty Images, Left: Hero Images/Getty Images, Right: Hero Images/Getty Images
Welcome
Contents
to the Biology Laboratory

W elcome to the biology laboratory! Although reading

your textbook and attending lectures are important
ways of learning about biology, nothing can replace the
importance of the laboratory. In lab you’ll get hands-on
experience with what you’ve heard and read about biology—
for example, you’ll observe and manipulate organisms, do
experiments, test ideas, collect and organize data, and make
conclusions about what you’ve learned. You’ll do biology.
You’ll enjoy the exercises in this manual—they’re
interesting and informative and can be completed within
the time limits of your laboratory period. We’ve provided
questions to test your understanding of what you’ve done; in
some of the exercises, we’ve also asked you to devise your
own experiments to test hypotheses and answer questions
that you’ve posed. To make these exercises most useful and
enjoyable, follow these guidelines noted in the next sections.
THE IMPORTANCE OF COMING TO CLASS
Biology labs are designed to help you experience biology
firsthand. To do well in your biology course, you’ll need to
attend class and pay attention. Remember this: Attending
and being prepared for class are critical for learning
about biology and earning a good grade in this course.
To appreciate this, examine figure 1, which is a graph

100
A

B
80
C

D
60
Grade (%)

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Attendance (% of classes attended)

Figure 1 Relationship of students’ grades in an introductory biology course to their rates of class attendance.

xii W–1
showing how students’ grades in an introductory biology
course correlate to their rates of class attendance. Data are
from a general biology class at the University of Minnesota.
On page xv, write an analysis of the data shown in figure 1.
What do these data mean?
BEFORE COMING TO LAB
Watch the lab video. Videos are provided for several of the
labs in this manual. Be sure to watch any assigned video
associated with the lab you will be completing. These videos
will help you know more about what you will be doing, what
principles you will be investigating, and what concepts you
need to understand before coming to lab.
Read the exercise before coming to lab. This will give
you a general idea about what you’re going to do, as well as
why you’re going to do it. Knowing this will not only save
time, it will also help you finish the experiments and make
you aware of any safety-related issues associated with the lab.
Review any of the lab safety concerns. Before doing
any procedures, you’ll encounter a section of each exercise
titled “SAFETY FIRST” that is marked with its icon:
This icon will warn you of safety concerns (e.g., solvents,
acids, bases, hotplates) associated with the work. If you have
questions about these safety issues, contact your lab instructor
before starting the lab work.
Notify your instructor if you are pregnant, are color-
blind, are taking immunosuppressive drugs, have allergies,
or have any other conditions that may require precautionary
measures. Also, before coming to lab, cover any cuts or
scrapes with a sterile, waterproof bandage.
WHEN IN LAB
1. Know what you are going to do. Read and understand
the lab before coming to lab.
2. Don’t start the exercise until you’ve discussed the
exercise with your laboratory instructor. She or he will
give you specific instructions about the lab and tell
you how the exercise may have been modified.
3. Work carefully and thoughtfully, and stay focused as
you work. You’ll be able to finish each exercise within
the allotted time if you are prepared and stay on task.
W–2
4. Discuss your observations, results, and conclusions
with your instructor and lab partners. Perhaps their
comments and ideas will help you better understand
what you’ve observed.
5. Always follow instructions and safety guidelines pre-
sented by your instructor. Speak up!
6. If you have questions, ask your instructor.
SAFETY IN THE LABORATORY
Laboratory accidents can affect individuals, classes, or the
entire campus. To avoid such accidents, the exercises in this
manual were designed with safety as a top priority. You’ll
be warned about any potentially hazardous situations or
chemicals with this image:
When you see this image, pay special attention to the
instructions.
The laboratory safety rules listed in table 1 will help
make lab a safe place for everyone to learn biology. Remem-
ber, it is much easier to prevent an accident than to deal with
its consequences.
Read the laboratory safety rules listed in table 1. If
you do not understand them, or if you have questions, ask
your instructor for an explanation. Then complete table 1
and sign the statement at the bottom of page xv.
BEFORE YOU LEAVE LAB
Put away all equipment and glassware, and wipe clean your
work area.
AFTER EACH LABORATORY
Soon after each lab, review what you did. What questions
did you answer? What data did you gather? What conclu-
sions did you make?
Also note any questions that remain. Try to answer
these questions by using your textbook or visiting the
library. If you can’t answer the questions, discuss them with
your instructor.
Welcome to the biology laboratory!
xiii
 Table 1
Laboratory Safety Rules
Why is this rule important?
Rule What could happen if this rule is not followed?
Behave responsibly. No horseplay or fooling around while in lab.
Do not bring any food or beverages into lab, and do not eat, drink, smoke,
chew gum, chew tobacco, or apply cosmetics when in lab. Never taste
anything in lab. Do not put anything in lab into your mouth. Avoid touch-
ing your face, chewing on pens, and other similar behaviors while in lab.
Always wear shoes in lab.
Unless you are told otherwise by your instructor, assume that all chemicals and
solutions in lab are poisonous, and act accordingly. Never pipette by mouth.
Always use a mechanical pipetting device (e.g., a suction bulb) to pipette solu-
tions. Clean up all spills immediately, and report all spills to your instructor.
Wear safety goggles when working with chemicals. Carefully read the labels
on bottles and know the chemical you are dealing with. Do not use chemicals
from an unlabeled container, and do not return excess chemicals back to their
container. Report all spills to your instructor immediately.
Unless your instructor tells you to do otherwise, do not pour any solutions
down the drain. Dispose of all materials as per instructions from your
instructor.
If you have long hair, tie it back. Don’t wear dangling jewelry. If you are
using open flames, roll up loose sleeves. Wear contact lenses at your own
risk; contacts hold substances against the eye and make it difficult to wash
your eyes thoroughly.
Treat living organisms with care and respect.
Your instructor will tell you the locations of lab safety equipment, including
fire extinguishers, fire blanket, eyewash stations, and emergency showers.
Familiarize yourself with the location and operation of this equipment.
If anything is splashed into your eyes, wash your eyes thoroughly and
immediately. Tell your lab instructor what happened.
Notify your instructor of any allergies to latex, chemicals, stings, or other
substances.
If you break any glassware, do not pick up the pieces of broken glass with
your hands. Instead, use a broom and dustpan to gather the broken glass.
Ask your instructor how to dispose of the glass.
Unless told by your instructor to do otherwise, work only during regular,
assigned hours when the instructor is present. Do not conduct any unau-
thorized experiments; for example, do not mix any chemicals without your
instructor’s approval.
Do not leave any experiments unattended unless you are authorized by your
instructor to do so. If you leave your work area, slide your chair under the lab
table. Keep walkways and desktops clean and clear by putting books, back-
packs, and so on along the edge of the room, in the hall, in a locker, or in an
adjacent room. Keep your work area as clean and uncluttered as possible.
Don’t touch or put anything on the surface of hotplates unless told to do
so. Many types of hotplates have no visible sign that they are hot. Assume
they are hot.
Know how to use the equipment in lab. Most of the equipment is expen-
sive; you may be required to pay all or part of its replacement cost. Keep
water and solutions away from equipment and electrical outlets. Report
malfunctioning equipment to your instructor. Leave equipment in the same
place and condition that you found it. If you have any questions about or
problems with equipment, contact your instructor.
Know what to do and whom to contact if there is an emergency. Know the
fastest way to get out of the lab. Immediately report all injuries—no matter
how minor—to your instructor. Seek medical attention immediately if needed.
If any injury appears to be life-threatening, call 911 immediately.
At the end of each lab, clean your work area, wash your hands thoroughly
with soap, slide your chair under the lab table, and return all equipment
and supplies to their original locations. Do not remove any chemicals or
equipment from the lab.

xiv W–3
 Name _________________________________________

Lab Section _________________________________________

Your lab instructor may require that you submit this page at the end of today’s lab.

