Writing Arguments: A Rhetoric with

Readings (10th Edition) John D.

Ramage
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebookmass.com/product/writing-arguments-a-rhetoric-with-readings-10th-editio
n-john-d-ramage/
Writing Arguments
A Rhetoric with Readings
Tenth Edition

John D. Ramage
Arizona State University

John C. Bean
Seattle University

June Johnson
Seattle University

Boston Columbus Hoboken Indianapolis New York San Francisco

Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto
Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo
Senior Acquisitions Editor: Brad Potthoff (Tom Grundy/Shutterstock); Urban
Program Manager: Anne Shure teenagers using multimedia devices (Csondy,
Development Editor: Kassi Radomski Getty); American Female Soldier in combat
Product Marketing Manager: Ali Arnold uniform saluting a flag at sunset (Steve Cukrov/
Field Marketing Manager: Mark Robinson Shutterstock); Working bees on honey cells
Executive Digital Producer: Stefanie A. Snajder (Kotomiti Okuma/Shutterstock).
Content Specialist: Erin Jenkins Photo Research: QBS Learning
Project Manager: Savoula Amanatidis Senior Manufacturing Buyer: Roy L.
Project Coordination, Text Design, and Page Pickering, Jr.
Makeup: Integra Printer and Binder: R. R. Donnelley and Sons
Program Design Lead and Cover Designer: Company–Crawfordsville
Barbara Atkinson Cover Printer: Lehigh-Phoenix Color
Cover Images: Clockwise from top left: Drill rig set Corporation–Hagerstown
up for winter drilling in Wyoming Text Font: 10.5/12 Minion Pro
Acknowledgments of third-party content appear on pages 562–566, which constitute an extension of this
­copyright page.
Pearson, Always Learning, and MyWritingLab are exclusive trademarks in the United States and/or
other ­countries, of Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates.
Unless otherwise indicated herein, any third-party trademarks that may appear in this work are the property of their
respective owners and any references to third-party trademarks, logos, or other trade dress are for demonstrative or
descriptive purposes only. Such references are not intended to imply any sponsorship, endorsement, authorization,
or promotion of Pearson’s products by the owners of such marks, or any relationship between the owner and Pearson
Education, Inc., or its affiliates, authors, licensees, or distributors.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Ramage, John D.
Writing arguments: a rhetoric with readings / John D. Ramage, John C. Bean, June Johnson.
  pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-321-90673-1 (student edition)
1. English language—Rhetoric. 2. Persuasion (Rhetoric) 3. College readers. 4. Report writing.
I. Bean, John C. II. Johnson, June III. Title.
PE1431.R33 2014
808’.0427—dc23
2014018668

Copyright © 2016, 2012, and 2010 by Pearson Education, Inc.

All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and
permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a r­ etrieval
system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise. For information regarding permissions, request forms and the appropriate contacts within the
Pearson Education Global Rights & Permissions Department, please visit www.pearsoned.com/permissions/.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1—DOC—18 17 16 15
Complete Edition
ISBN-10: 0-321-90673-X
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-90673-1

Brief Edition
ISBN-10: 0-321-96427-6
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-96427-4

Concise Edition
ISBN-10: 0-321-96428-4
www.pearsonhighered.com ISBN-13: 978-0-321-96428-1
Brief Contents
Part One Overview of Argument    1
1 Argument: An Introduction    2
2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring     17

Part Two Writing an Argument    51

3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons     52
4 The Logical Structure of Arguments     67
5 Using Evidence Effectively    88
6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos    104
7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views     121

Part Three Analyzing Arguments    153

8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically    154
9 Analyzing Visual Arguments    175

Part Four Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims    209

10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims     210
11 Definition and Resemblance Arguments    220
12 Causal Arguments    248
13 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments    278
14 Proposal Arguments    304

Part Five The Researched Argument    339

15 Finding and Evaluating Sources    340
16 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument     359
17 Citing and Documenting Sources    375
Appendix Informal Fallacies    397

Part Six An Anthology of Arguments    405

The Future of Food and Farming     406
Higher Education: How and Why We Learn Matters     432
Immigration in the Twenty-First Century    460
Millennials Entering Adulthood    477
Choices for a Sustainable World    499
Digital Literacies    519
Argument Classics    542
iii

Detailed Contents
Preface    xxii
Acknowledgments    xxviii

Part One Overview of Argument    1

1 Argument: An Introduction    2
What Do We Mean by Argument?     2
Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel     2
Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate     3
Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit     3
Juan Lucas (Student), “An Argument Against Banning Phthalates”     5
A student opposes a ban on a chemical that makes toys soft and flexible.
The Defining Features of Argument     7
Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims     8
Argument Is Both a Process and a Product     10
Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion     10
Argument and the Problem of Truth     12
Conclusion    16

2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring     17

Finding Issues to Explore    18
Do Some Initial Brainstorming    18
Be Open to the Issues All around You     18
Explore Ideas by Freewriting    22
Explore Ideas by Idea Mapping     23
Explore Ideas by Playing the Believing and Doubting Game     24
Reading Texts Rhetorically    25
Genres of Argument    25
Authorial Purpose and Audience    29
Determining Degree of Advocacy    31
Reading to Believe an Argument’s Claims     32
James Surowiecki, “The Pay Is Too Damn Low”     33
An American journalist argues for an increased federally mandated minimum wage
combined with government policies to promote job growth and ensure a stable
safety net for the poor.

iv
 Detailed Contents v

Summary Writing as a Way of Reading to Believe     34

Practicing Believing: Willing Your Own Belief in the Writer’s Views     37
Reading to Doubt    37
Thinking Dialectically    38
Michael Saltsman, “To Help the Poor, Move Beyond ‘Minimum’ Gestures”     40
The chief economist for the Employment Policy Institute opposes an increased
­minimum wage, arguing that it does nothing for the jobless poor and will in fact lead
to increased joblessness.
Three Ways to Foster Dialectic Thinking     41
Conclusion    42

Writing Assignment: An Argument Summary or a Formal Exploratory Essay     42

Reading    44
Trudie Makens (Student), “Should Fast-Food Workers Be Paid $15 per Hour?”     44
Examining articles by Surowiecki, Saltsman, and others, a student narrates the
­evolution of her thinking as she researches the issue of minimum wage.

Part Two Writing an Argument    51

3 The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons     52

The Classical Structure of Argument     52
Classical Appeals and the Rhetorical Triangle     54
Issue Questions as the Origins of Argument     56
Difference between an Issue Question and an Information Question     56
How to Identify an Issue Question     57
Difference between a Genuine Argument and a Pseudo-Argument     58
Pseudo-Arguments: Committed Believers and Fanatical Skeptics     58
A Closer Look at Pseudo-Arguments: The Lack of Shared Assumptions     59
Frame of an Argument: A Claim Supported by Reasons     60
What Is a Reason?    60
Expressing Reasons in Because Clauses    62
Conclusion    65

Writing Assignment: An Issue Question and Working Thesis Statements     65

4 The Logical Structure of Arguments     67

An Overview of Logos: What Do We Mean by the “Logical Structure” of an
Argument?    67
Formal Logic versus Real-World Logic     67
The Role of Assumptions    68
vi Detailed Contents

The Core of an Argument: The Enthymeme     68

The Power of Audience-Based Reasons     70
Adopting a Language for Describing Arguments: The Toulmin System     71
Using Toulmin’s Schema to Plan and Test Your Argument     76
Hypothetical Example: Cheerleaders as Athletes     76
Extended Student Example: Girls and Violent Video Games     80
Carmen Tieu (Student), “Why Violent Video Games Are Good for Girls”     82
A student argues that playing violent video games helps girls gain insight into male
culture.
The Thesis-Governed “Self-Announcing” Structure of Classical Argument     85
Conclusion    86
A Note on the Informal Fallacies     86

Writing Assignment: Plan of an Argument’s Details     87

5 Using Evidence Effectively    88

Kinds of Evidence    88
The Persuasive Use of Evidence     92
Apply the STAR Criteria to Evidence     92
Establish a Trustworthy Ethos    93
Be Mindful of a Source’s Distance from Original Data     94
Rhetorical Understanding of Evidence    95
Angle of Vision and the Selection and Framing of Evidence     95

Examining Visual Arguments: Angle of Vision     98

Rhetorical Strategies for Framing Evidence     99
Special Strategies for Framing Statistical Evidence     101
Creating a Plan for Gathering Evidence     102
Conclusion    103

Writing Assignment: A Supporting-Reasons Argument     103

6 Moving Your Audience: Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos    104

Logos, Ethos, and Pathos as Persuasive Appeals: An Overview     104
How to Create an Effective Ethos: The Appeal to Credibility     106
How to Create Pathos: The Appeal to Beliefs and Emotions     107
Use Concrete Language    108
Use Specific Examples and Illustrations     109
Use Narratives    110
Use Words, Metaphors, and Analogies with Appropriate Connotations     110
 Detailed Contents vii

Kairos: The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments     111

Using Images to Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos    113

Examining Visual Arguments: Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos    115

How Audience-Based Reasons Appeal to Logos, Ethos, Pathos, and Kairos    116
Conclusion    119

Writing Assignment: Revising a Draft for Ethos, Pathos, and Audience-Based Reasons    120

7 Responding to Objections and Alternative Views     121

One-Sided, Multisided, and Dialogic Arguments     121
Determining Your Audience’s Resistance to Your Views     122
Appealing to a Supportive Audience: One-Sided Argument     124
Appealing to a Neutral or Undecided Audience: Classical Argument     125
Summarizing Opposing Views    125
Refuting Opposing Views    126
Strategies for Rebutting Evidence    127
Conceding to Opposing Views    128
Example of a Student Essay Using Refutation Strategy     129
Trudie Makens (Student), “Bringing Dignity To Workers: Make the Minimum Wage
a Living Wage”    129
A student writer refutes three arguments against increasing the minimum wage.
Appealing to a Resistant Audience: Dialogic Argument     131
Creating a Dialogic Argument with a Delayed Thesis     132
Ross Douthat, “Islam in Two Americas”    133
A conservative columnist asks readers to explore aspects of American identity
that suggest that Muslims should not build a community center near
Ground Zero.
Writing a Delayed-Thesis Argument    135
A More Open-Ended Approach: Rogerian Communication     136
Rogerian Communication as Growth for the Writer     137
Rogerian Communication as Collaborative Negotiation     138
Writing Rogerian Communication    138
Colleen Fontana (Student), “An Open Letter to Robert Levy in Response to His Article ‘They
Never Learn’ ”    140
Using the strategies of Rogerian argument, a student writes an open letter about the
problem of gun violence on college campuses to an advocate of minimal gun control
laws and more guns.
Conclusion    144

Writing Assignment: A Classical Argument or a Rogerian Letter     145

viii Detailed Contents

Readings    145
Lauren Shinozuka (Student), “The Dangers of Digital Distractedness” (A Classical Argument)     145
Using the classical argument form, a student writer argues that being a skilled
digital native also “harms us by promoting an unproductive habit of multitasking,
by ­dehumanizing our relationships, and by encouraging a distorted self-image.”

Monica Allen (Student), “An Open Letter to Christopher Eide in Response to His Article
‘High-Performing Charter Schools Can Close the Opportunity Gap’ ” (Rogerian
Communication)    149
Using the strategies of Rogerian communication, a student writer skeptical about
charter schools initiates dialogue with a charter school advocate on ways to improve
education for low-income and minority students.

Part Three Analyzing Arguments    153

8 Analyzing Arguments Rhetorically    154

Thinking Rhetorically about a Text     154
Questions for Rhetorical Analysis    155
Conducting a Rhetorical Analysis    159
Kathryn Jean Lopez, “Egg Heads”    159
Writing in 1998 for the conservative magazine National Review, Kathryn Jean
Lopez argues against the emerging practice of egg donation enabled by new
­reproductive technology.
Our Own Rhetorical Analysis of “Egg Heads”     162
Conclusion    166

Writing Assignment: A Rhetorical Analysis     166

Generating Ideas for Your Rhetorical Analysis     167
Organizing Your Rhetorical Analysis    168
Readings    169
Ellen Goodman, “Womb for Rent”    169
Columnist Ellen Goodman explores the ethical dilemmas created when first-world
couples “outsource” motherhood to third-world women.

Zachary Stumps (Student), “A Rhetorical Analysis of Ellen Goodman’s ‘Womb for Rent’ ”     171
A student analyzes Ellen Goodman’s rhetorical strategies in “Womb for Rent,”
­emphasizing her delayed-thesis structure and her use of language with double
meanings.

9 Analyzing Visual Arguments    175

Understanding Design Elements in Visual Argument     176
Use of Type    176
Use of Space or Layout     177
 Detailed Contents ix

An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Type and Spatial Elements     178

Use of Color    180
Use of Images and Graphics     180
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using All the Design Components     180
The Compositional Features of Photographs and Drawings     184
An Analysis of a Visual Argument Using Images     188
The Genres of Visual Argument     191
Posters and Fliers    192
Public Affairs Advocacy Advertisements    194
Cartoons    197
Web Pages    198
Constructing Your Own Visual Argument     198
Guidelines for Creating Visual Arguments     199
Using Information Graphics in Arguments     200
How Tables Contain a Variety of Stories     200
Using a Graph to Tell a Story     202
Incorporating Graphics into Your Argument     205
Conclusion    206

Writing Assignment: A Visual Argument Rhetorical Analysis, a Visual Argument, or a Microtheme Using
Quantitative Data    207

Part Four Arguments in Depth: Types of Claims     209

10 An Introduction to the Types of Claims     210

The Types of Claims and Their Typical Patterns of Development     210
Using Claim Types to Focus an Argument and Generate Ideas:
An Example    213
Writer 1: Ban E-Cigarettes    213
Writer 2: Promote E-Cigarettes as a Preferred Alternative to
Real Cigarettes    214
Writer 3: Place No Restrictions on E-Cigarettes     215
Hybrid Arguments: How Claim Types Work Together in Arguments     215
Some Examples of Hybrid Arguments     216
An Extended Example of a Hybrid Argument     217
Alex Hutchinson, “Your Daily Multivitamin May Be Hurting You”     217
Writing for an outdoor sports magazine targeting health and fitness enthusiasts,
a journalist reviews the scientific literature against daily multivitamins and other
supplements.
x Detailed Contents

11 Definition and Resemblance Arguments    220

What Is at Stake in a Categorical Argument?     221
Consequences Resulting from Categorical Claims     222
The Rule of Justice: Things in the Same Category Should Be Treated the
Same Way    222
Types of Categorical Arguments    224
Simple Categorical Arguments    224
Definition Arguments    225
Resemblance Argument Using Analogy    225
Resemblance Arguments Using Precedent    227

Examining Visual Arguments: Claim about Category (Definition)     228

The Criteria-Match Structure of Definition
Arguments    229
Overview of Criteria-Match Structure    229
Toulmin Framework for a Definition Argument     230
Creating Criteria Using Aristotelian Definition     231
Creating Criteria Using an Operational Definition     233
Conducting the Match Part of a Definition Argument     233
Idea-Generating Strategies for Creating Your Own Criteria-Match
Argument    234
Strategy 1: Research How Others Have Defined the Term     234
Strategy 2: Create Your Own Extended Definition     235

Writing Assignment: A Definition Argument     238

Exploring Ideas    238
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake     239
Organizing a Definition Argument    240
Questioning and Critiquing a Definition Argument     240
Readings    242
Arthur Knopf (Student), “Is Milk a Health Food?”     242
A student argues that milk, despite its reputation for promoting calcium-rich bones,
may not be a health food.

Alex Mullen (Student), “A Pirate But Not a Thief: What Does ‘Stealing’ Mean in a Digital
Environment?”    244
A student argues that his act of piracy—downloading a film from a file-
sharing ­torrent site—is not stealing because it deprives no one of property
or profit.

