UNIT-2

Advanced Project Network Analyses and Scheduling

Work Breakdown Structure

● Work breakdown structure (WBS) in project management is a method for
completing a complex, multi-step project.
● It's a way to divide and conquer large projects to get things done faster and
more efficiently.
● The goal of a WBS is to make a large project more manageable.
● Breaking it down into smaller chunks means work can be done
simultaneously by different team members, leading to better team
productivity and easier project management.
How to create a work breakdown structure
● Firstly, you want to ensure that all critical input and deliverables are gathered
and transparently prioritized.
● You may use Gantt Charts, flow charts, spreadsheets, or lists to show the
hierarchical outline of importance and connectivity between the tasks needed
to complete the project.
● After outlining the deliverables and tasks in order of completion, you can then
assign each task to a project team member.
● Ensure no team member carries the majority of the project's weight by
spreading duties and responsibilities across the team.
Work breakdown structure examples
● Here are some work breakdown structure examples. You can use any of these
to outline your WBS.
● WBS spreadsheet: You can structure your WBS efficiently in a spreadsheet,
noting the different phases, tasks, or deliverables in the columns and rows.
● WBS flowchart: You can structure your WBS in a diagrammatic workflow. Most
WBS examples and templates you may find are flowcharts.
● WBS list: You can structure your WBS as a simple list of tasks or deliverables
and subtasks. This is the most straightforward approach to make a WBS.
● Work breakdown structure Gantt chart: You can structure your WBS as a Gantt
chart that represents both a spreadsheet and a timeline. With a Gantt
chart-structured WBS, you can link task dependencies and show project
milestones.
PROJECT ACTIVITIES
● Software Project Management consists of many activities, that includes
planning of the project, deciding the scope of product, estimation of cost in
different terms, scheduling of tasks, etc.
● The list of activities are as follows:
○ Project planning and Tracking
 ○ Project Resource Management
○ Scope Management
○ Estimation Management
○ Project Risk Management
○ Scheduling Management
○ Project Communication Management
○ Configuration Management

● Project Planning
○ It is a set of multiple processes, or we can say that it is a task that is
performed before the construction of the product starts.
● Scope Management
○ It describes the scope of the project.
○ Scope management is important because it clearly defines what would
do and what would not.
● Estimation management
○ This is not only about cost estimation because whenever we start to
develop software, we also figure out their size(line of code), efforts, time
as well as cost.
○ If we talk about the size, then Line of code depends upon the user or
software requirement.
○ If we talk about effort, we should know about the size of the software,
because based on the size we can quickly estimate how big a team
required to produce the software.
○ If we talk about time, when size and efforts are estimated, the time
required to develop the software can easily be determined.
○ And if we talk about cost, it includes all the elements such as: Size of
software, Quality, Hardware, Communication, Training, Additional
Software and tools
● Scheduling Management
○ Scheduling Management in software refers to all the activities to
complete in the specified order and within time slotted to each activity.
For scheduling, it is compulsory -
○ Find out multiple tasks and correlate them.
○ Divide time into units.
○ Assign the respective number of work-units for every job.
○ Calculate the total time from start to finish.
○ Break down the project into modules.
● Project Resource Management
○ In software Development, all the elements are referred to as resources
for the project. It can be a human resource, productive tools, and
libraries.
 ○ Resource management includes:
○ Create a project team and assign responsibilities to every team member
○ Developing a resource plan is derived from the project plan.
○ Adjustment of resources.
● Project Risk Management
○ Risk management consists of all the activities like identification,
analyzing and preparing the plan for predictable and unpredictable risk
in the project.
○ Several points show the risks in the project:
○ The Experienced team leaves the project, and the new team joins it.
○ Changes in requirement.
○ Change in technologies and the environment.
○ Market competition.
● Project Communication Management
○ Communication is an essential factor in the success of the project. It is a
bridge between client, organization, team members and as well as
other stakeholders of the project such as hardware suppliers.
● Project Configuration Management
○ Configuration management is about to control the changes in software
like requirements, design, and development of the product.