1. In the space below, write an analysis of the data shown in figure 1.

After completing table 1, read and sign this statement:

2. I have read and I understand and agree to abide by the laboratory safety rules described in this exercise and discussed
by my instructor. I know the locations of the safety equipment and materials. If I violate any of the laboratory safety
rules, my instructor will lower my grade and/or remove me from the lab.

____________________________________________
Signature

____________________________________________
Name (printed)

____________________________________________
Date

W–4 xv
This page intentionally left blank
 EXER CISE

Scientific Method
The Process of Science 1
Learning Objectives
By the end of this exercise you should be able to:
1. Define science and understand the logic and sequence of the scientific method.
2. Develop productive observations, questions, and hypotheses about the natural world.
3. Calculate the range, mean, and standard deviation for a set of replicate measurements.
4. Design and conduct a controlled experiment to test a null hypothesis.
5. Understand the difference and connection between a hypothesis and a scientific theory.

Please visit connect.mheducation.com to review online resources tailored to this lab.

T he word science brings to mind different things to dif-

ferent students. To some students, science is a textbook.
To others, it’s a microscope, a dissected frog, or a course that
you take. In fact, science is none of those things. Some defini-
tions are more useful than others, but for biological research
a good definition of science is the orderly process of posing
and answering questions about the natural world through
repeated and unbiased experiments and observations. This
definition emphasizes that science is a process rather than a
book, course, or list of facts. Science is not a “thing.” It’s a
way of thinking about and doing things—a powerful way of
learning and knowing about the natural world (fig. 1.1). Sci-
ence has helped us understand phenomena such as climate
change and the coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic,
produce antibiotics and other drugs, and improve our lives in
many, many ways.
Our definition also emphasizes that people do science
by asking questions and then doing experiments to answer
those questions. Questions and curiosity are part of human
nature, and science is a human activity. Like any human
task, it takes practice to do science effectively.
Finally, our definition emphasizes that science is a
tool for learning about the natural world. It is ineffective
for moral choices, ethical dilemmas, and untestable ideas.
For example, the scientific method cannot tell us if pollution
is good or bad. It can tell us the environmental consequences
of pollution, but whether these consequences are “good” or
“bad” is a judgment that we make based on our values or
goals, not on science. Although this is an important limi-
tation of the scientific method, science remains one of the
most powerful ways of understanding our world.

Question 1 ​ ​
What practices besides science are used among world
­cultures to learn about the natural world?

The questioning and testing inherent in science sys-

Morsa Images/DigitalVision/Getty Images
Figure 1.1 Science is a process of learning about the natural world.
Doing experiments that involve gathering repeated and unbiased measure-
ments (data) is at the heart of testing hypotheses and answering questions.
tematically sift through natural variation to find underlying
patterns. The natural world includes much variation, and
learning biology would be relatively easy if simple obser-
vations accurately revealed patterns of the natural world.
But they usually don’t—nature is too complicated to rely
solely on simple observation. We can certainly learn much

1–1 Scientific Method 1

about our environment just by looking around us, but casual
observations are often biased and misleading because nature
varies from time to time and from organism to organism.
Biologists need a structured and repeatable process for test-
ing their ideas about the variation in nature. Science is that
process.
Question 2 ​ ​
What factors might be responsible for variation in measure-
ments of traits such as the heights of 10-year-old pine trees
or the kidney filtration rates of 10 replicate lab-mice?
The process of science deals with variation primar-
ily through an organized sequence of steps that maintains
as much objectivity and repeatability as possible. Although
these loosely organized steps, sometimes called the
scientific method, vary from situation to situation, they are
remarkably effective for research and problem solving. The
typical steps in the process of science are:
∙∙ Make insightful observations
∙∙ Pose and clarify testable questions
∙∙ Formulate hypotheses
∙∙ Do experiments to gather data
∙∙ Quantify the data
∙∙ Test the hypotheses
∙∙ Refine hypotheses and retest
∙∙ Answer the questions and make conclusions
DEVELOPMENT OF OBSERVATIONS,
QUESTIONS, AND HYPOTHESES
Make Insightful Observations
Good scientists make insightful observations. But that’s not
as easy as it seems. Consider these two observations:
Observation 1: There are fewer elk in Yellowstone
National Park than there used to be.
Observation 2: The density of elk in Yellowstone
National Park has declined during the
consecutive dry years since the reintro-
duction of the native wolf population.
Which of these two observations is stronger and more
­useful? Both of them may be true, but the second one is
much more insightful because it provides a context to the
observation that the elk population is declining. It also sug-
gests a relevant factor—that is, the reintroduction of the
wolf population—as a productive topic for investigation.
It also suggests a relationship between density of the elk
population and the variation in the local environment.
2 EXERCISE 1
Procedure 1.1 Make insightful observations
1.Consider the following two observations.
Observation 1: Fungi often grow on leftover food.
Observation 2: Fungi such as mold and yeast grow more
on leftover bread than on leftover meat.
Which of the above observations is more useful for
­further investigation? Why?


SAFETY FIRST Before coming to lab, you were asked
to read this exercise so you would know what to do
and be aware of safety issues. Briefly list the safety
issues associated with today’s procedures. If you have
questions about these issues, contact your laboratory
assistant before starting work.
Record the more insightful of the two observations on
Worksheet 1 on page 9.
2. Consider this observation: Pillbugs (sometimes called
roly-poly bugs) often find food and shelter where
fungi are decomposing leaf litter (fig. 1.2).
For this example we are interested in whether
­pillbugs are attracted to leaves or to fungi (including
yeasts) growing on the leaves’ surfaces.
Observation 1: Pillbugs often hide under things.
Propose a more productive observation.
Observation 2:
Record Observation 2 on Worksheet 2 on page 10.
You may revise this later.
Pose and Clarify Testable Questions
Productive observations inspire questions. Humans think in
terms of questions rather than abstract hypotheses or numbers.
But phrasing a good question takes practice and experience,
and the first questions that capture our attention are usually
general. For example, “Which nutrients can yeast most readily
metabolize?” is a general question that expands the observa-
tion posed in procedure 1.1. This question is broadly appli-
cable and is the type of question that we ultimately want to
understand. Enter this as the General Question in Worksheet 1.
Broad questions are important, but their generality
often makes them somewhat vague. The best questions for
the process of science are specific enough to answer clearly.
Therefore, scientists usually refine and subdivide broad
questions into more specific ones. For example, a more spe-
cific question is “What classes of biological molecules are
most readily absorbed and metabolized by yeast?” Enter this
as Specific Question 1 in Worksheet 1.
1–2