Los Angeles Times Editorial Board, “College Football—Yes, It’s a Job”     247
The Editorial Board of the Los Angeles Times supports a court decision that
­scholarship football players at Northwestern University are “paid employees” of the
university and therefore have the right to unionize.
 Detailed Contents xi

12 Causal Arguments    248
An Overview of Causal Arguments     249
Kinds of Causal Arguments    250
Toulmin Framework for a Causal Argument     252
Two Methods for Arguing That One Event Causes Another     254
First Method: Explain the Causal Mechanism Directly     255
Second Method: Infer Causal Links Using Inductive Reasoning     256

Examining Visual Arguments: A Causal Claim     257

Key Terms and Inductive Fallacies in Causal Arguments     258

Writing Assignment: A Causal Argument     260

Exploring Ideas    260
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake     261
Organizing a Causal Argument    262
Questioning and Critiquing a Causal Argument     262
Readings    265
Julee Christianson (Student), “Why Lawrence Summers Was Wrong: Culture Rather Than Biology
Explains the Underrepresentation of Women in Science and Mathematics” (APA-format
research paper)    266
A student writer disagrees with Harvard president Lawrence Summers’s claim that
genetic factors may account for fewer women than men holding professorships in
math and science at prestige universities.

Deborah Fallows, “Papa, Don’t Text: The Perils of Distracted Parenting”     272
Linguist Deborah Fallows argues in The Atlantic that by texting and talking on
cell phones instead of interacting with their young children adults are jeopardizing
their children’s language learning.

Carlos Macias (Student), “ ‘The Credit Card Company Made Me Do It!’—The Credit Card Industry’s Role
in Causing Student Debt”    274
A student writer examines the causes of college students’ credit card debt and puts
the blame on the exploitive practices of the credit card industry.

13 Evaluation and Ethical Arguments    278

An Overview of Categorical Ethical Evaluation Arguments     280
Constructing a Categorical Evaluation Argument     280
Criteria-Match Structure of Categorical Evaluations     280
Developing Your Criteria    281
Making Your Match Argument    283

Examining Visual Arguments: An Evaluation Claim     284

Constructing an Ethical Evaluation Argument     286
Consequences as the Base of Ethics     286
xii Detailed Contents

Principles as the Base of Ethics     287

Example Ethical Arguments Examining Capital Punishment     287
Common Problems in Making Evaluation Arguments     289

Writing Assignment: An Evaluation or Ethical Argument     290

Exploring Ideas    290
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake     291
Organizing an Evaluation Argument    291
Questioning and Critiquing a Categorical Evaluation Argument     291
Critiquing an Ethical Argument    293
Readings    294
Lorena Mendoza-Flores (Student), “Silenced and Invisible: Problems of Hispanic Students at Valley
High School”    294
A physics major critiques her former high school for marginalizing its growing
­numbers of Hispanic students.

Christopher Moore (Student), “Information Plus Satire: Why The Daily Show and The Colbert Report
Are Good Sources of News for Young People”     297
A student favorably evaluates The Daily Show and The Colbert Report as news
sources by arguing that they keep us up to date on major world events and teach us
to read the news rhetorically.

Judith Daar And Erez Aloni, “Three Genetic Parents—For One Healthy Baby”     300
Lawyers specializing in medical research argue that mitochondrial replacement
(which enables a child to inherit DNA from three parents) “might be a way to ­prevent
hundreds of mitochondrial-linked diseases, which affect about one in 5,000 people.”

Samuel Aquila, “The ‘Therapeutic Cloning’ of Human Embryos”     302

A Catholic archbishop finds therapeutic cloning “heinous,” despite its potential health
benefits, “because the process is intended to create life, exploit it, and then destroy it.”

14 Proposal Arguments    304
The Special Features and Concerns of Proposal Arguments     306
Practical Proposals versus Policy Proposals     306
Toulmin Framework for a Proposal Argument     306
Special Concerns for Proposal Arguments     308

Examining Visual Arguments: A Proposal Claim     309

Developing a Proposal Argument    309
Convincing Your Readers that a Problem Exists     309
Showing the Specifics of Your Proposal     310
Convincing Your Readers that the Benefits of Your Proposal Outweigh the Costs     311
Using Heuristic Strategies to Develop Supporting Reasons for Your Proposal     311
The “Claim Types” Strategy    312
The “Stock Issues” Strategy    314
 Detailed Contents xiii

Proposal Arguments as Advocacy Posters or Advertisements     316

Writing Assignment: A Proposal Argument     316

Exploring Ideas    318
Identifying Your Audience and Determining What’s at Stake     319
Organizing a Proposal Argument    319
Designing a One-Page Advocacy Poster or Advertisement     319
Designing PowerPoint Slides or Other Visual Aids for a Speech     320
Questioning and Critiquing a Proposal Argument     321
Readings    322
Megan Johnson (Student), “A Proposal to Allow Off-Campus Purchases with a University
Meal Card”    322
A student writes a practical proposal urging her university’s administration to allow
off-campus use of meal cards as a way of increasing gender equity and achieving
other benefits.

Ivan Snook (Student), “Flirting with Disaster: An Argument Against Integrating Women into the
Combat Arms” (MLA-format research paper)     326
A student writer and Marine veteran returned from combat duty in Iraq argues that
women should not serve in combat units because the inevitable sexual friction un-
dermines morale and endangers soldiers’ lives.

Save-Bees.Org, “SAVE THE BEES ADVOCACY AD”    331

An organization devoted to saving bees calls for support for a moratorium on the
use of certain chemical pesticides that are deadly to bees.

Sandy Wainscott (Student), “Why McDonald’s Should Sell Meat and Veggie Pies: A Proposal to End
Subsidies for Cheap Meat” (speech with PowerPoint slides)     333
A student proposes the end of subsidies for cheap meat for the benefit of both people’s
health and the environment.

Marcel Dicke And Arnold Van Huis, “The Six-Legged Meat of the Future”     335
Two Dutch entomologists argue that insects are a nutritious and tasty form of
­protein and less environmentally harmful than cattle, pigs, or chickens.­

Part Five The Researched Argument    339

15 Finding and Evaluating Sources    340

Formulating a Research Question Instead of a “Topic”     341
Thinking Rhetorically about Kinds of Sources     341
Identifying Kinds of Sources Relevant to Your Question     341
Approaching Sources Rhetorically    342
Finding Sources    347
Conducting Interviews    347
Gathering Source Data from Surveys or Questionnaires     348
xiv Detailed Contents

Finding Books and Reference Sources     348

Using Licensed Databases to Find Articles in Scholarly Journals, Magazines,
and News Sources    349
Finding Cyberspace Sources: Searching the World Wide Web     350
Selecting and Evaluating Your Sources     350
Reading with Rhetorical Awareness    350
Evaluating Sources    352
Taking Purposeful Notes    356
Conclusion    358

16 Incorporating Sources into Your Own Argument     359

Using Sources for Your Own Purposes     359
Writer 1: A Causal Argument Showing Alternative Approaches to
Reducing Risk of Alcoholism    360
Writer 2: A Proposal Argument Advocating Vegetarianism     360
Writer 3: An Evaluation Argument Looking Skeptically at Vegetarianism     361
Using Summary, Paraphrase, and Quotation     362
Summarizing    362
Paraphrasing    363
Quoting    364
Punctuating Quotations Correctly    365
Quoting a Complete Sentence    365
Quoting Words and Phrases    365
Modifying a Quotation    366
Omitting Something from a Quoted Passage     367
Quoting Something That Contains a Quotation     367
Using a Block Quotation for a Long Passage     368
Creating Rhetorically Effective Attributive Tags     368
Attributive Tags versus Parenthetical Citations     369
Creating Attributive Tags to Shape Reader Response     369
Avoiding Plagiarism    370
Why Some Kinds of Plagiarism May Occur Unwittingly     371
Strategies for Avoiding Plagiarism    372
Conclusion    374

17 Citing and Documenting Sources    375

The Correspondence between In-Text Citations and the End-of-Paper List of Cited
Works    375
MLA Style    377
In-Text Citations in MLA Style     377
Works Cited List in MLA Style     379
 Detailed Contents xv

Works Cited Citation Models    379

MLA-Style Research Paper    389
APA Style    389
In-Text Citations in APA Style     390
References List in APA Style     391
References Citation Models    391
APA-Style Research Paper    396
Conclusion    396

Appendix Informal Fallacies    397

The Problem of Conclusiveness in an Argument     397
An Overview of Informal Fallacies     398
Fallacies of Pathos    399
Fallacies of Ethos    400
Fallacies of Logos    401

Part Six An Anthology of Arguments     405

The Future of Food and Farming     406

Arthur L. Caplan, “Genetically Modified Food: Good, Bad, Ugly”     407
A professor of bioethics defends genetic engineering but takes the biotech companies
to task for their mismanagement of the technology.

Robin Mather, “The Threats from Genetically Modified Foods”     410

A food columnist outlines the concerns about and consequences of using GMOs.

Michael Le Page, “Wrong-Headed Victory”    415

A writer argues that when biotech companies fight labelling efforts they only fuel
consumer suspicion and delay promising research.

John Hambrock, “Harley, I’m Worried About Gene Transfer” (editorial cartoon)     417
A cartoonist imagines how GMO plants might cross-pollinate with unmodified strains.

Joe Mohr, “Monsanto’s Reasons for Fighting GMO Labeling? It Loves You”     417
A cartoonist satirizes the biotech companies’ arguments against labelling of GM foods.

Caitlin Flanagan, “Cultivating Failure”    418

A journalist questions the value of school gardens as an educational tool, focusing
particularly on the effects for Hispanic and low-income students.

Bonnie Hulkower, “A Defense of School Gardens and Response to Caitlin Flanagan’s ‘Cultivating
Failure’ in The Atlantic”    424
A marine scientist and environmental planner performs a rhetorical analysis of
Flanagan and refutes her claims.

Tom Philpott, “Thoughts on The Atlantic’s Attack on School Gardens”    426

A food and agriculture columnist reflects on school gardens as a teaching tool,
and disagrees with Flanagan’s conclusions.
xvi Detailed Contents

Jesse Kurtz-Nicholl, “Atlantic Gets It Wrong!: School Gardens Cultivate Minds Not Failure”    428
A former high school teacher with a Master’s in Public Health disputes Flanagan’s
claims about access to healthy food and the need for food education.

Higher Education: How and Why We Learn Matters     432

Rebecca Mead, “Learning by Degrees”    433
A New Yorker staff writer acknowledges the appeal of skipping college to pursue
financial success, but also questions economic advancement as the sole reason for
attending college.

Ken Saxon, “What Do You Do with a B.A. in History?”     435

An entrepreneur and leader in the nonprofit sector speaks to freshmen at UC Santa
Barbara about the value of a liberal arts education.

Aaron Bady, “The MOOC Moment and the End of Reform”     442
A postdoctoral fellow interrogates the hype surrounding MOOCs and the wisdom of
integrating them into a university education.

Scott Newstok, “A Plea for ‘Close Learning’ ”    451

An English professor argues for the value of face-to-face interactive learning.

Dave Blazek, “Melissa Misunderstands Massive Open Online Courses” (editorial cartoon)     454
A cartoonist humorously illustrates one of the drawbacks of MOOCs.

Chrissie Long, “The Changing Face of Higher Education: The Future of the Traditional University
Experience”    455
Recognizing that the traditional classroom won’t disappear, a writer argues for the
benefits and transformative potential of MOOCs, particularly, the opportunities
they offer learners in developing countries.

Immigration in the Twenty-First Century    460

Fatemeh Fakhraie, “Scarfing It Down”    461
A media critic argues that coverage of countries’ attempts to ban the wearing of
hijab distorts the issue by labeling it a religious freedom issue and by leaving out the
voices of the women themselves.

Stephanie Paulsell, “Veiled Voices”    462

A professor at Harvard Divinity School addresses Muslim women’s varying reasons
for wearing hijab.

MADELINE zAVODNY, “Unauthorized Immigrant Arrivals Are on the Rise, and That’s Good News”     463
An economics professor reads the number of illegal immigrants as an economic
­index and argues for reforms for immigrant workers’ visas over governmental
­spending on increased border security.

Chip Bok, “Processing Undocumented Children” (editorial cartoon)     465

An editorial cartoonist comments on the difference in the handling of ­undocumented
children in 2000 and in 2014.
 Detailed Contents xvii

Mark Krikorian, “DREAM On”    466

The executive director of the Center for Immigration Studies details the flaws he sees
in the DREAM Act and other amnesty legislation.

Lee Habeeb And Mike Leven, “Immigration, America’s Advantage”    469

A columnist and a businessman team up to advocate for the benefits of maintaining
an immigrant workforce.

John K. Kavanaugh, “Amnesty?: Let Us Be Vigilant and Charitable”     471

A Roman Catholic priest and philosophy professor asks anti-immigration groups
to see the human face of undocumented immigrants and to support a path to
amnesty.

Los Angeles Times, “Young, Alone, and in Court”     473

The editors of the Los Angeles Times argue for a multinational, humanitarian
response to the issue of child migrants and a better process for handling
­unaccompanied children in the U.S. immigration system.

National Review, “Border Crisis in Texas”    474

The editors of the National Review blame the Obama administration’s amnesty
­policies for the surge in illegal-immigrant children.

Millennials Entering Adulthood    477

Kathryn Tyler, “The Tethered Generation”    478
A writer analyzes how technology has affected the way Millennials work and
­communicate, and proposes management strategies for employers.

Erin Burns, “Millennials and Mentoring: Why I’m Calling Out ‘Bullpucky!’ on Generational Differences
and Professional Development”    482
A young professional refutes the assumption that her generation requires “special
handling” in the workplace.

America, “Generation S”    488

The editors of a Catholic weekly magazine argue that the spirit of service instilled in
the current generation of students should be modeled by all Americans.

Raffi Wineburg, “Lip Service Useless for Millennials”     490

A recent graduate reflects on the challenges facing Millennials as they enter the
workforce and calls for a more constructive treatment of them.

Kay S. Hymowitz, “Where Have the Good Men Gone?”     491

The author of Manning Up: How the Rise of Women Has Turned Men into
Boys claims that too many men in their twenties have succumbed to a new kind of
­extended adolescence.

Eve Tushnet, “You Can Go Home Again”    495

A writer challenges the stigma faced by young adults who move back in with their
parents.
xviii Detailed Contents

Choices for a Sustainable World    499

Mark Z. Jacobson And Mark A. Delucchi, “A Path to Sustainable Energy by 2030”     500
A research scientist and an engineering professor propose a combination of wind,
water, and solar power as the best alternative to fossil fuels, and explain how the
transition can be made quickly and cost effectively.

Ashutosh Jogalekar, “Vaclav Smil: ‘The Great Hope for a Quick and Sweeping Transition to Renewable
Energy Is Wishful Thinking’ ”    506
A science blogger uses Vaclav Smil’s research to argue that substantial obstacles still
stand in the way of the widespread conversion to renewable energy.

U.S. Energy Information Administration, “The U.S. Energy Story in Numbers: Energy Supply and
Disposition by Type of Fuel, 1975–2010”     508
Statistics gathered by a U.S. agency tell a wealth of stories about U.S. energy
p­ roduction and consumption.

Robert Bryce, “The Real Energy Revolution Shrinking Carbon Dioxide Emissions? It’s
Fracking”    510
A writer from a conservative think tank maintains that fracking has enabled the
United States to make greater strides than other nations in reducing its emissions,
and at a lower cost.