Predecessors and Successor

● Predecessors and successors in project management describe activities that
depend upon one another to proceed.
● These dependencies among activities will determine the order in which the
project plan proceeds.
● Predecessors in project management are activities that must begin or end
before a successor task can proceed.
● Dependencies in project management can occur in four different ways and
can have varying relationships depending on the task or project phase:
○ Finish to Start: Task B cannot begin until task A has been completed
○ Start to Start: Task B cannot begin until task A begins
○ Finish to Finish: Task B cannot be completed until task A is completed
○ Start to Finish: Task B cannot be completed until task A begins

NETWORK DIAGRAM
● The first step toward building a viable project schedule is organizing activities.
● One way to get organized is by using a network diagram.
● This is a tool for visualizing activities over the course of the entire project.
● There are two main types of network diagrams: the arrow diagram and the
precedence diagram.
● Let’s take a look at the former, also called activity on node or activity on arrow.
Activity on Arrow(AoA) Diagram
● This is the diagram, in which the activities are represented by arrows.
● These arrows are then connected by nodes, with the back of the arrow
indicating the start of the activity and the front point the end.
● The length of the arrow is the duration of that activity, drawn in scale to fit on
the diagram.
● This type of diagram only shows finish-to-start dependencies between
activities.
Activity on Node(AoN) Diagram
● In this type of diagram, the activities are represented by nodes.
● The nodes are then connected to one another by arrows.
● These arrows are used to show the relationship between the activities.
● Unlike the above diagramming, all four types of dependencies can be
shown—finish to start, start to start, finish to finish, and start to finish.
Activity on Node Diagram Example
● Let’s illustrate this node diagram with a simple project—building a deck for a
house.
● First, create a table of three columns.
● On the left is the name of the tasks and an ID number or letter, followed by a
column listing the immediately preceding activity (IPA) and the final column
will show the duration of the task in days or whatever time frame is
appropriate.
● Our deck project would look like this:
 ● We’ll use the same project for the activity on arrow diagram and the same
table as illustrated above.
● The basic concept is the same, but for an activity, the arrows represent
activities on the diagram.
● Otherwise, the construction of this diagram is the same as above and looks
like this:

What Is a Project Plan?

● A project plan is a series of formal documents that define the execution and
control stages of a project.
● The plan includes considerations for risk management, resource management
and communications, while also addressing scope, cost and schedule
baselines.
● Project Manager allows you to make detailed project plans with online Gantt
charts that schedule task dependencies, resource hours, labor costs,
milestones and more.
● The project plan, also called project management plan, answers the who,
what, where, why, how and when of the project—it’s more than a Gantt Chart
with tasks and due dates.
 ● The purpose of a project plan is to guide the execution and control project
phases.

A project plan consists of the following documents:

● Project Charter: Provides a general overview of the project. It describes the
project’s reasons, goals, objectives, constraints, stakeholders, among other
aspects.
● Statement of Work: A statement of work (SOW) defines the project’s scope,
schedule, deliverables, milestones, and tasks.
● Work Breakdown Structure: Breaks down the project scope into the project
phases, subprojects, deliverables, and work packages that lead to your final
deliverable.
● Project Plan: The project plan document is divided into sections to cover the
following: scope management, quality management, risk assessment,
resource management, stakeholder management, schedule management,
and the change management plan.

Project planning steps:

● Start with research and preplanning
● Draft a rough outline of your project plan
● Build out your detailed project schedule
● Present and confirm your plan
● Execute your plan and adjust as needed