©BiologyImaging.com
Figure 1.2 Pillbugs are excellent experimental organisms to test
hypotheses about microenvironments, such as those under logs and
within leaf litter. Pillbugs are readily available and easily cultured in
the lab (10×).
A further clarification might be “Does yeast absorb
and metabolize carbohydrates better than it absorbs and
metabolizes proteins?” This is a good, specific question
because it clearly refers to organisms, processes, and vari-
ables that are likely involved. It also suggests a path for
investigation—that is, it suggests an experiment. Enter this
as Specific Question 2 in Worksheet 1.
Question 3 ​ ​
Consider the questions “What color is your roommate’s
car?” and “How many legs do cats have?” To answer these
questions, would you use the scientific method, or would
you rely on observation? Why?
Procedure 1.2 Posing and refining questions
1. Examine the following two questions.
Question 1: Do songbird populations respond to the
weather?
Question 2: Do songbirds sing more often in warm
weather than in cold weather?
Which of those questions is more useful for further
investigation? Why?
2. Examine the following general question, and record it
in Worksheet 2.
General Question: What influences the distribution of
pillbugs?
Propose a specific question that refers to the food of
pillbugs as a variable, and record it here and in
Worksheet 2. Know that you may revise this later.
1–3
Specific Question 1
Propose a more specific question that refers to pillbugs
eating leaves, as opposed to pillbugs eating fungi grow-
ing on leaves. Record this question here and in Work-
sheet 2. Know that you may revise this later.
Specific Question 2
Formulate Hypotheses
Well-organized experiments to answer questions require that
questions be restated as testable hypotheses. A hypothesis is
a statement that clearly states the relationship between bio-
logical variables. A good hypothesis identifies the organism
or process being investigated, identifies the variables being
recorded, and implies how the variables will be compared.
A hypothesis is a statement rather than a question, and an
analysis of your experimental data will ultimately determine
whether you accept or reject your hypothesis. Remember
that even though a hypothesis can be falsified, it can never
be proved true.
Accepting or rejecting a hypothesis, with no middle
ground, may seem like a rather coarse way to deal with ques-
tions about subtle and varying natural processes. But using
controlled experiments to either accept or reject a hypothesis
is effective. The heart of science is gathering and analyzing
experimental data that lead to rejecting or accepting hypoth-
eses relevant to the questions we want to answer.
In this exercise, you are going to do science as you
investigate yeast nutrition and then experiment with food
choice by pillbugs. As yeast ferments its food, CO2 is pro-
duced as a by-product. Therefore, we can measure the growth
of yeast by measuring the production of CO2 (fig. 1.3).
A hypothesis related to our question about the growth
of yeast might be:
H0: CO2 production by yeast fed sugar is not signifi-
cantly different from the CO2 production by yeast
fed protein.
A related alternative hypothesis can be similarly stated:
Ha: Yeast produces more CO2 when fed sugar than
when fed protein.
Figure 1.3 These tubes of
yeast are fermenting nutrients
provided in solution. The CO2
produced by the yeast accumu-
lates at the top of the test tubes
and indicates that yeast’s rate of
metabolism. From left to right,
the tubes include a control with
no added nutrients, a tube with
low nutrients, and a tube with
high nutrients.
©BiologyImaging.com
Scientific Method 3
The first hypothesis (H0) is a null hypothesis because
it states that there is no difference. This is the most com-
mon way to state a clear and testable hypothesis. (Your
instructor may elaborate on why researchers state and test
null hypotheses more effectively than alternative hypoth-
eses.) Researchers usually find it more useful to associate
statistical probabilities with null hypotheses rather than
with alternative hypotheses. Enter the null hypothesis into
Worksheet 1.
A well-written null hypothesis is useful because it is
testable. In our experiment, the null hypothesis (1) speci-
fies yeast as the organism, population, or group that we
want to learn about; (2) identifies CO2 production as the
variable being measured; and (3) leads directly to an experi-
ment to evaluate variables and compare means of replicated
measurements.
Procedure 1.3 Formulating hypotheses
1. Examine the following two hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Songbirds sing more when the weather
is warm.
Hypothesis 2: The number of bird songs heard per hour
during daylight temperatures above
80°F (27°C) is not significantly different
from the number heard per hour at tem-
peratures below 80°F (27°C).
Which of these hypotheses is more useful for further
investigation? Why?
Which of these hypotheses is a null hypothesis? Why?
2. Examine the following hypothesis.
Hypothesis 1: Pillbugs prefer leaves coated with a
thin layer of yeast.
Propose a more effective null hypothesis. Be sure
that it is a null hypothesis, that it is testable, and
that it includes the parameter you will control in an
experiment.
Hypothesis 2 (H0):
Enter your null hypothesis in Worksheet 2.
EXPERIMENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS:
YEAST NUTRITION
Gather Experimental Data
To test our hypothesis about yeast growth, we must design
a controlled and repeatable experiment. The experiment
suggested by our specific question and hypothesis involves
offering sugar such as glucose to one population of yeast,
4 EXERCISE 1
offering protein to another population of yeast, and then
measuring their respective growth rates. Fortunately, yeast
grows readily in test tubes. As yeast grows in a closed,
anaerobic container, it produces CO2 in proportion to how
readily it uses the available food. CO2 production is easily
measured by determining the volume of CO2 that accumu-
lates at the top of an inverted test tube (fig. 1.3).
Experiments provide data that determine if a hypothesis
should be accepted or rejected. A well-designed experiment
links a biological response to different levels of the vari-
able being investigated. In this case, the biological response
is CO2 production, which indicates growth. The levels of
the variable are sugar and protein. These levels are called
treatments, and in our experiment they include glucose,
protein, and a control. For this experiment the treatment (i.e.,
independent) variable being tested is the type of food mol-
ecule (i.e., protein, sugar), and the response (i.e., dependent)
variable is the CO2 production that indicates yeast growth.
An experiment that compensates for natural variation
must be well designed. It should (1) include replications,
(2) test only one treatment variable, and (3) include controls.
Replications are repeated measures of each treatment under
the same conditions. Replications effectively deal with natu-
rally occurring variation. Usually the more replications, the
better. Your first experiment today will include replicate test
tubes of yeast, each being treated the same. Good design
tests only one treatment variable at a time.
Good experimental design also requires controls to
verify that the biological response we measure is a function
of the variable being investigated and nothing else. Controls
are standards for comparison. They are replicates with all of
the conditions of an experimental treatment except the treat-
ment variable. For example, if the treatment is glucose dis-
solved in water, then a control has only water (i.e., it lacks
only glucose, the treatment variable). This verifies that the
response is to glucose and not to the solvent. Controls vali-
date that our results are due only to the treatment variable.
Procedure 1.4 An experiment to determine the
effects of food type on yeast growth
1. Label 12 test tubes as C1–C4, G1–G4, and P1–P4.
See Worksheet 1.
2. To test tubes C1–C4 add 5 mL of water. These are
control replicates.
3. To test tubes G1–G4 add 5 mL of 5% glucose solu-
tion. These are replicates of the glucose treatment.
4. To test tubes P1–P4 add 5 mL of 5% protein solution.
These are replicates of the protein treatment.
5. Swirl the suspension of yeast until the yeast is distrib-
uted uniformly in the liquid. Then completely fill the
remaining volume in each tube with the yeast suspen-
sion that is provided.
6. For each tube, slide an inverted, flat-bottomed test tube
down over the yeast-filled tube. Hold the yeast-filled tube
1–4
 firmly against the inside bottom of the cover tube and
invert the assembly. Your instructor will demonstrate
how to slip this slightly larger empty tube over the top of
each yeast tube and invert the assembly. If done properly,
no bubble of air will be trapped at the top of the tube of
yeast after inversion.
7. Place the tubes in a rack and incubate them at 50°C.
8. Measure the height (mm) of the bubble of accumu-
lated CO2 after 10, 20, 40, and 60 minutes. Record
your results in Worksheet 1 and graph them here:
Height of CO2
Bubble (mm)
10 20 40 60
Time (min)
9. When you are finished, clean your work area and
dispose of the contents of each tube as instructed by
your lab instructor.
Test Your Predictions by Analyzing
the Experimental Data
Analysis begins with summarizing the raw data for biologi-
cal responses to each treatment. The first calculation is the
mean (x–), which is the average of a set of numbers (e.g.,
measurements) for replicates of each treatment and the con-
trol. That is, the mean is a single number that represents the
central tendency of the response variable. Later the mean of
each treatment will be compared to determine if the treat-
ments had different effects.
The second step in data analysis is to calculate varia-
tion within each set of replicates. The simplest measure
of variation is the range, which is the highest and low-
est values in a set of replicates. A wide range indicates
much variation in the data. The standard deviation (SD),
another informative measure of variation, summarizes
variation just as the range does, but the standard deviation
is less affected by extreme values. Refer to the box “Varia-
tion in Replicate Measures” to learn how to calculate the
standard deviation.
Question 4
Even the seemingly simple question “How tall are mature
males of the human species?” can be difficult to answer.
How would you best express the answer?
1–5
Procedure 1.5 Quantify and summarize the data
1. Examine your raw data in Worksheet 1.
2. Calculate the mean of the response variable (CO2
production) for the four control replicates. To calcu-
late the means for the four replicates, sum the four
values and divide by four. Record the mean for the
control replicates in Worksheet 1.
3. The CO2 production for each glucose and protein
replicate must be adjusted with the control mean.
This ensures that the final data reflect the effects of
only the treatment variable and not the solvent. Sub-
tract the control mean from the CO2 production of
each glucose replicate and each protein replicate, and
record the results in Worksheet 1.
4. Record in Worksheet 1 the range of adjusted CO2
production for the four replicates of the glucose treat-
ment and of the protein treatment.
5. Calculate the mean CO2 production for the four
adjusted glucose treatment replicates. Record the
mean in Worksheet 1.
6. Calculate the mean CO2 production for the four
adjusted protein treatment replicates. Record the
mean in Worksheet 1.
7. Refer to “Variation in Replicate Measures,” and cal-
culate the standard deviation for the four adjusted
glucose treatment values and for the four adjusted
protein treatment values. Record the two standard
deviations in Worksheet 1.
Test the Hypotheses
Our hypothesis about yeast growth is tested by comparing the
mean CO2 production by yeast fed glucose to the mean CO2
production by yeast fed protein. However, only determining
if one mean is higher than the other is not an adequate test
because natural variation will always make the two means at
least slightly different, even if the two treatments have the
same effect on yeast growth. Therefore, the means and the
variation about the means must be compared to determine if
the means are not just different but significantly different.
To be significantly different, the differences between means
must be due to the treatment and not just due to natural vari-
ation. If the difference is significant, then the null hypothesis
is rejected. If the difference is not significant, then the null
hypothesis is accepted. Testing for significant differences is
usually done with statistical methods.
Statistical methods calculate the probability that the
means are significantly different. But these complex calcu-
lations are beyond the scope of this exercise. We will use a
simpler method to test for a significant difference between
the means of our two treatments. We will declare that two
means are significantly different if the means plus or minus
1/2 of the standard deviation do not overlap.
Scientific Method 5
 Variation in Replicate Measures