Abrahm Lustgarten, “Fracking: A Key to Energy Independence?”     511

An investigative journalist questions the speed with which the U.S. and other
­ ations have embraced fracking.
n

Jason Powers, “The Problem Is the Solution: Cultivating New Traditions Through
Permaculture”    513
An activist argues that developing a sustainable approach to using resources is
­critical to the survival of a culture.

Vandana Shiva, “The Soil vs. the Sensex”     516

An environmental activist sets the interests of the small farmer against those of the
Sensex, India’s stock exchange.

Digital Literacies    519
An Interview With Sherry Turkle, Digital Demands: The Challenges of Constant
Connectivity    520
In an interview on PBS’s Frontline, scholar and researcher Sherry Turkle suggests
that constant connectivity may make us more lonely and less inclined to find stillness
or think deeply about “complicated things.”

Alison Gopnik, “Diagnosing the Digital Revolution: Why It’s So Hard to Tell if It’s Really
Changing Us”    523
A professor and expert in child learning and development suggests that claims for
the negative impact of technology on young people may be overstated.
 Detailed Contents xix

Mary Ann Harlan, “Deconstructing Digital Natives”    527

In this scholarly article, a teacher and librarian makes the distinction between tech-
nological savvy and digital literacy.

Christian Science Monitor, “Help Teens Erase Their Web Indiscretions”    529

The editors of Christian Science Monitor advocate for legislation allowing teens to
erase their digital footprints, comparing it to existing laws allowing juvenile criminal
records to be expunged.

Susan Nielsen, “An Internet ‘Eraser’ Law Would Hurt, Not Help, Oregon Teens”     530
A journalist argues that allowing teens to erase past web indiscretions teaches them
that they can behave poorly without forethought or consequence.

Gary Varvel, “Meet Jack” (editorial cartoon)    532

A cartoonist humorously demonstrates the consequences of sharing too much on
social media.

Adrienne Sarasy, “The Age of the Selfie: Taking, Sharing Our Photos Shows Empowerment, Pride”     533
A high school journalist argues in her student newspaper that selfies can be
­empowering and help to redefine standards of beauty.

Robert Wilcox, “The Age of the Selfie: Endless Need to Share Tears Society’s Last Shred of Decency”     534
In the same student newspaper, a student editor argues that oversharing through
selfies goes beyond narcissism and may actually be dangerous.

Aashika Damodar, “The Rise of ‘Great Potential’: Youth Activism against Gender-Based Violence”     535
An anti-trafficking activist analyzes the potential of social media as a tool for
­activism, arguing that it is most effective when combined with offline action.

Argument Classics    542
Garrett Hardin, “Lifeboat Ethics: The Case Against Aid That Does Harm”     542
An ecologist argues against foreign aid and open borders, promoting wider
­ nderstanding of the “tragedy of the commons” and stimulating new thinking about
u
the causes of poverty and ways to combat it.

Rachel Carson, “The Obligation to Endure”    549

A marine biologist and writer exposes the subtle, insidious dangers of the pesticide
DDT, and in so doing helps launch the environmental movement.

E. O. Wilson, “Apocalypse Now”/“Letter to a Southern Baptist Minister”     554

A biologist and secular humanist attempts to bridge the gap between science and
religion, asking Christians and environmentalists to come together to save the
­multitude of species threatened by climate change.

Margaret Sanger, “The Morality of Birth Control”     557

A pioneer of the birth control movement seeks to redefine what is “moral” when
considering access to birth control and assessment of the consequences.

Credits    562
Index    567
Preface
Through nine editions, Writing Arguments has established itself as a leading college textbook
in argumentation. By focusing on argument as dialogue in search of solutions to problems
instead of as pro-con debate with winners and losers, Writing Arguments treats argument
as a process of inquiry as well as a means of persuasion. Users and reviewers have consis-
tently praised the book for teaching the critical thinking skills needed for writing arguments:
how to analyze the occasion for an argument; how to ground an argument in the values
and beliefs of the targeted audience; how to develop and elaborate an argument; and how
to respond sensitively to objections and alternative views. We are pleased that in this tenth
edition, we have made many improvements while retaining the text’s signature strengths.

What’s New in the Tenth Edition?

Based on our continuing research into argumentation theory and pedagogy, as well
as on the advice of users, we have made significant improvements in the tenth edition
that increase the text’s flexibility for teachers and its appeal to students. We have made
the following major changes:

■ An updated, revised, and streamlined Chapter 2 on “Argument as Inquiry”

now focused on the “living wage” controversy. The previous edition’s inquiry
topic about immigration has been replaced by the issue of raising the minimum
wage for fast-food workers or retail store clerks. Chapter 2 now has all new stu-
dent examples, visual arguments, and professional readings focussed on mini-
mum wage, including a new annotated student exploratory essay that models the
process of rhetorical reading and dialogic thinking.
■ Expanded treatment of evidence. A revised and expanded Chapter 5 explains with
greater clarity the kinds of evidence that can be used in argument and shows students
how to analyze evidence rhetorically. A new section shows students how to evaluate
evidence encountered in secondary sources by tracing it back to its primary sources.
■ Expanded treatment of Rogerian communication and other means of engag-
ing alternative views. In Chapter 7, we expand our treatment of Rogerian argu-
ment by reframing it as Rogerian communication, which focuses more on mutual
listening, negotiation, and growth than on persuasion. Chapter 7 now contains
an additional student example of Rogerian communication addressing the issue
of charter schools. In addition, we have strengthened our explanation of how
classical argument treats opposing views. A new annotated student essay using a
rebuttal strategy shows how classical argument can appeal successfully to neutral,
undecided, or mildly resistant audiences.
■ Streamlined organization of each chapter now keyed to learning outcomes.
Each chapter now begins with newly formulated learning outcomes. Each main
heading in a rhetoric chapter is linked to a respective outcome, enhancing the
explanatory power of the outcomes and helping students learn the high-level take-
away points and concepts in each chapter
xx
 Preface xxi

■ New “For Writing and Discussion” activities. The class discussion activities in this
edition now include two types. The first—identified as “For Class Discussion”—
helps teachers incorporate small-group discussion tasks that enhance learning
of course concepts and skills. The second type—identified as “For Writing and
Discussion”—is new to this edition. Each of these activities begins with an “indi-
vidual task” that can be assigned as homework in advance of class. These tasks are
intended as informal, low-stakes write-to-learn activities that motivate reading of
the chapter and help students build their own argumentative skills. Each chapter
contains at least one of these “For Writing and Discussion” activities.
■ Seven new student model essays, many of which are annotated. New student
model arguments, including many newly annotated models, help demonstrate ar-
gument strategies in practice. Showing how other students have developed various
types of arguments makes argument concepts and strategies easier for students to
grasp and use themselves. New student essays address timely and relevant issues
such as raising the minimum wage, evaluating charter schools, analyzing the eth-
ics of downloading films from a person-to-person torrent site on the Web, critiqu-
ing a school culture that makes minorities “invisible,” opposing women in combat
roles, and evaluating the ­effect of social media on today’s college students.
■ Seven new professional readings throughout the rhetoric section in the text.
New readings about issues such as a living wage, the use of dietary supplements
among athletes, the “amateur” status of college athletes, the impact of adult cell-
phone use on children, and therapeutic cloning have been chosen for their illustra-
tive power and student interest.
■ New visual examples throughout the text. New images, editorial cartoons, and
graphics throughout the text highlight current issues such as living wage, climate
change, bullying, sexual trafficking, date rape, rainwater conservation, fracking,
and gender or racial stereotypes.
■ A thoroughly updated and revised anthology. The anthology in the tenth edi-
tion features newly updated units as well as one new unit.
• A new unit on food and farming explores controversies over labelling genetically
modified foods and the educational, nutritional, and social value of school gardens.
• An updated unit on digital literacies explores the effects of communications technol-
ogies and social media on the way we think, read, and write as well as on our values
and social relationships and online identities. The unit also explores the controversy
over selfies and shows how social media have been employed to fight gender violence.
• An updated unit on education continues its focus on the value of a college edu-
cation. A new sequence of arguments examines the benefits and drawbacks of
Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), including their effect on teaching,
student learning, and society’s commitment to educate its citizens.
• The unit on immigration has been updated to reflect the latest controversies
over the social and economic benefits of immigrants and the humanitarian cri-
sis over undocumented children at the border.
• An updated unit on sustainability now presents a range of arguments on the
technological, economic, and political challenges of converting to renewable
energy sources and on the controversy over fracking.
xxii Preface

• An updated unit on the Millennial generation includes the difficulties of enter-

ing the workforce, the need to live with parents longer than planned, choosing
to delay marriage, and more.

What Hasn’t Changed? The Distinguishing Features of

Writing Arguments
Building on earlier success, we have preserved the signature features of earlier editions
praised by students, instructors, and reviewers:
■ Focus throughout on writing arguments. Grounded in composition theory,
this text combines explanations of argument with exploratory writing activities,
sequenced writing assignments, and class-tested discussion tasks with the aim of
helping students produce their own strong arguments. The text emphasizes the
critical thinking that underlies effective arguments, particularly the skills of criti-
cal reading, of active questioning and listening, of believing and doubting, and of
developing effective reasons and evidence to support claims.
■ Emphasis on argument as a rhetorical act. Analyzing audience, understanding
the real-world occasions for argument, and appreciating the context and genre of
arguments are all treated as equally important rhetorical considerations. Focusing
on both the reading and the writing of arguments, the text emphasizes the crit-
ical thinking that underlies effective arguments, particularly the skills of critical
reading, of rhetorical analysis, of believing and doubting, of empathic listening, of
active questioning, and of negotiating ambiguity and seeking synthesis.
■ Integration of four different approaches to argument. This text uses
• the Toulmin system as a means of inventing and analyzing arguments;
• the enthymeme as a logical structure rooted in the beliefs and values of the audience;
• the classical concepts of logos, pathos, and ethos as persuasive appeals; and
• stasis theory (called claim types) as an aid to inventing and structuring argu-
ments through the understanding of generic argumentative moves associated
with different categories of claims.
■ Generous treatment of the research process. Coverage includes guidance for
finding sources, reading and evaluating them rhetorically, taking notes, integrat-
ing source material, and citing sources using two academic citation systems: MLA
and APA.
■ Well-sequenced writing assignments. The text provides a variety of sequenced
writing assignments that include:
• an argument summary
• a researched, exploratory essay
• a “supporting-reasons” argument
• a classical argument
• a delayed-thesis argument or Rogerian letter
• a rhetorical analysis of a written argument
• a rhetorical analysis of a visual argument
• an advocacy ad
• a short argument incorporating quantitative data
 Preface xxiii

• an editorial cartoon
• a definition argument
• a causal argument
• an evaluation or ethical argument
• a proposal argument
• an advocacy poster
• a speech with PowerPoint slides
Part Six, the anthology, provides writing assignments focusing on problems related to
each topical unit. Instructors can also design anthology assignments requiring argu-
ment analysis.
■ “For Writing and Discussion,” “For Class Discussion,” and “Examining Visual
Arguments” exercises. These class-tested informal activities, which teach critical
thinking and build argumentative skills, are designed to produce active class discus-
sion and debate. All “For Class Discussion” exercises can be used either for whole-
class ­discussions or for collaborative group tasks.
■ Effective and engaging student and professional arguments. The tenth edition
contains 54 written arguments and 55 visual arguments drawn from public and
academic arenas as well as 16 student essays and 2 student visual arguments to il-
lustrate argumentative strategies and stimulate discussion, analysis, and debate.

Our Approaches to Argumentation

Our interest in argumentation grows out of our interest in the relationship between
writing and thinking. When writing arguments, writers are forced to lay bare their
thinking processes in an unparalleled way, grappling with the complex interplay be-
tween inquiry and persuasion, between issue and audience. In an effort to engage stu-
dents in the kinds of critical thinking that argument demands, we draw on four major
approaches to argumentation:
1. The enthymeme as a rhetorical and logical structure. This concept, especially
useful for beginning writers, helps students “nutshell” an argument as a claim with
one or more supporting because clauses. It also helps them see how real-world
arguments are rooted in assumptions granted by the audience rather than in uni-
versal and unchanging principles.
2. The three classical types of appeal—logos, ethos, and pathos. These concepts
help students place their arguments in a rhetorical context focusing on audience-
based appeals; they also help students create an effective voice and style.
3. Toulmin’s system of analyzing arguments. Toulmin’s system helps students see
the complete, implicit structure that underlies an enthymeme and develop appro-
priate grounds and backing to support an argument’s reasons and warrants. It also
highlights the rhetorical, social, and dialectical nature of argument.
4. Stasis theory concerning types of claims. This approach stresses the heuristic
value of learning different patterns of support for different types of claims and
often leads students to make surprisingly rich and full arguments.
Throughout the text these approaches are integrated and synthesized into generative
tools for both producing and analyzing arguments.
xxiv Preface

Structure of the Text

Writing Arguments provides a sound pedagogical framework for the teaching of argu-
ment while giving instructors the flexibility to use what they need. Part One begins with
an overview of argument and a chapter on reading arguments and exploring issues. Part
Two examines the elements of writing arguments: the enthymeme (a claim with rea-
sons); the rhetorical appeals of logos, ethos, and pathos; Toulmin’s system for analyzing
arguments; the use of evidence; acknowledging and responding to alternative views; and
using delayed-thesis and Rogerian approaches. In Part Three, the focus shifts to analyz-
ing written and visual arguments. Part Four provides a deeper understanding of defini-
tion, resemblance, causal, evaluation, and proposal arguments. Part Five shows students
how to use sources in support of an argument by evaluating, integrating, citing, and
documenting them properly. An appendix on logical fallacies is a handy section where
all the major informal fallacies are treated at once for easy reference.
Part Six, the anthology, provides a rich and varied selection of professional argu-
ments arranged into seven high-interest units including the value of higher educa-
tion, digital literacies, current food issues, Millennials in the workplace, immigration,
choices for a sustainable world, and a collection of classic arguments. The anthology
selections are grouped by topic rather than by issue question to encourage students to
see that any conversation of alternative views gives rise to numerous embedded and
intertwined issues. Many of the issues raised in the anthology are first raised in the
rhetoric (Parts One through Five) so that students’ interest in the anthology topics will
already be piqued.

Resources for Instructors and Students

Now Available for Composition MyWritingLab TM

Integrated solutions for writing. MyWritingLab is an online homework, tutorial,

and assessment program that provides engaging experiences for today’s instructors
and students. New features designed specifically for composition instructors and their
course needs include a new writing space for students, customizable rubrics for assess-
ing and grading student writing, multimedia instruction on all aspects of composition,
and advanced reporting to improve the ability to analyze class performance.
Adaptive learning. MyWritingLab offers pre-assessments and personalized remedia-
tion so students see improved results and instructors spend less time in class reviewing
the basics. Visit www.mywritinglab.com for more information.

eTextbooks
Pearson eText gives students access to Writing Arguments, Tenth Edition, when-
ever and wherever they can access the Internet. The eText pages look exactly like the
printed text, and include powerful interactive and customization functions. Users
 Preface xxv

can create notes, highlight text in different colors, create bookmarks, zoom, click
­hyperlinked words and phrases to view definitions, and view as a single page or as
two pages. Pearson eText also links students to associated media files, enabling them
to view videos as they read the text, and offers a full-text search and the ability to save
and export notes. The Pearson eText also includes embedded URLs in the chapter text
with active links to the Internet.
The Pearson eText app is a great companion to Pearson’s eText browser-based
book reader. It allows existing subscribers who view their Pearson eText titles on a
Mac or PC to additionally access their titles in a bookshelf on the iPad or an Android
tablet either online or via download.