Step 1: Start with research and preplanning

● A project plan is more than a dry document with dates.
● Understand the project scope and value
● Project goals and outcomes
● Partnerships and outlying dependencies
● Potential issues and risks
● Interview key stakeholders
● Product ownership and the decision-making process
● Stakeholder interest/involvement levels
● Key outages, meetings, deadlines, and driving factors
● Related or similar projects, goals, and outcomes
● Get to know your team
● Expertise
● Interests
● Collaboration and communication styles
● Availability and workload
Step 2: Draft a rough outline of your project plan
● Sketch out the main components of your project plan
 ● What are the major deliverables?
● How will we get to those deliverables and the deadline?
● Who’s on the project team, and what role will they play in those deliverables?
● When will the team meet milestones?
● When will other members of the team play a role in contributing to or
providing feedback on those deliverables?
Step 3: Build out your detailed project schedule
● Deliverables and the tasks taken to create them
● Your client’s approval process
● Timeframes associated with tasks/deliverables
● Ideas on resources needed for tasks/deliverables
● A list of the assumptions you’re making in the plan
● A list of absolutes as they relate to the project budget and/or deadlines
Step 4: Present and confirm your plan
● Run your final plan by your internal team
● Review times
● Teamwork times
● Dependencies
● Time off, meetings, and milestones
● The final deadline
● Review your project plan with stakeholders
● Overall process and pacing
● Major deliverables and timing
● The time they’ll have to review deliverables
● Overall timing for task groups or phases
● How far off you are from the deadline
Step 5: Execute your plan and adjust as needed
● Work your plan
● Update your plan regularly as work progresses and things change
● Communicate changes to your team, partners, and stakeholders
● Monitor and communicate risks as your project evolves
Project schedule:
● A project schedule is a timetable that organizes tasks, resources and due
dates in an ideal sequence so that a project can be completed on time.
● A project schedule is created during the planning phase and includes the
following:
● A project timeline with start dates, end dates, and milestones
● The work necessary to complete the project deliverables
● The costs, resources, and dependencies associated with each task
● The team members that are responsible for each task
What’s Included in a Project Schedule?
 ● Project schedules are created during the project planning phase and are
crucial to the creation of a project plan, where the schedule plan, schedule
baseline, deliverables, and requirements are identified.
● The project schedule is designed to guide the project team throughout the
execution phase of the project.
● Then, during the execution phase, the schedule baseline is compared against
the actual project progress. The following are included in the creation of a
project schedule:
○ Deliverables
○ Tasks
○ Task start and end dates
○ Task dependencies
○ Project calendar
○ Work packages
○ Task duration and project timeline
○ Budgets
○ Resource availability
○ Schedule risk analysis

Project Schedule Steps

● Create the schedule plan for your project
● Define who has authority over the schedule
● Identify start and end dates for project activities and tasks
● Figure out task dependencies
● Sequence activities and tasks chronologically to create a project calendar
● Estimate needed resources and resource availability
● Determine duration of activities and tasks
● Build project schedule
● Monitor and control the schedule throughout the project life cycle.

Benefits of effective project scheduling

● Contributes heavily to project success
● Provides a clear roadmap to everyone at the beginning of the project
● Manages stakeholder expectations
● Monitors and communicates project progress
● Ensures buy-in and accountability for tasks and deadlines
● Lets the team know which tasks rely on others
● Serves as an early warning system for potential project issues
● Reserves your resources for when you need them
● Project scheduling tools and techniques
● Project managers use a range of tools and techniques to create, track and
control their project schedules.
 ● These days, the tools are almost always digital. Here’s a brief description of
some of the most common tools and techniques:
○ Task List
○ Gantt chart
○ Work breakdown structure
○ Schedule network analysis
○ Critical path method
○ PERT charts

Task list
● The most basic form of project schedule, this is a list of activities with
deadlines that must be completed to finish a project.
GANTT chart
● The most common form of project schedule is the GANTT chart.
● It’s a horizontal bar chart that tracks activities over time.
● Depending on resource allocation and task relationships, the bars might be
running in parallel or sequentially.
Work breakdown structure
● A graphic that details the deliverables by presenting key milestones within a
hierarchy.
● It simplifies projects into smaller, more manageable groups.
● It also provides the necessary framework for detailed cost estimating and
control along with providing guidance for schedule development and control.
Schedule network analysis
● A graphic that depicts the interrelationships and timing of all project activities
in chronological order.
Critical path method
● The critical path method adds the times of all critical activities, taking into
account dependencies, to determine the earliest time that the project can be
completed.
PERT charts
● The program evaluation and review technique uses a different method to
calculate time compared to the critical path method.
● For each activity, the shortest time, the longest time, and the most likely time
are estimated for each task.
● The time estimate for each task is the weighted average of the three
estimates.

THEORY OF CONSTRAINTS
● The Theory of Constraints is a methodology for identifying the most important
limiting factor (i.e., constraint) that stands in the way of achieving a goal and
 then systematically improving that constraint until it is no longer the limiting
factor.
● In manufacturing, the constraint is often referred to as a bottleneck.
● The Theory of Constraints takes a scientific approach to improvement. It
hypothesizes that every complex system, including manufacturing processes,
consists of multiple linked activities, one of which acts as a constraint upon
the entire system
The Theory of Constraints provides a powerful set of tools for helping to achieve
that goal, including:
● The Five Focusing Steps: a methodology for identifying and eliminating
constraints
● The Thinking Processes: tools for analyzing and resolving problems
● Throughput Accounting: a method for measuring performance and guiding
management decisions
● A successful Theory of Constraints implementation will have the following
benefits:
○ Increased Profit: the primary goal of TOC for most companies
○ Fast Improvement: a result of focusing all attention on one critical area
– the system constraint
○ Improved Capacity: optimizing the constraint enables more product to
be manufactured
○ Reduced Lead Times: optimizing the constraint results in smoother
and faster product flow
○ Reduced Inventory: eliminating bottlenecks means there will be less
work-in-process

Core Concept of TOC

● The core concept of the Theory of Constraints is that every process has a single
constraint and that total process throughput can only be improved when the
constraint is improved.
● Thus, TOC seeks to provide precise and sustained focus on improving the
current constraint until it no longer limits throughput, at which point the
focus moves to the next constraint.