– = the sample mean

Natural variation occurs in all processes of biology. This varia- x
tion will inevitably produce different results in replicated treat- xi = measurement of an individual sample
ments. One of the most useful measures of variation of values N

about the mean is standard deviation. It’s easy to calculate: The summation sign ( Σ ) means to add up all the squared
i=1
calculate the mean, calculate the deviation of each sample from deviations from the first one (i = 1) to the last one (i = N).
the mean, square each deviation, and then sum the deviations. The sum of squared deviations (10) divided by the num-
This summation is the sum of squared deviations. For example, ber of samples minus one (4 − 1 = 3) produces a value of
data for CO2 production by yeast in four replicate test tubes 10/3 = 3.3 mm2 (the units are millimeters squared). This is
might be 22, 19, 18, and 21 mm. The mean is 20 mm. the variance:
sum of squared deviations
CO2 Production (mm) Mean Deviation Deviation2 Variance =
N−1
22 20 2 4 The square root of the variance, 1.8 cm, equals the standard
19 20 −1 1 deviation
18 20 −2 4 SD = √Variance = √3.3 = 1.8
21 20 1 1
The standard deviation is often reported with the mean in state-
Sum of squared deviations = 10 ments such as, “The mean CO2 production was 20 ± 1.8 mm.”
The standard deviation helps us understand the spread or
The summary equation for the sum of squared deviations is
variation among replicated treatments. For example, if the
N
– 2 standard deviation is zero, all of the numbers in the set are
Sum of squared deviations = Σ (x
i=1
i
− x)
the same. A larger standard deviation implies that individual
where numbers are farther from the mean.
N = total number of samples

For example, consider these two means and their stan- Answer the Questions
dard deviations (SD):
The results of testing the hypotheses are informative, but
Meana = 10 SD = 5 Meanb = 20 SD = 10 it still takes a biologist with good logic to translate these
Meana − (½)SD = 7.5 Meanb − (½)SD = 15 results into the answers of our specific and general ques-
Meana + (½)SD = 12.5 Meanb + (½)SD = 25 tions. If your specific questions were well stated, then
answering them based on the results of your experiment and
Are Meana and Meanb significantly different according to our hypothesis testing should be straightforward.
test for significance? Yes they are, because 7.5 ↔ 12.5 does
not overlap 15 ↔ 25.

Procedure 1.7 Answering the questions: yeast

nutrition
Procedure 1.6 Testing hypotheses
1. Examine the results of hypothesis testing presented in
1. Consider your null hypothesis and the data presented
Worksheet 1.
in Worksheet 1.
2. Specific Question 2 was “Does yeast absorb and
2. Calculate the glucose mean − (½)SD and the glucose
metabolize carbohydrates better than it absorbs
mean + (½)SD. Record them in Worksheet 1.
and metabolizes proteins?” Enter your answer in
3. Calculate the protein mean − (½)SD and the protein Worksheet 1.
mean + (½)SD. Record them in Worksheet 1.
3. Does your experiment adequately answer this ques-
4. Do the half standard deviations surrounding the tion? Why or why not?
means of the two treatments overlap? Record your
answer in Worksheet 1.
5. Are the means for the two treatments significantly
different? Record your answer in Worksheet 1. 4. Specific Question 1 was “What classes of biological
6. Is your null hypothesis accepted? Or rejected? Record molecules are most readily absorbed and metabolized
your answer in Worksheet 1. by yeast?” Enter your best response in Worksheet 1.