Instructor’s Manual
The Instructor’s Manual, Tenth Edition, includes the following features:

■ Discussion of planning decisions an instructor must make in designing an argu-

ment course: for example, how to use readings; how much to emphasize Toulmin
or claim type theory; how much time to build into the course for invention, peer
review of drafts, and other writing instruction; and how to select and sequence
assignments.
■ For new instructors, a helpful discussion of how to sequence writing assignments
and how to use a variety of collaborative tasks in the classroom to promote active
learning and critical thinking.
■ Four detailed syllabi that support a variety of course structures and emphases.
■ An independent, highly teachable introductory lesson on the Toulmin schema
and an additional exercise giving students practice using Toulmin to generate
argument frames.
■ Chapter-by-chapter teaching tips, responses to the For Class Discussion exercises,
and sample quizzes.
■ Suggestions for encouraging students to explore how visual arguments mold pub-
lic thinking about issues and controversies.
■ Helpful suggestions for using the exercises in Part Four on critiquing readings. By
focusing on rhetorical context as well as on the strengths and weaknesses of these
arguments, our suggestions will help students connect their reading of arguments
to their writing of arguments.
■ A list of anthology readings that employ each claim type, either as a major claim
or as a substantial portion of the argument.
■ An analysis of anthology readings that points out striking connections among
readings, suggesting how the readings participate in larger societal argumenta-
tive conversations, but that also connects the anthology to the rhetoric portion of
the text. Using a bulleted, quick-reference format, each analysis briefly discusses
(1) the core of the argument, (2) the major or dominant claims of the argument,
(3) the argument’s use of evidence and argumentative strategies, (4) the appeals
to ethos and pathos in the argument, and (5) the argument’s genre.
Acknowledgments
We are happy for this opportunity to give public thanks to the scholars, teachers, and stu-
dents who have influenced our approach to composition and argument. For this edition,
we owe special thanks to those who helped us revise the anthology of Writing Arguments.
Hilary Hawley, our colleague at Seattle University, researched and wrote the apparatus for
many of the Anthology units. Her experience teaching argument and the public controver-
sies over food appear in the new unit featuring controversies over GMO food and school
gardens. We also thank Sarah Bean for her research on the anthology, her keen awareness
of social justice issues, and her empathic perspective on Millennials.
We are particularly grateful to our talented students—Trudie Makens, Lauren
Shinozuka, Monica Allen, Alex Mullen, Lorena Mendoza-Flores, and Ivan Snook—who
contributed to this edition their timely arguments built from their intellectual curiosity,
ideas, personal experience, and research. We also thank Janie Bube for her environmental
advocacy poster and Trey Tice for his film criticism. Additionally, we are grateful to all our
students whom we have been privileged to teach in our writing classes and to our other
students who have enabled us to include their arguments in this text. Their insights and
growth as writers have inspired our ongoing study of rhetoric and argumentation.
We thank too the many users of our texts who have given us encouragement about
our successes and offered helpful suggestions for improvements. Particularly we thank the
following scholars and teachers who reviewed this revision of Writing Arguments in its
various stages:
Alicia Alexander, Cape Fear Community College; Elijah Coleman, Washington State
University; Shannon Collins, Owensboro Community and Technical College; Veronda
Hutchinson, Johnston Community College; A. Abby Knoblauch, Kansas State University;
Beth Lewis, Moberly Area Community College; Layne Neeper, Morehead State University;
Jessie Nixon, University of Alaska Anchorage; Thomas Riddle, Guilford Technical
Community College; Dixie A. Shaw-Tillmon, The University of Texas San Antonio; Janice
R. Showler, Holy Family University; Coreen Wees, Iowa Western Community College; and
Stephen H. Wells, Community College of Allegheny County.
We thank our editor, Brad Potthoff for his publishing knowledge and cordial leader-
ship. We also give special, heartfelt thanks to our two development editors, Kassi Radomski
and Marion Castellucci, who shepherded this project through every stage, giving us timely
insight, collaborative feedback, and professional support. We also thank Martha Beyerlein,
our production editor, who has worked with us for years and patiently ushered us into the
paperless stages of text preparation.
As always we thank our families who ultimately make this work possible. John Bean
thanks his wife, Kit, also a professional composition teacher, and his children Matthew,
Andrew, Stephen, and Sarah, all of whom have grown to adulthood since he first began
writing textbooks. Our lively conversations at family dinners, which now include spouses,
partners, and grandchildren, have kept him engaged in arguments that matter about
how to create a just, humane, and sustainable world. June Johnson thanks her husband,
Kenneth Bube, a mathematics professor and researcher, and her daughter, Janie Bube, now

xxvi
 Acknowledgments xxvii

a student contributor to this text. Ken and Janie have played major roles in the ongoing
family analysis of argumentation in the public sphere on wide-ranging subjects. Janie’s
knowledge of environmental issues and Kenneth’s of mathematical thinking, online educa-
tion, energy resources, and technology have broadened June’s understanding of argument
hotspots. They have also enabled her to meet the demands and challenges of continuing to
infuse new ideas and material into this text in each revision.
John C. Bean
June Johnson
This page intentionally left blank
Marcel Dicke and Arnold Van Huis,
“The Six-Legged Meat of the Future”
(Ch. 14)
Arthur L. Caplan, “Genetically Modified
Food”
Aaron Bady, “The MOOC Moment and
the End of Reform”
Scott L. Newstok, “A Plea for ‘Close
Learning’ ”
Stephanie Paulsell, “Veiled Voices”
Madeline Zavodny, “Unauthorized
Immigrant Arrivals Are on the Rise,
and That’s Good News”
John K. Kavanaugh, “Amnesty?: Let Us
Be Vigilant and Charitable”
Raffi Wineburg, “Lip Service Useless for
Millennials”
Eve Tushnet, “You Can Go Home
Again”
Robert Bryce, “The Real Energy
Revolution Shrinking Carbon Dioxide
Emissions? It’s Fracking”
Vandana Shiva, “The Soil vs. the Sensex”
Video Games
Tomb Raider (Part 2)
Quantitative Tables and Graphs
Employment Statistics (Ch. 2)
Marital Status (Ch. 9)
U.S. Energy Information
Administration, “The U.S. Energy
Story in Numbers”
Student Visual Arguments
Posters
Janie Bube, “Is Stormwater Turning
Your Street into a Lake?” (Ch. 14)
Speech with PowerPoint
Sandy Wainscott, “Why McDonald’s
Should Sell Meat and Veggie Pies”
(Ch. 14)
Alison Gopnik, “Diagnosing the Digital
Revolution: Why It’s So Hard to Tell if
It’s Really Changing Us”
Adrienne Sarasy, “The Age of the Selfie:
Taking, Sharing Our Photos Shows
Empowerment, Pride”
Robert Wilcox, “The Age of the Selfie:
Endless Need to Share Tears Society’s
Last Shred of Decency
Garrett Hardin, “Lifeboat Ethics: The
Case Against Aid that Does Harm”
Blogs
Bonnie Hulkower, “A Defense of School
Gardens and Response to Caitlin
Flanagan’s ‘Cultivating Failure’ in The
Atlantic”
Jesse Kurtz-Nicholl, “Atlantic Gets It
Wrong!”
Ashutosh Jogalekar, “Vaclav Smil: ‘The
Great Hope for a Quick and Sweeping
Transition to Renewable Energy Is
Wishful Thinking’ ”
Student Readings
Researched Arguments Formatted in
Academic Style
Julie Christianson, “Why Lawrence
Summers Was Wrong” (cause; APA
format; Ch. 12)
Ivan Snook, “Flirting with Disaster”
(proposal; MLA format; Ch. 14)
Classical Arguments
Carmen Tieu, “Why Violent Video
Games Are Good for Girls” (Ch. 4)
Trudie Makens, “Bringing Dignity to
Workers: Make the Minimum Wage a
Living Wage” Ch. 7)
Lauren Shinozuka, “The Dangers of
Digital Distractedness” (Ch. 7)
Alex Mullen, “A Pirate But Not a Thief ”
(definition; Ch. 11)
Arthur Knopf, “Is Milk a Health Food?”
(definition; Ch. 11)
Carlos Macias, “ ‘The Credit Card
Company Made Me Do It!’ ” (cause;
Ch 12)
Christopher Moore, “Information Plus
Satire” (evaluation; Ch. 13)
Lorena Mendoza-Flores, “Silenced and
Invisible” (evaluation; Ch. 13)
White Paper
Mark Z. Jacobson and Mark A.
Delucchi, “A Path to Sustainable
Energy by 2030”
Book Excerpts
Rachel Carson, “The Obligation to
Endure”
E. O. Wilson, “Apocalypse Now”/
“Letter to a Southern Baptist
Minister”
Speeches
Ken Saxon, “What Do You Do With a
B.A. in History?”
Margaret Sanger, “The Morality of Birth
Control”
Interview
An Interview with Sherry Turkle,
“Digital Demands: The Challenges of
Constant Connectivity”
Practical Proposal
Megan Johnson, “A Proposal to Allow
Off-Campus Purchases with a
University Meal Card” (Ch. 14)
Exploratory Essay
Trudie Makens, “Should Fast-Food
Workers Be Paid $15 per Hour?”
(MLA format; Ch. 2)
Letters (Rogerian Communication)
Colleen Fontana, “An Open Letter
to Robert Levy in Response to
His Article ‘They Never Learn’ ”
(Ch. 7)
Monica Allen, “An Open Letter to
Christopher Eide in Response to His
Article ‘High-Performing Charter
Schools Can Close the Opportunity
Gap’ ” (Ch. 7)
Rhetorical Analysis
Zachary Stumps, “A Rhetorical Analysis
of Ellen Goodman’s ‘Womb for Rent’ ”
(Ch. 8)
Blog
Juan Lucas, “An Argument Against
Banning Phthalates” (Ch. 1)
Part One
Overview of Argument
1 Argument: An Introduction
2 Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring

Across the country, protests like this one in front of a Burger King in Boston are raising awareness of the
­poverty-level wages of fast-food workers, who are not represented by unions and who often depend on public
assistance such as food stamps to get by every month. While protestors argue for a minimum wage of $15 per
hour, opponents argue that raising the minimum wage would increase food prices and reduce the number
of jobs. If you were making a brochure or poster in favor of an increased minimum wage for fast-food workers,
how effective would this realistic, low-keyed photo be in raising sympathy for the cause? Chapters 2 and 7 explore
the issue of a living wage for unskilled workers.

1
 Argument: An Introduction
1
What you will learn in this chapter:
1.1 To explain common misconceptions about the meaning of argument
1.2 To describe defining features of argument
1.3 To understand the relationship of argument to the problem of truth

At the outset of a book on argument, you might expect us to provide a s­ imple

definition of argument. Instead, we’re going to explain why no universally
­accepted definition is possible. Over the centuries, philosophers and rhetori-
cians have disagreed about the meaning of the term and about the goals that
arguers should set for themselves. This opening chapter introduces you to
some of these controversies.
We begin by showing some common misconceptions about argument
while also explaining how arguments can be either implicit or explicit. We
then proceed to three defining features of argument: it requires writers or
speakers to justify their claims; it is both a product and a process; and it com-
bines elements of truth seeking and persuasion. Finally, we explore more fully
the relationship between truth seeking and persuasion by asking questions
about the nature of “truth” that arguments seek.

What Do We Mean by Argument?

1.1 To explain Let’s begin by examining the inadequacies of two popular images
common miscon- of argument—fight and debate.
ceptions about
the meaning of
Argument Is Not a Fight or a Quarrel
argument
To many, the word argument connotes anger and hostility, as
when we say, “I just got in a huge argument with my roommate,”
or “My mother and I argue all the time.” What we picture here is heated disa-
greement, rising pulse rates, and an urge to slam doors. Argument imagined
as fight conjures images of shouting talk-show guests, flaming bloggers, or
fist-banging speakers.
But to our way of thinking, argument doesn’t imply anger. In fact,
­arguing is often pleasurable. It is a creative and productive activity that
2
 Chapter 1  Argument: An Introduction 3

e­ ngages us at high levels of inquiry and critical thinking, often in conversation with
people we like and respect. For your primary image of argument, we invite you to
think not of a shouting match on cable news but of a small group of reasonable peo-
ple seeking the best solution to a problem. We will return to this image throughout
the chapter.

Argument Is Not Pro-Con Debate

Another popular image of argument is debate—a presidential debate, perhaps, or a
high school or college debate tournament. According to one popular dictionary, debate
is “a formal contest of argumentation in which two opposing teams defend and attack a
given proposition.” Although formal debate can develop critical thinking, its weakness
is that it can turn argument into a game of winners and losers rather than a process of
cooperative inquiry.
For an illustration of this weakness, consider one of our former students, a cham-
pion high school debater who spent his senior year debating the issue of prison reform.
Throughout the year he argued for and against propositions such as “The United States
should build more prisons” and “Innovative alternatives to prison should replace
prison sentences for most crimes.” We asked him, “What do you personally think is the
best way to reform prisons?” He replied, “I don’t know. I haven’t thought about what
I would actually choose.”
Here was a bright, articulate student who had studied prisons extensively for a year.
Yet nothing in the atmosphere of pro-con debate had engaged him in truth-seeking
inquiry. He could argue for and against a proposition, but he hadn’t experienced the
wrenching process of clarifying his own values and taking a personal stand. As we
explain throughout this text, argument entails a desire for truth; it aims to find the best
solutions to complex problems. We don’t mean that arguers don’t passionately sup-
port their own points of view or expose weaknesses in views they find faulty. Instead,
we mean that their goal isn’t to win a game but to find and promote the best belief or
course of action.