The Five Focusing Steps

The Theory of Constraints provides a specific methodology for identifying and
eliminating constraints, referred to as the Five Focusing Steps. As shown in the
following diagram, it is a cyclical process.
Critical Chain Method
● The Critical Chain Method (CCM) is used to perform Schedule Network
Analysis that considers task dependencies, limited resource availability, and
buffers.
● It’s used to prepare the project schedule when limited or restricted resources
are available.
● In this method, the Program Manager (PM) usually schedules all or most
high-risk or critical activities in the earlier stage of the project schedule.
● This allows the critical tasks to be completed early and gives buffers to handle
unexpected problems if they arise. Also, the PM will combine several tasks into
one task and assign one resource to handle all.
Critical Chain Method (CCM) Goal
● The Critical Chain Method (CCM) aims to eliminate project schedule delays
due to uncertainties, overestimating task duration, and wasted internal
buffers.
● To develop a project schedule using the critical chain method you do the
following:
○ Define Activities: What needs to be done to finish the project?
○ Estimate task durations: How long does each task take to finish?
○ Calculate Buffer: Make plans for what could go wrong based on who is
doing the work and how much time they have to spend on the project.
● Critical Chain Method (CCM) Development Steps
○ Identify all activities and dependencies
○ Construct a Schedule Network Diagram
○ Define constraints
○ Determine critical path
○ Determine buffers
○ Apply resource availability
● Critical Chain Method (CCM) Buffers
○ A Buffer is extra time added to a plan/schedule so that a task can be
done and delays can be considered. The CCM has three (3) different
types of Buffers, which are:
■ Resource buffer: is inserted just before a critical chain activity
where a critical resource is required. It’s used to remind the
project team that a resource is needed and to finish up prior
activities.
■ Feeding buffer: is inserted as a safety margin in the non-critical
chain of a network schedule. It’s placed where the path feeds
back into the critical chain path.
■ Project buffer: the summation of all the internal buffers added
to each project task or activity.
 ● Difference Between Critical Chain Method (CCM) and Critical Path Method
(CPM)
● There are a few differences between the critical chain and the critical path
methods, but they both focus on schedule development and estimation.
These are:
○ Critical Path Method is focused on how long a project is based on task
estimation and the amount of float on a project.
○ Critical Chain Method operates on shortening how long a project is due
to overestimation, uncertainties, and buffers
● Benefits of the Critical Chain Method (CCM)
● The critical chain method gives all of a project’s resources to it. So, if a task is
done early, you can move on to the next one without hitting any snags.
● The project manager is in charge of managing the buffer, not the team. It is up
to the team to finish their tasks within the estimated time frame.

Project Evaluation Review Technique (PERT)

● A program evaluation review technique (PERT) chart is a graphical
representation of a project's timeline that displays all of the individual tasks
necessary to complete the project.
● In project management, the Project Evaluation Review Technique, or PERT, is
used to identify the time it takes to finish a particular task or activity.
● It is a system that helps in the proper scheduling and coordination of all tasks
throughout a project. It also helps in keeping track of the progress, or lack
thereof, of the overall project.
● In the 1950s, the Project Evaluation Review Technique was developed by the
US Navy to manage the Polaris submarine missile program of their Special
Projects Office.
Creating a PERT Chart
● A flowchart is used to depict the Project Evaluation Review Technique. Nodes
represent the events, indicating the start or end of activities or tasks. The
directorial lines indicate the tasks that need to be completed, and the arrows
show the sequence of the activities.
There are four definitions of time used to estimate project time requirements:
● Optimistic time – The least amount of time it can take to complete a task
● Pessimistic time – The maximum amount of time it should take to complete a
task
● Most likely time – Assuming there are no problems, the best or most
reasonable estimate of how long it should take to complete a task.
● Expected time – Assuming there are problems, the best estimate of how
much time will be required to complete a task.