6 EXERCISE 1 1–6
5. Does your experiment adequately answer Specific
Question 1? Why or why not?
6. The General Question was “Which nutrients can yeast
most readily metabolize?” After testing the hypoth-
eses, are you now prepared to answer this general
question? Why or why not?
EXPERIMENTATION AND DATA ANALYSIS:
FOOD PREFERENCE BY ​PILLBUGS
In the previous procedures you developed and recorded
observations, questions, and hypotheses concerning food
preference by pillbugs. Pillbugs may be attracted to dead
leaves as food, or they may be attracted to fungi growing on
the leaves as food. Leaves dipped in a yeast suspension can
simulate fungi growing on leaves. Use the following proce-
dures as a guide to the science of experimentation and data
analysis to test the hypothesis you recorded in Worksheet 2.
4. Calculate the range and standard deviation for your
treatments, and record them in Worksheet 2.
5. Test your hypothesis. Determine if the null hypoth-
esis should be accepted or rejected. Record the results
in Worksheet 2.
6. Answer the Specific Question 2, Specific Question 1,
and General Question posed in Worksheet 2.
Procedure 1.9 Answering the questions: food
preference by pillbugs
1. Examine the results of your hypothesis testing pre-
sented in Worksheet 2.
2. Enter your answer to Specific Question 2 in
Worksheet 2. Does your experiment adequately
answer this question? Why or why not?
3. Enter your best response to Specific Question 1
in Worksheet 2. Does your experiment adequately
answer this question? Why or why not?

Procedure 1.8 Design an experiment to test 4. After testing the hypotheses, are you now prepared to
food preference by pillbugs answer your General Question “What influences the
distribution of pillbugs?” Why or why not?
1. Design an experiment to test your hypothesis in
Worksheet 2 about food preference by pillbugs. To do
this, specify:
Experimental setup
Question 5
What are some examples of biological theories?
Treatment 1 to be tested

Treatment 2 to be tested

Control treatment Scientific Theories

Response variable Throughout this course you will make many predictions and
observations about biology. When you account for a group
of these observations with a generalized explanation, you
Treatment variable have proposed a scientific theory.
In science, as opposed to common usage, a theory is a
well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural
Number of replicates world that usually incorporates many confirmed observa-
tional and experimental facts. A scientific theory makes pre-
Means to be compared dictions consistent with what we see. It is not a guess; on the
contrary, a scientific theory is widely accepted within the
scientific community—for example, the germ theory claims
2. Conduct your experiment and record the data in
that certain infectious diseases are caused by microorgan-
Worksheet 2.
isms. Scientific theories do not become facts; scientific the-
3. Analyze your data. Record the control means and ories explain facts.
adjusted treatment-means in Worksheet 2.

1–7 Scientific Method 7

 INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING
How do changes in temperature affect the production of CO2 by yeast?
Observation: Fermentation of nutrients by yeast produces
CO2, and the production rate of this CO2 can be used to mea-
sure growth of the yeast. In this lab you’ve already investi-
gated how the production of CO2 is affected by different
nutrients (i.e., sugar, protein). Here you’ll investigate another
variable: temperature.
Question: How is the production of CO2 by yeast affected by
temperature?
a. Establish a working lab group and obtain Inquiry-Based
Learning Worksheet 1 from your instructor.
b. Discuss with your group well-defined questions rele-
vant to the preceding observation and question. Choose
and record your group’s best question for investigation.
c. Translate your question into a testable hypothesis.
Record this hypothesis.
d. Outline on Worksheet 1 your experimental design and sup-
plies needed to test your hypothesis. Ask your instructor
to review your proposed investigation.
e. Conduct your procedures, record your data, answer
your question, and make relevant comments.
f. Discuss with your instructor any revisions to your questions,
hypothesis, or procedures. Repeat your work as needed.

Questions for Further Study and Inquiry

1. Consider the traits of science. Newspaper articles often refer to a discovery as “scientific” or claim that something has
been proved “scientifically.” What is meant by this description?

2. Experimental results in science are usually reviewed by other scientists before they are published. Why is this done?

3. Have all of our discoveries and understandings about the natural world been the result of testing hypotheses and
applying the scientific method? How so?

4. Suppose that you hear that two means are significantly different. What does this mean? Can means be different but
not significantly different? Explain your answer.

5. Why do scientists refrain from saying, "These results prove that . . ."?

6. How can science be used to address “big” issues such as climate change and COVID-19?

7. Some people dismiss evolution by natural selection as being “only a theory.” Biologists often respond that yes,
evolution is a scientific theory. What does this mean?

8. A hallmark of a scientific theory is that it is falsifiable. What does this mean, and why is it important?

9. Why is there no role for superstition in science?

8 EXERCISE 1 1–8
 Worksheet 1 The Process of Science: Nutrient Use by Yeast

OBSERVATION

QUESTIONS
General Question:

Specific Question 1:

Specific Question 2:

HYPOTHESIS H0:

EXPERIMENTAL DATA: Nutrient Use by Yeast

Treatments Treatments Minus Control x–

Control Glucose Protein Glucose CO2 Protein CO2

CO2 CO2 CO2 Production Production
Production Production Production Adjusted for Adjusted for
Replicate (mm) Replicate (mm) Replicate (mm) the Control –x the Control –x

C1 ______ G1 ______ P1 ______ ______ ______

C2 ______ G2 ______ P2 ______ ______ ______
C3 ______ G3 ______ P3 ______ ______ ______
C4 ______ G4 ______ P4 ______ ______ ______

Control x– = ______ Protein x– = ______

Glucose x– = ______ Protein range = ______ − ______
Glucose range = ______ − ______ Protein SD = ______
Glucose SD = ______

TEST HYPOTHESIS
Glucose x– − (½)SD = Protein x– − (½)SD =

Glucose x– + (½)SD = Protein x– + (½)SD =

Do the half standard deviations surrounding the means of the two treatments overlap? Yes No

Are the means for the two treatments significantly different? Yes No

Is the null hypothesis accepted? or rejected?

ANSWER QUESTIONS
Answer to Specific Question 2

Answer to Specific Question 1

Answer to General Question

1–9 Scientific Method 9

 Worksheet 2 The Process of Science: Food Preference by Pillbugs

OBSERVATION

QUESTIONS
General Question:

Specific Question 1:

Specific Question 2:

HYPOTHESIS H0:

EXPERIMENTAL DATA: Food Preference by Pillbugs

Treatments Treatments Minus Control x–

Treatment 1 Treatment 2
Adjusted for Adjusted for
Replicate Control Replicate Treatment 1 Replicate Treatment 2 the Control –x the Control –x

1 1 1
2 2 2
3 3 3
4 4 4

Control x– = Treatment 2 x– =
Treatment 1 x– = Treatment 2 range = −
Treatment 1 range = − Treatment 2 SD =
Treatment 1 SD =

TEST HYPOTHESIS
Treatment 1 x– − (½)SD = Treatment 2 x– − (½)SD =

Treatment 1 x– + (½)SD = Treatment 2 x– + (½)SD =

Do the half standard deviations surrounding the means of the two treatments overlap? Yes No

Are the means for the two treatments significantly different? Yes No

Is the null hypothesis accepted? or rejected?

ANSWER QUESTIONS
Answer to Specific Question 2

Answer to Specific Question 1

Answer to General Question

10 EXERCISE 1 1–10
 EXER CISE

Measurements in Biology
The Metric System and Data Analysis 2
Learning Objectives
By the end of this exercise you should be able to:
1. Understand the difference between accuracy and precision in measurements.
2. Identify the metric units used to measure length, volume, mass, and temperature.
3. Measure length, volume, mass, and temperature in metric units.
4. Convert one metric unit to another (e.g., grams to kilograms).
5. Use measures of volume and mass to calculate density.
6. Practice the use of simple statistical calculations such as mean, median, range, and standard ­deviation.
7. Analyze sample data using statistical tools.