Arguments Can Be Explicit or Implicit

Before proceeding to some defining features of argument, we should note also that
arguments can be either explicit or implicit. An explicit argument directly states its con-
troversial claim and supports it with reasons and evidence. An implicit argument, in
contrast, may not look like an argument at all. It may be a bumper sticker, a billboard,
a poster, a photograph, a cartoon, a vanity license plate, a slogan on a T-shirt, an adver-
tisement, a poem, or a song lyric. But like an explicit argument, it persuades its audience
toward a certain point of view.
Consider the striking photograph in Figure 1.1—a baby wearing a bib labeled
“POISON.” This photograph enters a conversation about the safety of toys and other
baby products sold in the United States. In recent years, fears about toy safety have
4 Part 1 Overview of Argument

come mostly from two sources: the discov-

ery that many toys imported from China
contained lead paint and the discovery that
a substance used to make plastics pliable and
soft—called phthalates (pronounced “tha-
lates”)—may be harmful. Phthalates have
been shown to interfere with hormone pro-
duction in rat fetuses and, based on other
rodent studies, may produce some kinds of
cancers and other ailments. Because many
baby products contain phthalates—bibs,
edges of cribs, rubber duckies, and any num-
ber of other soft, rubbery toys—parents
worry that babies can ingest phthalates by
chewing on these toys.
The photograph of the baby and bib
makes the argumentative claim that baby
products are poisonous; the photograph
implicitly urges viewers to take action
against phthalates. But this photograph is
just one voice in a surprisingly complex
conversation. Is the bib in fact poisonous?
Such questions were debated during a recent
campaign to ban the sale of toys containing
Figure 1.1 An implicit argument against
phthalates in California. A legislative ini-
phthalates tiative sparked intense lobbying from both
child-advocacy groups and representatives
of the toy industry. At issue were a number of scientific questions about the risk posed
by phthalates. To what extent do studies on rats apply to humans? How much expo-
sure to phthalates should be considered dangerous? (Experiments on rats used large
amounts of phthalates—amounts that, according to many scientists, far exceed any-
thing a baby could absorb by chewing on a toy.) Also at issue is the level of health risks
a free market society should be willing to tolerate. The European Union, operating on
the “precautionary principle,” and citing evidence that such toys might be dangerous,
has banned toys containing phthalates. The U.S. government sets less strict standards
than does the European Union. A federal agency generally doesn’t ban a substance
unless it has been proven harmful to humans, not merely suspected of being harm-
ful. In defense of free markets, the toy and chemical industries accused opponents of
phthalates of using “junk science” to produce scary but inaccurate data.
Our point in summarizing the toxic toy controversy is to demonstrate the persua-
sive roles of both implicit and explicit arguments.
In contrast to the implicit argument made in Figure 1.1, consider the following
explicit argument posted by student writer Juan Lucas on a blog site. As an explicit
argument, it states its claim directly and supports it with reasons and evidence.
 Chapter 1  Argument: An Introduction 5

An Argument Against Banning Phthalates

(Blog post by student Juan Lucas)

The campaign to ban phthalates from children’s toys uses scare tactics that aren’t
grounded in good science. The anti-phthalate campaign shocks us with photos of
baby bibs labeled “poison.” It arouses fear by linking phthalates to possible cancers
or abnormalities in hormone production. In contrast, the scientific literature about
phthalates is much more guarded and cautious. Political pressure has already led to
a 2009 federal ban on phthalates used in toys that can be put in a baby’s mouth, such
as bottle nipples and teething rings. But based on the scientific evidence, I argue that
further banning of phthalates from children’s toys is a mistake.
Despite the warnings from the anti-phthalates campaign, the federal Consumer
Product Safety Commission, after extensive tests and review of the scientific litera-
ture, says that the level of phthalates absorbed from toys is too low to be harmful. No
­scientific study has yet demonstrated harm to humans. Moreover, humans are exposed
to phthalates daily, especially from food packaging, plastic bottles, shower curtains,
personal care products, and elsewhere. Banning phthalates in children’s toys wouldn’t
significantly reduce human exposure to phthalates from other sources.
Banning substances on emotional rather than scientific grounds has its own nega-
tive consequences. If we try to ban all potentially harmful substances before they have
been proven harmful, we will be less watchful against scientifically proven dangers
such as lead, coal dust, sulfur dioxide, or mercury in fish. We should place phthalates
in the same category as other possible-but-not-proven threats that are part of living
in the industrial world: artificial sweeteners, electromagnetic waves, non-organic foods
(because of possible pesticide residue), GMO corn and soy beans, and radon in our
walls. We should demand rigorous testing of all these threats, but not try to ban them
until evidence-based science proves their harmfulness.
We should also keep in mind the impact of too much regulation on people’s jobs
and the economy in general. The toy industry, a vibrant and important one in our
economy (just ask Santa Claus), provides thousands of jobs, and is already highly
regulated with safety standards. The use of phthalates, in fact, might make many toys
safer by making them softer and less brittle. Ensuring toy safety through strong testing
and regulation is absolutely necessary. But let’s base our regulations on good science.

■ ■ ■ For Writing and Discussion Implicit and Explicit Arguments MyWritingLab TM

Any argument, whether implicit or explicit, tries to influence the audience’s stance on an
issue, moving the audience toward the arguer’s claim. Arguments work on us psycho-
logically as well as cognitively, triggering emotions as well as thoughts and ideas. Each
of the implicit arguments in Figures 1.2–1.4 makes a claim on its audience, trying to get
viewers to adopt its position, perspective, belief, or point of view on an issue.
6 Part 1 Overview of Argument

Figure 1.2 Poster related to the GMO controversy

Figure 1.3 Photograph of protestors at a New York State Occupy Wall Street Rally
 Chapter 1  Argument: An Introduction 7

Figure 1.4 Cartoon on social etiquette and digital media

Individual task: For each argument, answer the following questions:

1. What conversation does this argument join? What is the issue or controversy?
What is at stake? (Sometimes “insider knowledge” might be required to under-
stand the argument. In such cases, explain to an outsider the needed background
information or cultural context.)
2. What is the argument’s claim? That is, what value, perspective, belief, or position
does the argument ask its viewers to adopt?
3. What is an opposing or alternative view? What views is the argument pushing against?
4. Convert the implicit argument into an explicit argument by stating its claim and
supporting reasons in words. How do implicit and explicit arguments work dif-
ferently on the brains or hearts of the audience?
Group task: Working in pairs or as a whole class, share your answers with classmates. ■■■

The Defining Features of Argument

1.2 To describe We turn now to examine arguments in more detail. (Unless we say
defining features ­otherwise, by argument we mean explicit arguments that attempt to supply
of argument reasons and evidence to support their claims.) This section examines three
defining features of such arguments.
8 Part 1 Overview of Argument

Argument Requires Justification of Its Claims

To begin defining argument, let’s turn to a humble but universal site of disagreement:
the conflict between a parent and a teenager over rules. In what way and in what cir-
cumstances do such conflicts constitute arguments?
Consider the following dialogue:

YOUNG PERSON (racing for the front door while putting coat on):  Bye. See you later.
PARENT: Whoa! What time are you planning on coming home?
YOUNG PERSON (coolly, hand still on doorknob): I’m sure we discussed this earlier. I’ll
be home around 2 a.m. (The second sentence, spoken very rapidly, is barely audible.)
PARENT (mouth tightening): We did not discuss this earlier and you’re not staying out
till two in the morning. You’ll be home at twelve.

At this point in the exchange, we have a quarrel, not an argument. Quarrelers

e­ xchange antagonistic assertions without any attempt to support them rationally. If the
dialogue never gets past the “Yes-you-will/No-I-won’t” stage, it either remains a quarrel
or degenerates into a fight.
Let us say, however, that the dialogue takes the following turn:

YOUNG PERSON (tragically): But I’m sixteen years old!

Now we’re moving toward argument. Not, to be sure, a particularly well-developed

or cogent one, but an argument all the same. It’s now an argument because one of the
quarrelers has offered a reason for her assertion. Her choice of curfew is satisfactory, she
says, because she is sixteen years old, an argument that depends on the unstated assump-
tion that sixteen-year-olds are old enough to make decisions about such matters.
The parent can now respond in one of several ways that will either advance
the argument or turn it back into a quarrel. The parent can simply invoke parental
authority (“I don’t care—you’re still coming home at twelve”), in which case argument
ceases. Or the parent can provide a reason for his or her view (“You will be home at
twelve because your dad and I pay the bills around here!”), in which case the argument
takes a new turn.
So far we’ve established two necessary conditions that must be met before we’re
willing to call something an argument: (1) a set of two or more conflicting assertions
and (2) the attempt to resolve the conflict through an appeal to reason.
But good argument demands more than meeting these two formal requirements.
For the argument to be effective, an arguer is obligated to clarify and support the rea-
sons presented. For example, “But I’m sixteen years old!” is not yet a clear support for
the assertion “I should be allowed to set my own curfew.” On the surface, Young Per-
son’s argument seems absurd. Her parent, of all people, knows precisely how old she is.
What makes it an argument is that behind her claim lies an unstated assumption—all
sixteen-year-olds are old enough to set their own curfews. What Young Person needs
 Chapter 1  Argument: An Introduction 9

to do now is to support that assumption.* In doing so, she must anticipate the sorts of
questions the assumption will raise in the mind of her parent: What is the legal status of
sixteen-year-olds? How psychologically mature, as opposed to chronologically mature,
is Young Person? What is the actual track record of Young Person in being responsi-
ble? and so forth. Each of these questions will force Young Person to reexamine and
clarify her assumptions about the proper degree of autonomy for sixteen-year-olds.
And her responses to those questions should in turn force the parent to reexamine his
or her assumptions about the dependence of sixteen-year-olds on parental guidance
and ­wisdom. (Likewise, the parent will need to show why “paying the bills around here”
automatically gives the right to set Young Person’s curfew.)
As the argument continues, Young Person and Parent may shift to a different line
of reasoning. For example, Young Person might say: “I should be allowed to stay out
until 2 a.m. because all my friends get to stay out that late.” (Here the unstated assump-
tion is that the rules in this family ought to be based on the rules in other families.) The
­parent might in turn respond, “But I certainly never stayed out that late when I was
your age”—an argument assuming that the rules in this family should follow the rules
of an earlier generation.
As Young Person and Parent listen to each other’s points of view (and begin
realizing why their initial arguments have not persuaded their intended audience),
both parties find themselves in the uncomfortable position of having to examine
their own beliefs and to justify assumptions that they have taken for granted. Here
we encounter one of the earliest meanings of the term to argue, which is “to clarify.”
As an arguer begins to clarify her own position on an issue, she also begins to clarify
her audience’s position. Such clarification helps the arguer see how she might accom-
modate her audience’s views, perhaps by adjusting her own position or by developing
reasons that appeal to her audience’s values. Thus Young Person might suggest an
argument like this:

I should be allowed to stay out until two on a trial basis because I need enough freedom to
­demonstrate my maturity and show you I won’t get into trouble.

The assumption underlying this argument is that it is good to give teenagers

f­reedom to demonstrate their maturity. Because this reason is likely to appeal to her
parent’s own values (the parent wants to see his or her daughter grow in maturity) and
because it is tempered by the qualifier “on a trial basis” (which reduces some of the
threat of Young Person’s initial demands), it may prompt productive discussion.
Whether or not Young Person and Parent can work out a best solution, the pre-
ceding scenario illustrates how argument leads people to clarify their reasons and
provide justifications that can be examined rationally. The scenario also illustrates
two specific aspects of argument that we will explore in detail in the next sections:
(1) Argument is both a process and a product. (2) Argument combines truth seeking
and persuasion.

*Later in this text we will call the assumption underlying a line of reasoning its warrant (see Chapter 4).
10 Part 1 Overview of Argument

Argument Is Both a Process and a Product

As the preceding scenario revealed, argument can be viewed as a process in which two
or more parties seek the best solution to a question or problem. Argument can also be
viewed as a product, each product being any person’s contribution to the conversation
at a given moment. In an informal discussion, the products are usually short, whatever
time a person uses during his or her turns in the conversation. Under more formal set-
tings, an orally delivered product might be a short, impromptu speech (say, during an
open-mike discussion of a campus issue) or a longer, carefully prepared formal speech
(as in a PowerPoint presentation at a business meeting or an argument at a public hear-
ing for or against a proposed city project).
Similar conversations occur in writing. Roughly analogous to a small-group dis-
cussion is an exchange of the kind that occurs regularly online through informal chat
groups or more formal blog sites. In an online discussion, participants have more
thinking time to shape their messages than they do in a real-time oral discussion.
­Nevertheless, messages are usually short and informal, making it possible over the
course of several days to see participants’ ideas shift and evolve as conversants modify
their initial views in response to others’ views.
Roughly equivalent to a formal speech would be a formal written argument, which
may take the form of an academic argument for a college course; a grant proposal; an
online posting; a guest column for the op-ed* section of a newspaper; a legal brief; a
letter to a member of Congress; or an article for an organizational newsletter, popular
magazine, or professional journal. In each of these instances, the written argument
(a product) enters a conversation (a process)—in this case, a conversation of readers,
many of whom will carry on the conversation by writing their own responses or by
discussing the writer’s views with others. The goal of the community of writers and
readers is to find the best solution to the problem or issue under discussion.

Argument Combines Truth Seeking and Persuasion

In thinking about argument as a product, the writer will find herself continually mov-
ing back and forth between truth seeking and persuasion—that is, between questions
about the subject matter (What is the best solution to this problem?) and about audi-
ence (What do my readers already believe or value? What reasons and evidence will
most persuade them?). Back and forth she’ll weave, alternately absorbed in the subject
of her argument and in the audience for that argument.
Neither of the two focuses is ever completely out of mind, but their relative impor-
tance shifts during different phases of the development of a paper. Moreover, differ-
ent rhetorical situations place different emphases on truth seeking versus persuasion.

*Op-ed stands for “opposite-editorial.” It is the generic name in journalism for a signed argument that
voices the writer’s opinion on an issue, as opposed to a news story that is supposed to report events
objectively, uncolored by the writer’s personal views. Op-ed pieces appear in the editorial-opinion
section of newspapers, which generally features editorials by the resident staff, opinion pieces by
syndicated columnists, and letters to the editor from readers. The term op-ed is often extended to
syndicated columns appearing in newsmagazines, advocacy Web sites, and online news services.
 Chapter 1  Argument: An Introduction 11

Truth Seeking Persuasion

Exploratory Argument as Dialogic Classical One-sided Aggressive Outright

essay inquiry, asking argument argument argument one-sided propaganda
examining audience to seeking aimed at a aimed at a arguments
all sides of think out common neutral or friendly
an issue issue with ground with possibly audience (often
writer a resistant skeptical for fund-raising
audience audience or calls to action)

Figure 1.5 Continuum of arguments from truth seeking to persuasion

We could thus place arguments on a kind of continuum that measures the degree of
attention a writer gives to subject matter versus audience. (See Figure 1.5.) At the far
truth-seeking end of the continuum might be an exploratory piece that lays out several
alternative approaches to a problem and weighs the strengths and weaknesses of each
with no concern for persuasion. At the other end of the continuum would be outright
propaganda, such as a political campaign advertisement that reduces a complex issue to
sound bites and distorts an opponent’s position through out-of-context quotations or
misleading use of data. (At its most blatant, propaganda obliterates truth seeking; it will
do anything, including the knowing use of bogus evidence, distorted assertions, and
outright lies, to win over an audience.) In the middle ranges of the continuum, writers
shift their focuses back and forth between truth seeking and persuasion but with vary-
ing degrees of emphasis.
As an example of a writer focusing primarily on truth seeking, consider the case
of Kathleen, who, in her college argument course, addressed the definitional question
“Is American Sign Language (ASL) a ‘foreign language’ for purposes of meeting the
university’s foreign language requirement?” Kathleen had taken two years of ASL at a
community college. When she transferred to a four-year college, the chair of the foreign
languages department at her new college would not allow her ASL proficiency to count
for the foreign language requirement. ASL isn’t a “language,” the chair said summarily.
“It’s not equivalent to learning French, German, or Japanese.”
Kathleen disagreed, so she immersed herself in developing her argument. While
doing research, she focused almost entirely on subject matter, searching for what
­linguists, neurologists, cognitive psychologists, and sociologists had said about the lan-
guage of deaf people. Immersed in her subject matter, she was only tacitly concerned
with her audience, whom she thought of primarily as her classmates and the professor
of her argument class—people who were friendly to her views and interested in her
experiences with the deaf community. She wrote a well-documented paper, citing sev-
eral scholarly articles, that made a good case to her classmates (and the professor) that
ASL is indeed a distinct language.
Proud of the big red A the professor had placed on her paper, Kathleen decided
for a subsequent assignment to write a second paper on ASL—but this time aiming
it directly at the chair of foreign languages and petitioning him to accept her ASL
12 Part 1 Overview of Argument

­ roficiency for the foreign language requirement. Now her writing task fell closer to the
p
persuasive end of our continuum. Kathleen once again immersed herself in research,
but this time focused not on subject matter (whether ASL is a distinct language) but on
audience. She researched the history of the foreign language requirement at her college
and discovered some of the politics behind it (an old foreign language requirement
had been dropped in the 1970s and reinstituted in the 1990s, partly—a math profes-
sor told her—to boost enrollments in foreign language courses). She also interviewed
foreign language teachers to find out what they knew and didn’t know about ASL. She
discovered that many teachers thought ASL was “easy to learn,” so that accepting ASL
would allow students a Mickey Mouse way to avoid the rigors of a “real” foreign lan-
guage class. Additionally, she learned that foreign language teachers valued immersing
students in a foreign culture; in fact, the foreign language requirement was part of her
college’s effort to create a multicultural curriculum.
This new understanding of her target audience helped Kathleen reconceptualize
her argument. Her claim that ASL is a real language (the subject of her first paper)
became only one section of her second paper, much condensed and abridged. She
added sections showing the difficulty of learning ASL (to counter her audience’s belief
that learning ASL is easy), showing how the deaf community forms a distinct culture
with its own customs and literature (to show how ASL would meet the goals of multi-
culturalism), and showing that the number of transfer students with ASL credits would
be negligibly small (to allay fears that accepting ASL would threaten enrollments in lan-
guage classes). She ended her argument with an appeal to her college’s public emphasis
(declared boldly in its mission statement) on eradicating social injustice and reaching
out to the oppressed. She described the isolation of deaf people in a world where almost
no hearing people learn ASL, and she argued that the deaf community on her campus
could be integrated more fully into campus life if more students could “talk” with them.
Thus the ideas included in her new argument—the reasons selected, the evidence used,
the arrangement and tone—all were determined by her primary focus on persuasion.
Our point, then, is that all along the continuum, writers attempt both to seek truth
and to persuade, but not necessarily with equal balance. Kathleen could not have writ-
ten her second paper, aimed specifically at persuading the chair of foreign languages, if
she hadn’t first immersed herself in truth-seeking research that convinced her that ASL
is indeed a distinct language. Nor are we saying that her second argument was better
than her first. Both fulfilled their purposes and met the needs of their intended audi-
ences. Both involved truth seeking and persuasion, but the first focused primarily on
subject matter whereas the second focused primarily on audience.