Terms used in a PERT chart:

 ● Float/Slack – Refers to the amount of time a task can be delayed without
resulting in an overall delay in completion of other tasks or the project
● Critical Path – Indicates the longest possible continuous path from the start to
the end of a task or event
● Critical Path Activity – Refers to an activity without any slack
● Lead time – Refers to the amount of time needed to finish a task without
affecting subsequent tasks
● Lag Time – The earliest time by which a successor event/task can follow a prior
event/task
● Fast Tracking – Refers to handling tasks or activities in parallel
● Crashing Critical Path – Shortening the amount of time to do a critical task
How to Make a PERT Chart in 4 Steps
● Break Down Your Project Scope
● Create Your PERT Chart
● Estimate Your Project Duration
● Find the Critical Path & Slack
Advantages of PERT
● It helps maximize the use of resources.
● It makes project planning more manageable.
● It’s useful even if there is little or no previous schedule data.
● It enables project managers to better estimate or determine a more definite
completion date.
Disadvantages of PERT
● In complex projects, many find PERT hard to interpret, so they may also use a
Gantt Chart, another popular method for project management.
● It can be tedious to update, modify, and maintain the PERT diagram.
● It entails a subjective time analysis of activities and, for those who are less
experienced or are biased, this may affect the project’s schedule.
Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique (GERT)
● GERT is one of the network charts.
● The method was created in early sixties and first described by Alan B. Pritsker
in 1966.
● The main application of the method are poorly defined, highly probabilistic
R&D projects, where there can be many alternative paths and loops.
General GERT rules
● GERT uses activity-on-arrow notation only.
● That means that each activity is described on arrow.
● The nodes are used to connect activities, but also to determine type and
conditions of relations between them.
● Each task has two parameters: duration and probability of appearance.
There are three logical operators in GERT which concern activities incoming to
the node:
● XOR - alternative (only one path possible)
● OR - alternative (one or more paths can be performed)
● AND - all paths have to be performed
● The most common is AND, which means that every incoming activity has to
happen before the outcoming one start.
There are also two types of relations that concern activities outcoming from the
node:
● Deterministic - every outcoming activity has probability equal to 1, which
means that everyone will be performed
● Probabilistic - each outcoming activity has some probability of appearance.
Each node consists of one logical operator and one relation, which gives six
combinations:

GERT example
In this example two space vehicles are being sent and meet in the space. The
success of the mission is possible only if both are successfully launched.

Advantages of Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique

● Efficiency: GERT makes it easy to identify project tasks, dependencies, and
alternative paths. This can help streamline project planning and ensure that all
tasks are completed in the most efficient manner.
● Visibility: GERT charts provide a visual representation of the project, allowing
team members to quickly identify potential issues and make critical decisions.
● Flexibility: GERT allows project managers to easily adjust project plans as
needed, allowing projects to adapt to changing circumstances.
● Scalability: GERT is scalable, meaning it can be used to plan projects of any
size or complexity.
Limitations of Graphical Evaluation and Review Technique
● GERT only works best with a small number of activities and tasks. As the
number of activities increase, GERT becomes too complex and difficult to use.
● GERT does not take into account resource availability and constraints.
● GERT is mostly used for R&D projects, and it is not suitable for projects with
multiple objectives or goals.
● GERT does not account for delays and changes in the project. Therefore, it is
not suitable for dynamic environments.
● GERT does not take into account the influence of external factors such as
market conditions, regulations, or other external conditions.

PERT Chart vs. Gantt Chart

● The PERT chart is sometimes preferred over the Gantt chart, another popular
visual tool for project managers, because it clearly illustrates task
 dependencies. On the other hand, the PERT chart can be more difficult to
interpret, especially on complex projects. Frequently, project managers use
both techniques.
● Both PERT and Gantt charts help simplify the project management process
through a breakdown structure that divides the project into smaller tasks and
identifies any constraints, thus enabling managers to increase efficiencies and
view the project as a whole. Another similarity is the use of both charts to
identify dependencies and improve time management.
● While PERT charts are best used before a project begins to plan and estimate
how long each task will take, Gantt charts are best used while a project is
running. Throughout the project, managers use Gantt charts to schedule tasks
by date and visualize the amount of completed work. In a Gantt chart, each
task is represented by a long bar that connects the starting point of the task to
its end date.

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CPM (Refer PPT For Solving)