Please visit connect.mheducation.com to review online resources tailored to this lab.

E very day we’re bombarded with numbers and measure-

ments. They come at us from all directions, including while
we’re at the supermarket, gas station, golf course, and pharmacy,
To help you check your answers, consider an analogy
involving shooting arrows at a bull’s-eye target (fig. 2.1). In
this analogy, each arrow (represented by a dot on the tar-
as well as while we’re in our classrooms and kitchens. Virtually get) would represent a measurement. Accuracy would be the
every package that we touch is described by a measurement. High accuracy, High precision,
Scientists use a standard method to collect data as well low precision low accuracy
as use mathematics to analyze measurements. We must mea-
sure things before we can objectively describe what we are
observing, before we can experiment with biological pro-
cesses, and before we can predict how organisms respond,
adjust to, and modify their world. Once we have made our
measurements, we can analyze our data and look for varia-
tion and the sources of that variation. Then we can infer the
causes and effects of the biological processes that interest us.

ACCURACY AND PRECISION (a) (b)

Low precision, High accuracy,
Scientists strive to make accurate, precise measurements. The low accuracy high precision
accuracy of a group of measurements refers to how closely
the measured values agree with the true or correct value. In
contrast, the precision of a group of measurements refers to
how closely the measurements agree with each other. That
is, precision is the degree to which the measurements pro-
duce the same results, regardless of their accuracy. Scientists
strive to make measurements that are accurate and precise.
Question 1
a. Can measurements be accurate but not precise? Explain.
(c) (d)

Figure 2.1 Precision and accuracy. Measurements can be

b. Can measurements be precise but not accurate? Explain. (a) accurate but not precise, (b) precise but not accurate, (c) neither
precise nor accurate, or (d) both precise and accurate.

2–1 Measurements in Biology 11

closeness of the arrows to the center of the target; arrows The following conversions will help give you a sense
closest to the bullseye would be most accurate. Precision of how some common English units are related to their met-
would be the size of the cluster of arrows, regardless of how ric equivalents:
close they are to the center of the target. 1 inch = 2.5 centimeters
1 foot = 30 centimeters
THE METRIC SYSTEM
1 yard = 0.9 meter
Scientists throughout the world use the metric system to make 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers
measurements. The metric system is also used in everyday 1 fluid ounce = 30 milliliters
life virtually everywhere except the United States. With few 1 pint = 0.47 liter
exceptions (e.g., liter bottles of soda), most measurements in
1 quart = 0.95 liter
the United States use the antiquated ­English system of pounds,
inches, feet, and so on. Check with your instructor about bring- 1 gallon = 3.8 liters
ing to class common grocery store items with volumes and 1 cup = 0.24 liter
weights in metric units or examining those items on display. To learn more about these conversions, see Appendix II.
The most modern form of the metric system is called This exercise will introduce you to making metric
the International System of Units (abbreviated SI). Metric measurements of length, mass, volume, and temperature.
measurement is used worldwide in science to improve com- During this lab, you should spend your time making mea-
munication in the scientific community. Scientists make surements, not reading background information. Therefore,
all of their measurements in the metric system; they do not before lab, read this exercise carefully to familiarize your-
routinely convert from one system to another. When scien- self with the basic units of the metric system.
tists have mixed metric units with English units, the results Metric units commonly used in biology include:
have often been confusing, and have sometimes been disas-
trous. For example, in 1999, the $125-million Mars Climate meter (m)—the basic unit of length
Orbiter was approaching Mars to study the planet’s climate. liter (L)—the basic unit of volume
Lockheed Martin Astronautics, which built the spacecraft, kilogram (kg)—the basic unit of mass
gave NASA critical flight information in English units, degrees Celsius (°C)—the basic unit of temperature
but software aboard the orbiter expected the data in metric
units. As a result, the orbiter was sent into, rather than safely Unlike the English system with which you are already familiar,
above, the Mars atmosphere, where it disintegrated. the metric system is based on units of ten. This simplifies con-
versions from one metric unit to another (e.g., from kilometers
to meters). This base-ten system is similar to our monetary sys-
Hints for Using the Metric System
tem, in which 10 cents equal a dime, 10 dimes equal a d­ ollar,
and so forth. Units of 10 in the metric system are indicated by
1. Use decimals, not fractions (e.g., 2.5 m, not 21/2 m).
Latin and Greek prefixes placed before the base units:
2. Express measurements in units requiring only a few
decimal places. For example, 0.3 m is more easily
Prefix
manipulated and understood than 300000000 nm.
(Latin) Division of Metric Unit
3. When measuring pure water, the metric system offers
an easy and common conversion from volume mea- deci (d) 0.1 10−1 = tenth
sured in liters to volume measured in cubic meters to centi (c) 0.01 10−2 = hundredth
mass measured in grams: 1 mL = 1 cm3 = 1 g. milli (m) 0.001 10−3 = thousandth
4. The metric system uses symbols rather than abbre- micro (µ) 0.000001 10−6 = millionth
viations. Therefore, do not place a period after metric
nano (n) 0.000000001 10−9 = billionth
symbols (e.g., 1 g, not 1 g.). Use a period after a
­symbol only at the end of a sentence. pico (p) 0.000000000001 10−12 = trillionth
5. Do not mix units or symbols (e.g., 9.2 m, not 9 m 200 mm). Prefix
6. Metric symbols are always singular (e.g., 10 km, not (Greek) Multiple of Metric Unit
10 kms). deka (da) 10 101 = ten
7. Except for degrees Celsius, always leave a space hecto (h) 100 102 = hundred
­between a number and a metric symbol (e.g., 20 mm,
kilo (k) 1000 103 = thousand
not 20mm; 10°C, not 10° C).
8. U
 se a zero before a decimal point when the number mega (M) 1000000 106 = million
is less than one (e.g., 0.42 m, not .42 m). giga (G) 1000000000 109 = billion
tera (T) 1000000000000 1012 = trillion