Argument and the Problem of Truth

1.3 To understand The tension that we have just examined between truth seeking and persua-
the relationship of sion raises an ancient issue in the field of argument: Is the arguer’s first
argument to the obligation to truth or to winning the argument? And just what is the nature
problem of truth of the truth to which arguers are supposed to be obligated?
In Plato’s famous dialogues from ancient Greek philosophy, these ques-
tions were at the heart of Socrates’ disagreement with the Sophists. The Sophists were
 Chapter 1  Argument: An Introduction 13

professional rhetoricians who specialized in training orators to win arguments. Socrates,

who valued truth seeking over persuasion and believed that truth could be discov-
ered through philosophic inquiry, opposed the Sophists. For Socrates, Truth resided
in the ideal world of forms, and through philosophic rigor humans could transcend
the changing, shadowlike world of everyday reality to perceive the world of universals
where Truth, Beauty, and Goodness resided. Through his method of questioning his
interlocutors, Socrates would gradually peel away layer after layer of false views until
Truth was revealed. The good person’s duty, Socrates believed, was not to win an argu-
ment but to pursue this higher Truth. Socrates distrusted rhetoricians because they
were interested only in the temporal power and wealth that came from persuading
audiences to the orator’s views.
Let’s apply Socrates’ disagreement with the Sophists to a modern instance. Suppose
your community is divided over the issue of raising environmental standards versus
keeping open a job-producing factory that doesn’t meet new guidelines for waste dis-
charge. The Sophists would train you to argue any side of this issue on behalf of any
lobbying group willing to pay for your services. If, however, you followed the spirit of
Socrates, you would be inspired to listen to all sides of the dispute, peel away false argu-
ments, discover the Truth through reasonable inquiry, and commit yourself to a Right
Course of Action.
But what is the nature of Truth or Right Action in a dispute between jobs and the
environment? The Sophists believed that truth was determined by those in power;
thus they could enter an argument unconstrained by any transcendent beliefs or
assumptions. When Socrates talked about justice and virtue, the Sophists could reply
contemptuously that these were fictitious concepts invented by the weak to protect
themselves from the strong. Over the years, the Sophists’ relativist beliefs became
so repugnant to people that the term sophistry became synonymous with trickery in
argument.
However, in recent years the Sophists’ critique of a transcendent Universal Truth
has been taken seriously by many philosophers, sociologists, and other thinkers who
doubt Socrates’ confident belief that arguments, properly conducted, necessarily arrive
at a single Truth. For these thinkers, as for the Sophists, there are often different degrees
of truth and different kinds of truths for different situations or cultures. From this
perspective, when we consider questions of interpretation or value, we can never dem-
onstrate that a belief or assumption is true—not through scientific observation, not
through reason, and not through religious revelation. We get our beliefs, according to
these contemporary thinkers, from the shared assumptions of our particular cultures.
We are condemned (or liberated) to live in a pluralistic, multicultural world with com-
peting visions of truth.
If we accept this pluralistic view of the world, do we then endorse the Sophists’
radical relativism, freeing us to argue any side of any issue? Or do we doggedly pursue
some modern equivalent of Socrates’ truth?
Our own sympathies are with Socrates, but we admit to a view of truth that is
more tentative, cautious, and conflicted than his. For us, truth seeking does not mean
finding the “Right Answer” to a disputed question, but neither does it mean a valueless
relativism in which all answers are equally good. For us, truth seeking means taking
14 Part 1 Overview of Argument

responsibility for determining the “best answer” or “best solution” to the question for
the good of the whole community when taking into consideration the interests of all
stakeholders. It means making hard decisions in the face of uncertainty. This more
tentative view of truth means that you cannot use argument to “prove” your claim, but
only to make a reasonable case for your claim. One contemporary philosopher says
that argument can hope only to “increase adherence” to ideas, not absolutely convince
an audience of the necessary truth of ideas. Even though you can’t be certain, in a
Socratic sense, that your solution to the problem is the best one available, you must
ethically take responsibility for the consequences of your claim and you must seek
justice for stakeholders beyond yourself. You must, in other words, forge a personal
stance based on your examination of all the evidence and your articulation of values
that you can make public and defend.
To seek truth, then, means to seek the best or most just solution to a problem while
observing all available evidence, listening with an open mind to the views of all stake-
holders, clarifying and attempting to justify your own values and assumptions, and tak-
ing responsibility for your argument. It follows that truth seeking often means delaying
closure on an issue, acknowledging the pressure of alternative views, and being willing
to change one’s mind. Seen in this way, learning to argue effectively has the deepest sort
of social value: It helps communities settle conflicts in a rational and humane way by
finding, through the dialectic exchange of ideas, the best solutions to problems without
resorting to violence or to other assertions of raw power.

■ ■ ■ For Class Discussion Role-Playing Arguments

On any given day, the media provides evidence of the complexity of living in a plural-
istic culture. Issues that could be readily decided in a completely homogeneous ­culture
raise questions in a society that has fewer shared assumptions. Choose one of the
­following cases as the subject for a “simulation game” in which class members present
the points of view of the people involved.

Case 1: Political Asylum for German Family Seeking Right to Homeschool

Their Children
In 2010 an Evangelical Christian family from Germany, Uwe and Hannelore Romeike and
their five children, moved to the United States seeking asylum from political persecution.
At the U.S. immigration hearings, the couple argued that if they remained in Germany
their decision to homeschool their children would result in fines, possible arrest, and even
forced separation from their children. German law forbids homeschooling on the grounds
that failure to attend recognized schools will create “parallel societies” whose members
will fail to integrate into Germany’s open and pluralistic culture. In early 2011, a U.S. fed-
eral immigration judge granted political asylum to the family, denouncing the German
government’s policy against homeschooling. He called it “utterly repellent to everything
we believe as Americans.” However, in 2013 the Sixth Circuit Court unanimously over-
turned the original decision and revoked the family’s status as political refugees. Stating
that the United States cannot give political asylum to every victim of perceived unfairness
in another country’s laws, the court declared that Germany’s ban on homeschooling did
 Chapter 1  Argument: An Introduction 15

not constitute political persecution. The decision led to international debate about the role
of homeschooling in a pluralistic society and about the definition of political persecution.
In the United States, the Homeschooling Legal Defense Association urged that the case be
heard by the United States Supreme Court and sponsored a petition drive supporting the
Romeike family.

Your task: Imagine a public hearing on this issue where all stakeholders are invited to
present their points of view. The U.S. Immigration Web site offers the following defini-
tion of refugee status:

Refugee status or asylum may be granted to people who have been persecuted or fear they
will be persecuted on account of race, religion, nationality, and/or membership in a particu-
lar social group or political opinion

Your goal isn’t to make your own decision about this case but to bring to imaginative life all
the points of view in the controversy. Hold a mock public hearing in which ­classmates play
the following roles: (a) An American parent advocating homeschooling; (b) an American
teacher’s union representative opposing homeschooling; (c) an attorney arguing that the
Romeike family meets the criteria for “refugee status”; (d) an attorney arguing that the
Romeike family does not meet the criteria for refugee status; (e) a German citizen sup-
porting the German law against homeschooling; (f) a Romeike parent arguing that they
would be persecuted if they returned to Germany; (g) other roles that your class thinks are
relevant to this case.

Case 2: HPV Vaccines for Sixth Grade Girls (and Boys)

In 2007 the pharmaceutical company Merke developed a vaccine against the sexually trans-
mitted HPV virus (human papillomavirus), some strains of which can cause cervical cancer
as well as genital warts. They launched an extensive television campaign promoting the
vaccine (which would bring substantial profits to Merke) and advised that girls should get
the vaccine before they reached puberty. Following recommendations from doctors and
medical researchers, several states passed laws mandating that the HPV vaccine be included
for girls among the other vaccinations required of all children for entry into the sixth or
seventh grades (depending on the state). These laws sparked public debate about the ben-
efits versus potential adverse effects of vaccines, and about the state’s versus parents’ role in
determining what vaccines a child should get.

Your task: Imagine a public hearing addressing what your state’s laws should be con-
cerning HPV vaccinations for pre-pubescent children. Your goal isn’t to make your
own decision about this case but to bring to imaginative life all the points of view in
the controversy. Hold a mock hearing in which classmates play the following roles:
(a) a cancer specialist who supports mandatory HPV vaccination for girls; (b) a public
health specialist who also supports expanding the requirement to include boys; (c) a
skeptical person concerned about the potential adverse effects of vaccines in general;
(d) a religiously conservative parent who believes in abstinence and monogamy and
opposes the cultural message of the HPV vaccination. ■■■
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
the structural, condition of the optic nerve. That such an influence
may be exerted is shown by cases of transverse myelitis low down in
the cord, which, according to Erb and Seguin, were complicated by
double optic-nerve atrophy. The second theory is that the involved
part of the cord and the optic nerve present a similar vulnerability to
the same morbid influences. This is illustrated in some cases of
chronic alcoholic and nicotine poisoning, in ergotism, and in the
spinal affections due to hereditary influences and developmental
defects.

To discuss the nature of the disturbing influence which is responsible

for the most characteristic evidence of the disease, the ataxia, would
be equivalent to reviewing almost every mooted question in spinal
physiology. It is to be borne in mind that ataxia is a collective term
designating any inco-ordination of movement which is independent
of motor paralysis. It may be due to abolition or impairment of tactile
perception; it may be due to loss of the muscular sense; it may be
due to hampered motor co-ordination; and, finally, it may be due to a
disturbance of the space-sense. In my opinion it is only in
exceptional cases that any one of these factors can be positively
excluded. Occasionally, one has been noted when the ataxia was
grave but the tactile sense was unimpaired, or where the muscular
sense was perfect but ataxia was well developed. The difficulty with
most such records is that no discrimination is made as to the kind of
ataxia present. That loss of skill which the patient shows when he
shuts his eyes and attempts to perform certain movements without
their aid is undoubtedly due to diminished sensation, either tactile or
muscular, and usually both. The inability to stand with the eyes
closed is probably a cerebellar phenomenon, and in this respect we
are on the way to return to Duchenne's opinion. It is true that the
cerebellar organ is healthy in most tabic subjects, but its centripetal
informer, the direct cerebellar tract, is either itself involved or affected
in its origin in the columns of Clarke. But, besides the static ataxia
and that motor ataxia which can be neutralized by the use of the eye,
there is another disturbance, which, as Erb and his followers hold,
cannot be accounted for on the strength of any sensory disturbance.
It consists in an interference with the proper succession and rhythm
of movement. It seems as if that automatic mechanism by which the
individual or grouped muscular contractions engaged in locomotion
follow each other with the smoothness of the action of perfectly-
fitting cog-wheels were disturbed; the correct after-movement is
hesitated over or skipped, or even takes place at the wrong moment,
neutralizing some other step in the co-ordination required. The
tendency of physiologists and pathologists is to attribute this form of
ataxia to the disease of the intrinsic co-ordinating apparatus of the
cord itself. The experiments of Tarchanoff on a headless duck, and
the determination of the existence of cursorial co-ordinating tracts
uniting the brachial and lumbar nuclei in mammals, as well as the
observations made on automatic co-ordinate movement in
decapitated criminals, demonstrate the existence in the cord of such
an apparatus. The combination of the ganglionic centres which
underlies this co-ordination is affected by the so-called short tracts of
the cord,48 and it is precisely a portion of these which are involved in
the lesion of the column of Burdach. A number of arguments have
been advanced against regarding the lesion of this column, or
indeed any of the lesions of the posterior column, as explaining the
ataxia-producing effect of tabes. Westphal has interposed some
potent objections. He holds that lesion of these columns will be
found more frequently when examinations shall no longer be limited
to those cases where disease is suspected because ataxia was
observed during life. He found extensive disease of the posterior
columns in sufferers from paretic dementia who did not exhibit the
characteristic ataxic gait of tabes. I believe this objection can be met
by the very cases cited by Westphal in its support. Where the spinal
disorder preceded the cerebral—that is, where paretic dementia
occurred as a complication of tabes dorsalis—true locomotor and
static ataxia had been present before the insanity exploded. On the
other hand, where the spinal disease followed the cerebral, typical
ataxia did not ensue. This would seem to indicate that the
destruction of cortical control is inimical to the development of typical
tabes. Leyden has made a suggestion in the same direction when he
attributes the lesser manifestness of locomotor ataxia in tabic
females to their inferior cerebral organization.49 A more convincing
proof of the correctness of this conclusion is furnished by the fact
that if the pathological process, after destroying the posterior
columns and producing ataxia, invades the voluntary motor tract, the
ataxic symptom becomes less palpable.50 This antagonism between
lateral-column and posterior-column lesion is frequently exemplified
in the combined forms of sclerosis. It would seem, then, that where
the brain is healthy and the controlling voluntary tracts are
unimpaired, the ataxia is aggravated, supporting the beautiful theory
of Adamkiewicz, which assumes that the locomotor ataxia is due to a
disturbance of the balance normally existing between the psycho-
motor centres and those controlling the muscular tone as well as
those mediating reflex excitability.51
48 Intersegmental tracts.

49 In one out of three female eases I found the active disturbance of gait as severe as
in males, but Leyden's observation is supported by all who have seen a sufficiently
large number of female cases.

50 Not because of paresis altogether, for it diminishes materially out of proportion to

the paresis.

51 Archiv für Psychiatrie, x. p. 545. There is another observation which bears in this
direction: James of Boston observed that absolute deaf-mutes in a large percentage
of cases are insusceptible to vertigo or to the allied phenomenon of sea-sickness.
Certainly, the auditory nerve is a space-sense nerve; its physiological elimination is,
however, accompanied by an immunity against a symptom which may be an evidence
of disturbed space-sense transmission. In like manner, the destruction of the central
perceptive and voluntary centres in the paretic dement inhibits the legitimate results of
posterior spinal sclerosis.

The degeneration of the crossed-pyramid tracts in typical tabes seem to be strictly an

atrophy from disuse, perhaps facilitated by the general malnutrition of the cord. It is
limited to that part supplying the most or solely affected extremities. Thus, where the
lower extremities are alone grossly involved it is totally degenerated in the lumbar
area, and only in its outer parts in higher levels. As if to fortify this comparison by
analogous observations from every great segment of the nervous axis, a similar
inhibiting influence of pyramid lesion on co-ordinating disturbance (muscular sense) is
noted in secondary degeneration of the interolivary layer; when uncomplicated with
 pyramid lesion (Meyer and my own case,) ataxia is present; when so complicated
(Schrader, Homén) it is not observed, even if determinable.

Lissauer52 has recently determined the existence of a degeneration

of certain fine nerve-fibres, apparently derived from the outermost of
the radicles into which the posterior nerve-roots divide on entry. They
are situated on that border of the apex of the posterior horn which is
in contact with the lateral column, and were found degenerated in all
cases except such as were in the initial period. No symptomatic
relation has been claimed for this lesion.
52 Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1885, No. 11.

One of the most important questions which have grown out of the
pathological studies of tabes is the relationship between the lesions
and the not infrequently observed restoration of functions which had
been more or less seriously impaired in an earlier period of the
disease. Even those symptoms which ordinarily comprise the
continuous and essential clinical background of tabes may exhibit
remarkable changes in this direction. I have two well-established
observations—one of tabes of eight years' standing, the other of
more recent date—in which that symptom which, once established,
is the most constant, the reflex iridoplegia, disappeared, to reappear
in two months in one case where it had been associated with
myosis, and to reappear in eight months in the other, repeating this
oscillation the following year. I have now under observation a tabic
patient in the sixth year of his illness who two years ago had a return
of both knee-phenomena to a nearly normal extent, to lose them in
two months, and to regain the reflex on the left side four months ago,
retaining it up to the present. These three cases were of syphilitic
subjects. In a fourth advanced non-syphilitic tabic patient, whose
ataxia had reached a maximal degree, I found a return of both knee-
phenomena for three days after its absence had been established by
medical examiners for over a year, and had probably been a feature
for a much longer period. Hammond the younger and Eulenburg
have reported similar cases. Nothing is more surprising to those
unfamiliar with the progress of this disease than to find gross ataxia
or the electrical pains and anæsthesia to disappear or nearly so; and
the alleged success of more than one remedial measure is based on
the fallacious attributing to the remedy what was really due to the
natural remittence of the disease-process or of its manifestations.
The financial success of quacks and the temporary but rapidly
evanescent popularity of static electricity, Wilsonia belts, and like
contrivances are owing to the hopefulness inspired in the credulous
patient by the mere coincidence of spontaneous improvement and
the administration of a new remedy, supplemented, it may be, by the
influence of mind on body in his sanguine condition. It is to be
assumed that the influences which are at work in provoking the
trophic and visceral episodes of tabes are of an impalpable
character, and that all theorizing regarding the reason of their
preponderance in one and their absence in another case are as
premature as would be any speculation regarding their rapid
development and subsidence in the history of one and the same
case. But we have better grounds for explaining the remissions of
the ataxia and anæsthesia.

It is only in the most advanced stages of tabes that the destruction of

the axis-cylinder becomes absolute or nearly so. Contrary to the
opinion of Leyden,53 who held that the tabic sclerosis differs from
disseminated sclerosis in the fact that the axis-cylinder does not
survive the myelin disappearance, it is now generally admitted that a
certain number of exposed or practically denuded axis-cylinders may
be preserved in the sclerotic fields.54 It is on the theory that these
delicate channels may be oppressed at one time, perhaps by
inflammatory or congestive pressure, and relieved at another by its
subsidence, that we may assume them to be the channels through
which the now limited, now liberated, functions are mediated. It is
also reasonable to suppose that vicarious action may supplement
the impaired function, and to some extent overcome the disturbing
factors. This is illustrated by the controlling influence of the visual
function—yea, even of the unconscious and ineffectual co-operation
of completely amaurotic eyes—in neutralizing both locomotor and
static ataxia. One patient who was well advanced in the initial period
of tabes, and who had been encouraged to consider the medical
opinion to that effect as the result of an exaggerated refinement of
diagnosis, made repeated tests of the Romberg symptom in his own
case, and deluded himself into the belief that the physician was
mistaken because he succeeded in practically overcoming it with an
effort that too plainly told its own story; but still he overcame it.
Certain peripheral influences have the power of stimulating the
dormant activity of potentially vicarious tracts, and perhaps also the
blunted activity of those whose function is impaired. The outside
temperature, certain barometric conditions, all may exert an
influence in this direction for good or evil.
53 Op. cit., p. 328, vol. ii.

54 Babinski (Neurologisches Centralblatt, 1885, p. 324) notes this feature, and,

consistently with the findings of most modern observers, discovers much more
resemblance to disseminated sclerosis than to the systemic sclerosis with which
Strümpell and Westphal (in part) incline to classify tabes. Similar objections to the
system-disease theory are advanced by Zacher (Archiv für Psychiatrie, xv. p. 340). I
may not pass over in silence the fact that Babinski considers his observations to
militate also against regarding any phase of the tabic sclerosis as a secondary
process. But while it may fairly be asked that a sclerosis to be regarded as systemic
must be shown to be total, this is not necessary for a secondary process, unless the
primary involvement be total also; and that is not the case in tabes.

ETIOLOGY.—Authorities are now agreed that no single cause can be

regarded as the sole responsible factor in all cases of tabes, and that
a number of etiological influences are combined in the provocation of
this disease in most instances. When the distinctiveness of the
affection was first recognized it was customary to attribute it to
sexual excesses, and the unfortunate sufferer had frequently to bear
the implied reproach of having brought his misery on himself, in
addition to the hopeless prospect which those who followed
Romberg and other authorities of the day held out to him.55
55 This opinion survives in a large portion of the German laity and in French novels.
About the time that the poet Heine was dying from an organic spinal affection two
other prominent literary characters of Paris were affected with tabes. It so happened
that all three were popularly regarded as libidinous, and one of their leading
 contemporaries, whose name escapes me, took occasion to issue a manifesto
addressed to the jeunesse dorée which closed with the apostrophe, “Gardons à nos
moelles.”

Heredity plays a very slight part in the etiology of tabes. Writers of

ten and fifteen years ago attributed a greater importance to it than is
now done. But this was due to the incorporation with tabes of the so-
called family form of locomotor ataxia—a disease which is now
regarded as a distinct affection.56
56 There is but one record of direct heredity (the father and son being affected nearly
at the same time), to my knowledge. It was observed at the Berlin Hospital by Remak
(Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1885, No. 7). Both father and son were syphilitic.

More importance may be attached to individual predisposition, but

thus far no distinct formulation of this factor has been attempted
except by Schmeichler,57 who offers the suggestion that there are
persons with a predisposition to the development of connective-
tissue proliferation in various organs of the body, and that in them
tabes and other sclerotic affections are consequently more frequent
than in others. This suggestion appears plausible, but it is
unconfirmed by positive observations.
57 Op. cit.

Sex appears on a superficial view to be one of the most important

elements. It is generally admitted that at most one female becomes
tabic for every ten males who do so. Of 81 cases in private practice,
I observed but 3 females. Rockwell, Seguin, Birdsall, and Putnam
give similar figures. This comparative immunity is probably due to
the fact that the female is less exposed to over-exertion, to surface
chilling of the feet, to the injurious consequences of sexual excess,
and to syphilis58 than the male. As a rule, the affection in females is
more insidiously developed, progresses more slowly, is less marked
by crises and trophic disturbances, and not accompanied by as
severe pains and profound disturbance of co-ordination as is the
corresponding affection in males.
 58 Whether the shorter vitality of the syphilitic female as compared with that of the
male is a factor in diminishing the accumulation of chronic tertiary sequelæ in that
sex, or whether it be the lesser vulnerability of the inferior nervous system, I am
unable to decide from the facts at my disposal. In private and clinical experience I
have been struck by the fact that women affected with syphilis in the same way and
under similar circumstances with tabic syphilitic males develop symptoms of
functional disorder of the brain and cord, such as spinal and cerebro-spinal irritation.
My cases referred to had in no instance any indication of a syphilitic condition or
history, and a distinct and different cause was found in all three.

The most important element in creating an acquired predisposition to

tabes is undoubtedly the existence of constitutional syphilis. Some
difference of opinion still exists regarding the proportion of syphilitic
tabic patients, chiefly due to the neglect of Erb—when he first
announced the prevailing view, and which is generally attributed to
him—to differentiate between cases of demonstrated constitutional
syphilis and the so-called spurious or soft chancre. But although
there occurred a reaction against his view which went to as great an
extreme in the opposite direction, the careful and critically registered
statistics accumulated in the mean time strengthen the view that
there are more syphilitic subjects among the tabic than among any
class of sufferers from other nervous affections.59 Reumont, a
physician at Aix-la-Chapelle, to which place syphilitic patients in
general resort in large numbers, found that of 3400 cases of syphilis,
290 had nervous affections, 40 being afflicted with tabes. Bernhardt60
took occasion to examine a group of hospital patients who were free
from tabes, and found that not fully 16 per cent. were syphilitic, while
of 125 tabic patients, over 46 per cent. were determined to have had
positive syphilitic manifestations. Several of those observers who
have paid attention to the question of the syphilitic origin of tabes
have admitted that the more searching their inquiry the larger the
proportion of detected syphilitic antecedent histories. Thus, Rumpf's
earlier table shows 66, and his later 80, per cent. of such
antecedents. This latter figure exactly corresponds to the percentage
of syphilis in my private cases. At a discussion held by members of
the American Neurological Association in 1884, Webber gave 54,
Putnam 49, Rockwell 40, Birdsall 43,61 and Seguin 22 per cent.62 as
the proportion in their experiences.
59 Excepting always those having the distinctive and undisputed syphilitic character.

60 Archiv für Psychiatrie, xv. p. 862.

61 Derived from over five hundred cases which had presented themselves at the clinic
of the College of Physicians and Surgeons.

62 In the Archives of Medicine he tabulates 54 (private) cases as follows:

Chancre alone 23
Chancre followed by secondary symptoms 16
Total of those with history of chancre 39
No history of chancre in 15
Total 54

Of European writers, aside from those already mentioned, Berger

claims 43 per cent., and Bernhardt, in commenting on the increasing
percentage obtained by accurate investigation, reports an additional
series of 7 new cases in private practice, all of which were syphilitic.
Fournier, Voigt, Œhnhausen, and George Fisher estimate the
syphilitic tabic patients at respectively 93, 81, and 72 per cent. of the
whole number. The almost monotonous recurrence of a clear
syphilitic history in my more recent records is such that in private
practice I have come to regard a non-syphilitic tabic patient as the
exception. Among the poorer classes the percentage of discoverable
syphilitic antecedents is undoubtedly much less. The direct exciting
causes of tabes, exposure and over-exertion, are more common with
them and more severe in their operation.

The proof of a relationship between syphilis and tabes dorsalis does

not rest on statistical evidence alone. A number of observations
show that the syphilitic virus is competent to produce individual
symptoms which demonstrate its profound influence on the very
centres and tracts which are affected in tabes. Thus, Finger63
showed that obliteration of the knee-jerk is a frequent symptom of
the secondary fever of syphilis, and that the relation is so intimate
between cause and effect that after the return of the reflex, if there
be a relapse of the fever, the obliteration of the knee-jerk is repeated.
Both the permanent loss of the knee-jerk (Remak) and the peculiar
pupillary symptoms of tabes are sometimes found in syphilitic
subjects who have no other sign of nervous disorder; and Rieger and
Foster64 regard the syphilitic ocular disturbances, even when they
exist independently, as due, like those of tabes, to the spinal, and not
to a primarily cerebral, disturbance. Another argument in favor of the
syphilitic origin of tabes is derived from the occasional remedial
influence of antisyphilitic treatment. The force of this argument is
somewhat impaired by the fact that the same measures occasionally
appear to be beneficial in tabes where syphilis can be excluded. Still,
the results of the mixed treatment in a few cases of undoubted
syphilitic origin are sometimes unmistakable and brilliant.65 As some
cases, even of long standing, yield to such measures, while others,
apparently of lesser gravity and briefer duration, fail to respond to
them, the question as to whether syphilis is a direct cause or merely
a predisposing factor may be answered in this way: That in the
former class it must have been more or less directly instrumental in
provoking the disease, while in the latter class it is to be regarded as
a remote and predisposing factor, to which other causes, not
reached by antisyphilitic treatment, became added. The claim of Erb,
that “tabes dorsalis is probably a syphilitic disease whose outbreak is
determined by certain accessory provocations,” is not subscribed to
unreservedly by a single writer of eminence.
63 “Ueber eine constante nervöse Störung bei florider Syphilis der Secundärperiode,”
Vierteljahrschrift für Dermatologie und Syphilis, viii., 1882.

64 “Auge und Rückenmark,” Graefe's Archiv für Ophthalmologie, Bd. xxvii. iii.

65 In one case already referred to a return of both knee-phenomena and complete

disappearance of locomotor and static ataxia were effected after a duration of four
years. The treatment was neglected and the knee-jerks disappeared, and one has
now returned under the resumed treatment, but accompanied by lightning-like pains.
 At a meeting of the Société médicale des Hôpitaux, held November 10, 1882,
Desplats reported a case in which even better results were obtained. Reumont
(Syphilis und Tabes nach eigenen Erfahrungen, Aachen, 1881) reports 2 out of 36
carefully observed syphilitic cases cured, and 13 as improved under antisyphilitic
treatment.

The question has been raised whether the influence of syphilis is

sufficiently great to justify a clinical demarcation between syphilitic
and non-syphilitic cases. A number of observers, including Reumont,
Leonard Weber, and Fournier, incline to the belief that there are
more atypical forms of tabes in the syphilitic group. Others, including
Rumpf, Krause, and Berger, are unable to confirm this, but the
former admits, what seems to be a general impression among
neurologists, that an early preponderance of ptosis, diplopia, and
pupillary symptoms is more common with syphilitic than with non-
syphilitic tabes. Fournier66 believes that syphilitic patients show more
mental involvement in the pre-ataxic period; but it is evident that he
has based this belief on a study of impure forms. The advent of
tabes in syphilitic cases does not in this respect differ from the rule.
The most protracted and severe diplopia I have yet encountered in a
tabic patient is one, now under observation, in the initial period of the
disease, syphilis being positively excluded as an etiological factor.
66 L'Éncephale, 1884, No. 6.

It seems to be a prevalent opinion that the cases of syphilis in which

tabes is developed include a large proportion of instances in which
the secondary manifestations were slight and unlike that florid
syphilis with well-marked cutaneous and visceral lesions which is
more apt to be followed by transitory or severe vascular affections of
the cord and brain.

Excesses in alcohol, tobacco, and abuse of the sexual function are

among the factors which frequently aggravate the tendency to tabes,
and one or more of them will usually be found associated with the
constitutional factor in syphilitic tabes. Both alcohol and nicotine
have a deleterious effect on nervous nutrition and on the spinal
functions, as is illustrated in the effect of the former in producing
general neuritis, and of both in provoking optic-nerve atrophy and
general paralysis of the insane, not to speak of the pupillary states
which often follow their abuse, and the undeniable existence of a
true alcoholic ataxia. Sexual excesses were, as stated, at one time
regarded as the chief cause: the reaction that set in against this
belief went to the extreme of questioning its influence altogether. It is
to-day regarded as an important aggravating cause in a large
number of cases, and this irrespective of whether it be the result of a
satyriacal irritation of the initial period or a precedent factor. In a
large number of my patients (18 out of 23 in whom this subject was
inquired into) the habit of withdrawing had been indulged in,67 and,
as the patients admitted, with distinct deleterious effects, such as
fulness and throbbing in the lumbo-sacral region, tremor and rigidity,
with tingling or numbness, in the limbs, blurred vision, and
sometimes severe occipital headache; in one case lightning-like
pains in the region of the anus ensued.68
67 Coitus reservatus, the real crime of the Onan of Scripture.