12 EXERCISE 2 2–2
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 K 16
21 Aug
6400 Robinson H
K 21
14 Aug
7696 Ringwood R
I 25
Sept
8078 Reed John 7B
7
16 Sept
8170 Richardson C S
E 9
11 Sept
8345 Ray A
G 10
Aug
7310 Reed Rob’t K 7A
30
16 Sept
8662 Roper H
G 13
18 Sept
10029 Robinson J W
D 29
16 Oct
10196 Richardson D T
G 2
Oct
10416 Reynolds E 1E
6
Nov
12031 Rathbone B 2A
15
Mar
4 Stone H I Cav 1A
3
7 Mar
234 Smith Horace
D 29
14 June
2405 Seward G H
A 24
June
2474 Stephens E W Cav 1L
25
14 July
3010 Scott W
D 7
3026 Sutcliff B 21 July
G 7
7 July
3041 Stuart J
- 8
14 July
3522 Smith J
I 18
1 July
3598 Sherwood D
D 18
July
4212 Smith C E, S’t Cav 1L
27
11 July
4316 Stranbell L
C 30
2 Aug
4555 Straum James Art
D 2
16 Aug
4722 Sullivan M
D 4
14 Aug
4892 Steel Sam
C 6
14 Aug
5385 Shults C T
I 12
16 Aug
5563 Stino P
K 13
16 Aug
5712 Steele Sam
C 15
Aug
5725 Smith S 7B
15
16 Aug
6734 Steele James M
F 18
14 Aug
7070 Stephens B H
- 28
5 Sept
7975 Smith Henry
H 6
8088 Short L C 18 Sept
 K 7
16 Sept
8235 Smally L
E 9
Starkweather E Sept
9304 Cav 1L
M 20
16 Sept
9435 Sutliff J
C 21
1 Sept
9648 See L
G 24
Sept
9987 Sling D 7F
29
16 Oct
10138 Schubert K
K 1
Oct
10247 Sparring T 7K
3
16 Oct
10476 Steele H
F 7
Oct
10787 Stauff J Cav 1L
12
Nov
12005 Swift J 1K
14
7 Dec
12288 Smith J T
D 13
14 April
541 Taylor Moses 64
E 14
Thompson Wm 14 Aug
4443
T I 1
14 Aug
5427 Thompson F
A 12
16 Aug
5479 Tibbles Wm
G 12
15 Aug
7723 Tredway J H, S’t
E 3
10035 Tisdale Ed F Cav 1B Sept
29
14 Oct
10142 Taylor J
I 1
11 Oct
11089 Turner H
A 18
14 July
3107 Valter H
A 10
18 April
401 Winship J H
C 6
June
2158 Welden Henry 7E
19
June
2601 Warner E Cav 1E
28
14 Aug
5543 Wickert Henry
C 13
16 Aug
5222 Wright C
B 10
10 Aug
4649 Wheely James
G 3
16 Aug
5675 Wenchell John L
E 14
16 Aug
6138 Way H C
K 19
2 Aug
6918 Wiggleworth M L Art
H 26
16 Sept
8024 West Chas H
I 6
16 Sept
9028 Williams H D, S’t
F 17
1 Sept
9265 Wheeler J Cav
M 19
9512 Ward Gilbert, S’t 11 Sept
 - 22
Sept
10033 Weins John 6K
29
18 Feb
12600 Ward G W 65
C 6
16 Aug
6394 Young C S, S’t 64
C 21
Total 290.

DELAWARE.
7 Sept
8812 Aiken Wm 64
G 15
4 Aug
5529 Boice J
- 13
2 Aug
7016 Brown J H
I 27
1 June
1709 Callihan Jno
B 7
1 June
2698 Conoway F
K 30
2 July
4394 Conley J H
F 31
1 Dec
12253 Connor G Cav
D 9
2 Oct
10868 Conner C
F 13
1 Oct
11245 Cunningham K
F 13
2 Aug
6217 Donohue H
D 20
6677 Emmett W 1 Aug
 K 24
2 June
2091 Field S
D 17
Hanning H, Drum 2 Sept
9004
F 17
2 Sept
8346 Hills W
K 10
1 Aug
5504 Hobson W Cav
E 13
Sept
9839 Hudson G W, S’t 2
27
1 Oct
11634 Hussey J R Cav
D 28
1 April
790 Joseph W C
E 28
2 Aug
5346 Jones H
B 11
1 Oct
11410 Kinney M
D 24
1 Sept
8292 Laughlin R M
C 9
2 April
483 Limpkins J H
D 9
2 Aug
5956 Maham Jas
C 17
2 Sept
8972 Moxworthy Geo
D 16
1 Sept
9580 Martin J
G 23
2 Sept
9043 Manner C
K 28
1 June
1671 McCracklin H
B 6
11570 McKinney J 1 Oct
F 27
2 Jan
12407 McBride 65
F 6
1 Sept
9450 Norris Clarence Cav 64
L 21
4 Aug
6607 Peterson P
F 20
2 Aug
8743 Piffer W
F 14
2 Sept
7551 Reitter G
F 2
1 Oct
11534 Riddler H A
H 27
2 Aug
6618 Saurot John
E 23
2 Aug
6479 Sholder Ed
H 22
1 Aug
6593 Simble Wm Cav
C 23
2 Feb
12707 Sill James 65
K 28
2 Aug
5764 Smith E E 64
E 15
1 Mch
276 Taylor Robert 64
G 31
2 Sept
8082 Thorn H I
D 8
1 Sept
9324 Tilbrick E L Cav
L 20
2 Nov
11981 Warner G
K 13
10302 Wilds J 2 Oct
 K 4
2 Mch
198 Wilburn Geo
G 27
Total 55.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA.
Boissonnault F M 1 Sept
8449 Cav 64
H 11
1
11700 Clark Theodore Cav Oct 31
I
1
11180 Farrell C Cav Oct 19
E
1 Aug
5736 Gray G S Cav
K 15
1 Sept
9463 Pillman John Cav
D 21
1 Aug
6873 Ridley A C Cav
M 26
1 Nov
11716 Russel T Cav
D 1
1 Aug
6847 Stretch J Cav
G 25
1 Sept
8189 Sergeant L, S’t Cav 64
G 8
1 Nov
11742 Stanhope W H “
I 2
1 Jan
12457 Veasie F “ 65
K 15
1 Sept
8172 Winworth G “ 64
G 8
8807 Wiggins Nat “ 1 Sept
 M 15
1
10301 Wilson W “ Oct 3
E
Total 14.