68 Leyden states that coitus in the upright position has been accused of producing
tabes, without mentioning his authority. I have no observation on this subject touching
tabes, but am prepared to credit its bad effect from the account of a masturbator, who
during the orgasm produced while standing felt a distinct shock, like that from a
battery, shooting from the lumbar region into his lower limbs, and causing him to fall
as if knocked down. He consulted me in great alarm—was scarcely able to walk from
motor weakness, and had no knee-phenomenon; in a few weeks it returned, and no
further morbid sign appeared. Masturbators of the worst type occasionally manifest
ataxia, and in three cases I have been able to establish the return of the knee-jerk,
together with other improvements in the spinal exhaustion of these subjects. The loss
and diminution of the patellar jerk, and the frequently associated urinary incontinence,
as well as certain of the peripheral pains found in masturbators, certainly prove that
undue repetition of the sexual act (be it natural or artificial) is competent to affect the
cord in a way that cannot but be injurious in case of a predisposition to tabes, if not
without the latter.

Of single causes, none exerts so direct and indisputable an influence

on the production of tabes as the action of cold and wet upon the
lower segment of the body. It is usually the case that such exposure
is frequently repeated and combined with over-exertion before the
disease is produced, but it is occasionally possible to trace the very
first symptom of the disease directly to a single exposure. A soldier
who stands up to his knees in a rifle-pit half full of water finds his
limbs numb or tingling; develops slight motor weakness, then
lightning-like pains, and ultimately a typical tabes. In the case of a
peddler who presented an advanced form of the disease, the first
symptoms had developed after a single wetting of his feet: while
walking along one of our watering-places with his wares the swell of
a steamer inundated the beach. He had been subject to perspiring
feet before that, and the perspiration remained checked from that
time on.69 The influence of surface chilling was remarkably manifest
in all three of my female cases. In one of them it was due to frequent
wetting of the feet; in the second, a midwife, the first symptoms
began immediately after standing on a cold hearthstone while
preparing some article needed in a lying-in case. In the third case, a
lady who contracted and safely passed through a scarlatina in her
twenty-eighth year was taken out driving while desquamation was
going on. She became thoroughly chilled, experienced numbness in
the fingers and toes, and from that day on developed a slowly
progressing tabes involving all extremities alike.70
69 Checking of habitual perspiration by violent measures is mentioned by the German
textbook writers as a frequent cause, but occurs quite rarely in the modern tables.

70 In view of the absence of spinal—or, in fact, any nervous—symptoms prior to the

exposure referred to, it does not seem necessary to insist that this was not an
instance of a true post-scarlatinal tabes; and possibly the case thus designated by
Tuczek (Archiv für Psychiatrie, xiii. p. 147) may have been really due to chilling of the
delicate body-surface after desquamation or during that process. The typical form of
myelitis and sclerosis after exanthematous fevers is rather of the disseminated type.

Spinal concussion has been mentioned by a number of authorities

as a possible cause for tabes, as for other forms of sclerotic spinal
disease. In 1 of 81 cases in my own observation the development of
the disorder could be distinctly traced to a railway injury; in 2 a
sudden aggravation was as distinctly referable to a similar cause.71
To what extent railroad travelling, with its attendant continual jarring
of the body, may predispose to the development of tabes or of other
spinal diseases is as yet a matter of mere conjecture. That railroad
travelling exerts a bad influence in some cases of the established
disease is evident; but in others the patients rather like the motion,
and claim to feel benefited by it.
71 A fall from a chair, striking on the back of the latter, while endeavoring to keep a
row of books from coming down in one case, and the shock of the Ashtabula disaster
in the other. The latter patient, the same one who is referred to as describing the
electric-storm sensation in an earlier part of this article, had his foot amputated in
consequence of that disaster; but, like one of the characters in Jacob Faithful, who felt
his toes when the weather changed, though he left both legs at Aboukir, he felt the
terrific pains of the disease in the absent foot as distinctly as in the other. Dumenil and
Petit (Archives de Névrologie, ix. Nos. 25 and 26) relate cases in which a spinal
concussion was the only ascertainable cause.

A number of toxic agents have been charged with producing tabes:

thus, Bourdon maintains this of absinthe; Oppenheim attributes one
case to poisoning by illuminating gas, the exposure to its influence
being immediately followed by a gastric crisis, and this by a
regulation tabes.72 It is supposed that most of the poisons acting on
the cord in this or a similar way, such as arsenic, cyanogen,73
barium, and chloral,74 do not produce a spinal lesion directly, but
through the medium of a secondary cachexia. Of no agent is the
effect in producing tabes so well studied as ergot of rye. It had long
been known that ergot-poisoning provoked certain co-ordinating,
motor, and sensory disturbances, but it was left for Tuczek75 to show
that this vegetable parasite produces a lesion of the spinal cord
which in its character and distribution apes typical posterior sclerosis
so closely as to justify the designation of a tabes ergotica. Possibly,
pellagra, which is sometimes manifested in a similar way,76 may yet
be shown to have a like influence.
72 Archiv für Psychiatrie, xv. p. 861.

73 Bunge, Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie, xii.

 74 Transactions of the Clinical Society of London, xiii. p. 117, 1880.

75 Archiv für Psychiatrie, xiii. p. 148.

76 Bouchard, “Étude d'Anatomie pathologique sur un Cas de Péllagrie,” Gaz. méd. de

Paris, 1864, No. 39.

Among the occasional and exceptional causes of tabes, Leyden and

Jolly mention the puerperal state; Bouchut, diphtheria; and several
instances are recorded in which psychical shock was responsible for
the outbreak of the disease. In a small number of cases I found that
mental worry and anxiety coincided with the period of presumable
origin of the disease.

Age seems to have no special determining influence. It is true that

most sufferers from this disease are men in the prime of life or in the
period following it. But it is precisely at these periods that the
exposure to the recognized causes of tabes is greatest. It seems as
if there were very little liability to the development of tabes after the
fiftieth and before the twenty-fifth year; still, some cases of infantile
tabes have been recorded.77
77 Excluding the so-called family form of locomotor ataxia: 6 rather imperfectly
described cases are cited by Remak (loc. cit.), and 3 additional ones related by
himself. Of the latter, 2 had hereditary syphilis, and of 1 the father was both syphilitic
and tabic.

In the majority of cases tabes is due to a combination of a number of

the above-mentioned factors. The majority of tabic patients in the
middle and wealthy classes have had syphilis, and of these, in turn,
the majority have been guilty of sexual excesses or perverted sexual
acts, while excesses in tobacco and of alcohol are often superadded.
Among the poorer patients we find syphilis less frequently a factor,
but still present, according to various estimates, in from 20 to 60 per
cent. of the cases. Excesses in tobacco play a lesser, and excesses
in alcohol a larger, part in the supplemental etiology than in the other
class, while exposure to wet and cold and over-exertion are noted in
the majority; indeed, in a fair proportion they are the only assignable
causes.

DIAGNOSIS.—The recognition of advanced tabes dorsalis is one of the

easiest problems of neurological differentiation. The single symptom
which has given one of its names to the disease—locomotor ataxia
—is so manifest in the gait that even the sufferers from the affection
learn to recognize the disease in their fellow-sufferers by the peculiar
walk.78
78 At present I have six tabic patients under treatment, who are acquainted with each
other, and who have made each other's acquaintance in the singular way of
addressing one another on the strength of mutual suffering at Saratoga, at the Hot
Springs of Arkansas, and in New York City.

Although there are other chronic affections of the cord which

manifest ataxia, such as myelitis predominating in the posterior
columns, disseminated sclerosis in a similar distribution, and some
partially recovered cases of acute myelitis, the gait is not exactly like
that of tabes. The uncertainty may be as great, but the peculiarly
stamping and throwing motions are rarely present in these
affections. The clinical picture presented by the ataxic patient, aside
from his gait, is equally characteristic in advanced cases. Absence of
the knee-jerk and other deep reflexes, the bladder paralysis, sensory
disturbance, delayed pain-conduction, trophic disturbances, and
reflex iridoplegia are found in the same combination in no other
chronic disorder of the cord. It is supposable that an imperfect
transverse myelitis in the lumbar part of the cord might produce the
reflex, ataxic, sensory, sexual, and vesical symptoms of ataxia, but
the brachial symptoms found in typical tabes as well as gastric crises
would be absent. The pupillary symptoms would also fail to be
developed, in all probability. It is to be remembered that only
fascicular cord affections can produce a clinical picture exactly like
that of tabes in more than one important respect. In analyzing the
individual symptoms of the early stage the more important differential
features can be most practically surveyed.
The discovery of no single symptom of tabes dorsalis marks so
important an epoch in its study as Westphal's observation that the
knee-phenomenon is usually destroyed in it. Had this symptom not
been detected, so Tuczek admits, ergotin tabes would have eluded
recognition.79 It was claimed by a majority of neurologists at first that
this jerk is always abolished in tabes, but it is now recognized that
there are exceptions, as is shown by cases of Hirt,80 Westphal, and
others, not to mention some well-established cases of its return
during the progress of the disease.
79 It is not to be wondered that, like most new discoveries, that of the pathological
changes of the patellar reflex should have been made the basis of premature
generalizations. The attempt of Shaw (Archives of Medicine) to establish a relation
between disturbances of the speech-faculty and an increased knee-jerk has not met
with any encouragement or confirmation, and has been rebutted by Bettencourt,
Rodrigues (L'Éncephale, 1885, 2), and others.

80 Berliner klinische Wochenschrift, 1886, 10.

The knee-phenomenon is supposed to be a constant attribute of

physiological man. It is difficult to elicit it in children, and frequently
impossible to obtain it in young infants. It also disappears in old age,
without having any special signification, except that this occurrence
seems to be in direct relation to senile involution. In 2403 boys
between the ages of six and thirteen years, Pelizæus81 found it
absent in one only. It is customarily elicited by having the patient
while sitting in a chair throw one leg over the other; hereupon the
ligamentum patellæ is struck a short, quick blow. Under physiological
circumstances the leg is jerked outward involuntarily after an interval
of about one-fifth of a second—one that is scarcely appreciated by
the eye. But if it be found absent by this mode of examination, the
case is not to be regarded as one of absence of the jerk without
further ado. The patient is made to sit on a table, his legs dangling
down and his body leaning back, while he clenches his fists. By this
means the jerk will often be produced where it appears to be
impossible to evolve it by the ordinary means. It is also well to try
different parts of the ligament, and when comparing both sides to
strike on the corresponding spot and in the same direction. Many
subjects who appear to be irresponsive will respond very well when
a point on the outer edge near the tibial insertion is percussed. The
elbow reflex, which has the same signification for the upper extremity
that the knee-jerk has for the lower, is elicited in the same manner.
81 Archiv für Psychiatrie, xv. p. 206.

The absence of the knee-jerk is usually regarded as a suspicious

circumstance in persons of middle life; and where it can be
demonstrated that it has been present years previously and
subsequently disappeared, it is looked upon as of grave import. I,
however, published three years ago an authentic case of
disappearance of the knee-jerk in a physician now in active practice
in New York City who to this day enjoys excellent health and has
developed no other sign of spinal disease. The knee-jerk is also
abolished in a number of conditions not belonging to the domain of
strictly spinal diseases, such as diphtheria, diabetes, secondary
syphilis, and severe cases of intermittent fever. Of these, diabetes
alone can be possibly confounded with tabes dorsalis. The difficulty
of differentiating early tabes and diabetes is enhanced by the fact
that on the one hand there are often ataxic symptoms with diabetes,
while on the other both glycosuria and diabetes insipidus may
complicate tabes. Senator, Frerichs, Rosenstein, Leval-Piquechef,
Charcot, Raymond, Demange, Féré, Bernard, and T. A. McBride all
recognize the occasional presence of the ataxic gait, paræsthesia,
belt sensation, and even fulgurating pains, besides the abolition of
the jerk, in diabetes mellitus.82 In pure cases of diabetes, however, I
am not aware that spinal myosis or the reflex paralytic pupil has
been found.
82 I have now under observation a case of myelitis with predominating sclerosis of the
posterior columns of five years' standing in a merchant who has been under
antidiabetic treatment for eleven years.

Abolition of the knee-jerk is found in all organic diseases of the

spinal cord which destroy any part of the neural arch at the upper
lumbar level, where the translation of the reflex occurs, whether it be
in the posterior root-zones or in the gray matter of the origin of the
crural nerves. Thus, acute or chronic myelitis, disseminated sclerotic
foci of this level, may cause obliteration of the reflex at any time of
the disease; so may acute or chronic anterior poliomyelitis,
neoplasms, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis of the anterior cornua
type if the destruction of the anterior cornua be complete enough. It
is also found abolished with all diseases of the peripheral nerves—
traumatic and neuritic—which produce absolute motor paralysis of
such nerves.

Among the sources of error possibly incurred in examining for this

important symptom the presence of rheumatism is one. There is
sometimes a tetanic rigidity of the joints which prevents the reflex
from becoming manifest. It is also sometimes found to be absent
immediately after severe epileptic attacks, according to Moeli.83
83 In three examinations after severe attacks of epilepsy I found it normal.

The condition of the pupil is perhaps a more constant sign of early

tabes than the loss of the knee-jerk; at least it has been found well
marked in cases where the jerk had not yet disappeared. It may be
regarded as a rule in neuro-pathology that wherever reflex
iridoplegia is at any time accompanied by other oculo-motor
disturbance, it is either of spinal origin or in exceptional cases due to
disease of the pons varolii. The peculiar character of the pupillary
disturbance of tabes furnishes us with a criterion for distinguishing it
from one affection which in common with it exhibits loss of the knee-
jerk—diphtheria. In diphtheria there is also a reflex disturbance of the
pupil, but it is the reverse of that of early tabes. In the latter reaction
to light is lost, but the accommodative contraction power is retained;
in diphtheria accommodative contraction power is lost, but reaction
to light is retained.

The bladder disturbance has already been described. It is found as a

marked symptom so prominently in no other systemic affection of the
cord, and in few of the non-systemic forms, of sclerosis. In none of
these is it associated with absence of the patellar jerk, reflex
iridoplegia, and fulminating pains, as in tabes, except there be also
some motor paresis. It is the combination of any two of the important
initial symptoms of tabes without paralysis or atrophy that is
regarded as indicative of the disease by most authorities. Thus the
swaying in closing the eyes, if associated with the Argyll-Robertson
pupil, is considered as sufficient to justify the diagnosis of incipient
tabes, even if the knee-jerk be present and fulminating pains and
bladder trouble absent. Undoubtedly, the tabic symptoms must begin
somewhere. But at what point it is justifiable to give a man the
alarming information that he is tabic is a question. I have a number
of neurasthenic subjects now under treatment who have had reflex
iridoplegia for years; in one the knee-jerk is slowly becoming
extinguished; in two it has been becoming more marked after
becoming less; in all the three mentioned there is slight swaying in
closing the eyes and some difficulty in expelling the last drops of
urine while micturating. I do not believe that such a condition justifies
a positive opinion, although the surmise that they are on the road to
developing tabes may turn out correct for all these and for some of
those who have merely reflex iridoplegia.

Incipient tabes cannot be readily confounded with any other chronic

disease of the spinal cord. Some of the cases produced by sudden
refrigeration resemble a beginning myelitis. But the absence of true
paralysis seems to distinguish it from the latter. In all the cases of so-
called acute locomotor ataxia of myelitic origin that I can find a
record of, paralytic symptoms were marked, if not throughout the
disease, at least in the initial period.

Other forms of sclerosis occasionally limited to the posterior columns

imitate the symptoms of tabes. It is unusual, however, for such
sclerosis to be distributed through so great an extent of the posterior
columns as to produce symptoms consistent with tabes in both the
upper and lower extremities. And even where this condition is
complied with, the typical progress so characteristic of tabes is not
adhered to. As previously stated, the progress is weakened by
variations in certain symptoms. Such variations are found in other
forms of sclerosis, but they are not as great, trophic disturbances not
so common, and visceral crises not so violent, as a rule.