ILLINOIS.
17 Sept
8402 Adams H F, S’t 64
E 11
30 Jan
12430 Adder W 65
C 4
119 July
3840 Adlet John 64
K 23
Sept
8249 Adrian F Cav 9E
9
Aug
5876 Akens C, S’t 78 F
16
22 Sept
8381 Albany D
D 10
May
1264 Aldridge A Cav 16 L
20
123 Sept
8127 Alexander B
B 8
May
1423 Allen R C 17 I
28
89 Oct
10762 Alf H
A 12
21 June
2400 Allison L J
B 24
19 Aug
6710 Anderson A
K 24
10242 Anderson A 98 Oct
 E 3
89 Sept
9946 Anderson W
C 28
Oct
10271 Anthony E 3E
3
89 Aug
7339 Armstrong R
A 30
137 Mar
12792 Arnold L 65
I 18
Oct
10979 Atkins E 6C 64
15
14 Sept
9733 Atkinson Jas Cav
D 25
23 Nov
11777 Atwood A
G 3
100 Sept
8046 Augustine J
I 6
July
3709 Babbitt John 7K
21
44 June
2598 Babcock F
G 28
38 July
3783 Bailey P, S’t
B 22
25 Jan
12530 Baker James 65
H 26
89 July
2892 Baker John 64
B 4
16 July
3308 Baker Thos Cav
M 14
May
1034 Bales Thomas Art 2M
11
112 Aug
5848 Barber C F
I 16
3829 Barclay P 42 I July
23
Mar
12758 Barnard W 14 F 65
12
135 Oct
10480 Barnes Thomas 64
F 7
120 Sept
8458 Barnett J
I 11
25 Sept
8762 Barrett A, Cor
A 14
Feb
12687 Bass J Cav 2C 65
22
47 May
977 Basting C 64
B 9
July
3275 Bathrick J Cav 1A
14
Aug
4618 Batsdorf M 93 F
3
16 July
3603 Bayley Frank Cav
E 19
29 Nov
11917 Beaver M 64
B 8
14 Oct
11652 Beard J
K 30
78 June
1870 Beal John
- 12
93 Aug
6644 Bear D
B 28
21 Aug
4573 Beck J
G 2
16 Apr
411 Beliskey J Cav
D 18
1230 Bender George 12 May
 C 20
16 Aug
5242 Bennet A
B 10
Aug
6412 Benning John Cav 6G
22
27 July
3345 Benstill John
H 15
29 Oct
10653 Benton C W
B 11
Sept
8188 Berlizer B Cav 16 F
8
88 Oct
10681 Best William
E 11
31 July
4815 Black John, S’t
A 30
21 July
2904 Black J H
E 5
Blanchard L, 16 June
1665 Cav
Cor D 6
21 June
1983 Bloss P
A 15
103 Oct
11085 Bodkins E L
D 18
21 July
2890 Bogley J E
D 4
14 Jan
12456 Bohem J Cav 65
B 14
89 Sept
9899 Boles William 64
C 27
100 Nov
10795 Bolton N P
B 4
108 Oct
10791 Bowman J
D 12
3008 Boorem O 64 July
B 7
35 Feb
12621 Borem M 65
G 9
Nov
11921 Bonser G 89 F 64
8
Aug
5475 Bowden W 9F
13
113 Aug
5046 Bowen A O
C 8
123 Aug
5943 Bowman E
F 17
Sept
9328 Boyd B P Cav 6D
25
Oct
11678 Boyd H P 14 I
31
84 June
1971 Boyd J E
B 15
14 Oct
10984 Boyer J, S’t
H 16
Nov
11729 Boyle F 4B
1
85 Apr
12840 Bradford D 65
C 25
38 July
4259 Branch J 64
C 29
24 June
1815 Brandiger F
K 10
79 June
1619 Brannock C, S’t
K 4
June
1578 Brayheyer H Cav 7M
3
3940 Brett James 88 July
 K 24
Brewer Henry, 24 June
1669
S’t C 6
Aug
6421 Brewer H 78 F
22
30 July
3264 Bridges W H
K 13
122 Sept
9570 Bridges W J
F 23
38 June
1613 Bridewell H C
D 4
June
2367 Brinkey M, S’t Cav 16 L
25
65 July
3056 Britsnyder J
G 9
July
2927 Brockhill J Cav 4M
5
Brookman J E, July
3717 44 I
Cor 21
48 Sept
8911 Brothers D
H 16
73 Sept
9350 Brown A F, S’t
C 20
Jan
12450 Brown H 15 F 65
14
73 Aug
5978 Brown J 64
B 17
Sept
9011 Brown J H 12 F
17
29 Aug
5924 Brown J M
B 17
Aug
6836 Brown William Cav 1G
26
8962 Brown William 16 Sept
C 16
107 Aug
6256 Bryant Wm O
A 20
35 Oct
10763 Briden E
E 12
Aug
5785 Buck B F 30 I
15
16 Aug
4963 Buchman Cav
H 7
79 Oct
10888 Buckmaster J
C 13
Dec
12362 Buffington B 74 F
30
89 Aug
5457 Burdes G
A 12
July
4299 Burrows J 90 L
30
100 Aug
7055 Burns John
K 28
16 Aug
5936 Burns H, S’t Cav
D 17
112 Apr
526 Burr W B 64
E 13
Nov
1858 Burton O L 35 I
6
89 Oct
11858 Butler H J
D 10
89 Oct
10362 Butler N, Cor
D 5
89 Sept
8776 Butler J
A 14
11668 Button A R 79 Oct
 E 30
Sept
9824 Butts John 22 F
27
65 Apr
626 Byres George
B 19
89 Dec
12348 Cadding J C
B 27
Aug
6356 Callahan C 39 F
21
120 Aug
6505 Campbell J M
G 22
87 Sept
10026 Capell C
D 29
90 Oct
10257 Capsey J, Cor
D 3
38 July
3556 Carl C C
H 18
Apr
666 Carrell J 3H
22
Aug
7037 Carroll J Q, Cor 78 I
27
38 July
3393 Carren O
H 16
113 Aug
6693 Carirt Robert
D 24
116 Apr
446 Cault Albert
A 9
103 June
1844 Castle F
E 10
115 Sept
7502 Center E R
H 1
July
3907 Charles R J Cav 5M
24
6109 Chase E S 23 Aug
C 18
82 Sept
9095 Chattenay S
H 18
79 Oct
10459 Chenly S
A 7
16 July
4319 Chitwood T C Cav
H 30
July
3205 Chlunworth Wm 9G
12
Oct
10551 Choate Wm Cav 6D
10
89 Sept
9935 Chunberg A
G 28
Aug
6935 Christiansen J 82 F
26
38 Sept
7868 Clancey J W
E 5
16 Apr
504 Clark A E Cav
M 12
51 Sept
7760 Clark C
K 4
29 Sept
9560 Clark C
B 23
Sept
8834 Clark F J Cav 6B
15
114 Feb
12672 Clark R 65
F 18
14 Aug
5143 Clark Wm Cav 64
K 9
Sept
9925 Cleaver M “ 3H
28
8750 Cleggett M, Cor 36 I Sept
 14
Aug
5787 Cline John Cav 12 I
15
14 Mar
12726 Cline M 65
B 4
15 Nov
12051 Cline T 64
E 16
16 June
2237 Clusterman Cav
D 21
16 June
2048 Coalman H “
- 15
July
2753 Colbern M 73 I
1
16 June
2244 Colburn Thos Cav
G 20
16 Aug
5597 Colburn Wm
G 14
112 Apr
300 Cole John
E 1
112 Aug
7211 Cole W H
A 29
Aug
6971 Coller John 6B
27
93 Mar
256 Collins Wm
G 30
93 May
1198 Coddington M J
G 18
21 Nov
11719 Compton H H
K 1
July
2933 Cooret D 78 F
5
Aug
4683 Carey J 38 I
4
2758 Corey O C 106 July
D 1
Aug
6738 Cornelius Jas Cav 9H
24
July
3856 Corwin J Cav 7K
24
July
3677 Corwin J V Cav 6L
20
100 Aug
6091 Cotton J, Cor
H 18
23 Sept
9704 Craig G
B 25
Sept
9307 Craig J 38 I
20
Jan
12506 Craig J Art 2B 65
22
23 Sept
9704 Craig S 64
B 25
Sept
10087 Craig F 9K
30
93 June
1374 Crandall W M
A 15
23 June
2329 Crane M
E 23
16 June
2253 Crawford Wm Cav 64
K 21
29 Oct
10912 Crelley C W
B 14
Aug
4879 Cook G P Cav 16 L
6
90 Jan
12433 Crosbey J 65
C 11
1417 Cross E 111 May 64
 C 27
Sept
8859 Cross J D Cav 14 I
15
21 Sept
7982 Cross J T
D 6
Aug
6744 Crouse J, S’t 16 I
24
79 June
2032 Cruse J
D 15
24 June
2179 Creman George
C 19
82 Sept
10026 Cupell C
D 29
90 Oct
10257 Cupsay J, Cor
D 3
16 July
3887 Curtis A
D 24
100 Sept
8626 Dake G, Cor
D 13
73 Aug
4663 Dalby James
H 3
93 June
1826 Darling D W
B 10
112 Oct
10961 Darum J J
I 15
112 Apr
356 Davis And
A 2
112 Sept
8553 Davis C
E 12
113 Oct
10603 Davis J
D 10
16 July
4150 Davis W Cav
M 28