How Learning Works 2nd Edition

Marsha C. Lovett
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 Praise for How Learning Works, 2e

“Since the publication of the original How Learning Works, I have returned again
and again to its thorough and readable summaries of the most important
research on student learning. This second edition has become an even more
essential resource for faculty, as the authors have infused the book’s recommen-
dations with greater awareness of the social, emotional, and cultural factors that
impact student identity and development.”
—­James Lang, author of Small Teaching

“How Learning Works is a poignant and provocative book that engages meaning-
fully and intentionally with the intellectual and affective dimensions of teaching
and learning that shape our complex and diverse higher education classrooms.
Presenting a well-­researched, relevant, and socially conscious range of cognitive
and social principles and practices, the authors explore what it means to engage
intentionally with students as whole beings, in a socially just, inclusive, and
pedagogically responsible way.”
—­Kasturi Behari-­Leak, dean of the Centre for
Higher Education Development, University of Cape Town

“The Second Edition of How We Learn is superb. I particularly admire its breadth
of coverage, which includes socioemotional and cognitive components of learn-
ing. I highly recommend it for anyone at any level in education.”
—­Henry L. Roediger, III, James S. McDonnell Professor of Psychology;
Washington University in St. Louis; coauthor of Make It Stick:
The Science of Successful Learning

“How Learning Works is the essential book on teaching and learning in higher
education. The new edition is even better than the original. Drawing deeply on
recent research to outline eight principles of how learning works, the authors
provide practical guidance to put those principles into action. This book is
smart, useful, and inspiring!”
—­Peter Felten, executive director, Center for Engaged Learning,
Elon University
“This book provides tremendous benefits to anyone who wants to engage stu-
dents and facilitate learning in a higher education context. The authors have
pruned the extensive research about how learning works into eight principles
and their associated implications. Each chapter contains relatable challenges and
offers evidence-­based approaches for addressing them.”
—­Bonni Stachowiak, host + producer,
“Teaching in Higher Ed” Podcast

“How Learning Works is the perfect title for this excellent book. Drawing upon
new research in psychology, education, and cognitive science, the authors have
demystified a complex topic into clear explanations of eight powerful learning
principles. Full of great ideas and practical suggestions, all based on solid
research evidence, this book is essential reading for instructors at all levels who
wish to improve their students’ learning.”
—­Barbara Gross Davis, assistant vice chancellor for
educational development, University of California, Berkeley,
and author, Tools for Teaching

“As you read about each of the eight basic learning principles in this book, you
will find advice that is grounded in learning theory, based on research evidence,
relevant to college teaching, and easy to understand. The authors have extensive
knowledge and experience in applying the science of learning to college teaching,
and they graciously share it with you in this organized and readable book.”
—­Richard E. Mayer, professor of psychology,
University of California, Santa Barbara; coauthor,
e-­Learning and the Science of Instruction; author, Multimedia Learning
How
Learning
Works
How
Learning
Works
8 Research-­Based Principles
for Smart Teaching
Second Edition

Marsha C. Lovett,
Michael W. Bridges,
Michele DiPietro,
Susan A. Ambrose,
Marie K. Norman
Copyright © 2023 by John Wiley & Sons Inc. All rights reserved.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Lovett, Marsha C., author. | Bridges, Michael W., author. | DiPietro, Michele, author.
| Ambrose A., Susan, 1958- author.| Norman, Marie K., author.
Title: How learning works : 8 research-based principles for smart
teaching / Marsha C. Lovett, Michael W. Bridges, Michele DiPietro, Susan A. Ambrose, Marie
K. Norman,
Description: Second edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : Jossey-Bass, [2023] |
Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022046789 (print) | LCCN 2022046790 (ebook) | ISBN
9781119861690 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119860150 (adobe pdf) | ISBN
9781119860143 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Effective teaching—Case studies. | Educational
innovations—Case studies. | School improvement programs—Case studies.
| Learning, Psychology of—Case studies. | Learning. | Teaching.
Classification: LCC LB1025.3 .B753 2023 (print) | LCC LB1025.3 (ebook) |
DDC 371.102—dc23/eng/20221005
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022046789
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022046790
Cover Design and Image: Judy Brooks
To faculty and instructors around the world,
whose dedication to student learning
continues to inspire us.
CONTENTS

List of Figures, Tables, and Exhibits xi

Foreword to the First Edition: Applying the Science of Learning to
College Teaching
Richard E. Mayer xiii
Acknowledgments xvii
About the Authors xix
Preface to the Second Edition xxiii

Introduction Bridging Learning Research and Teaching Practice 1

1 Why Do Students’ Identities and Stages of Development Matter

for Learning? 9
2 How Does Students’ Prior Knowledge Affect Their
Learning? 39
3 How Does the Way Students Organize Knowledge Affect Their
Learning? 64
4 What Factors Motivate Students to Learn? 84
5 How Do Students Develop Mastery? 106
6 What Kinds of Practice and Feedback Enhance Learning? 130
7 Why Does Course Climate Matter for Student Learning? 162
8 How Do Students Become Self-­Directed Learners? 187

Conclusion Applying the Eight Principles to Ourselves 212

ix
 Contents

Appendices
Appendix A What Are Instructor Self-­Assessments/Reflections and
How Can We Use Them? 219
Appendix B What Are Ground Rules and How Can We Use Them? 223
Appendix C What Are Student Self-­Assessments and
How Can We Use Them? 226
Appendix D What Are Concept Maps and How Can We Use Them? 229
Appendix E What Are Rubrics and How Can We Use Them? 232
Appendix F What Are Learner Checklists and How Can We Use
Them?242
Appendix G What Are Learning Objectives and How Can We Use
Them?244
Appendix H What Are Active Learning Strategies and How Can
We Use Them? 247
Appendix I What Are Reader Responses/Peer Reviews and How Can
We Use Them? 250
Appendix J What Are Exam Wrappers and How Can We Use Them? 252

References255
Name Index 287
Subject Index 299

x
LIST OF FIGURES,
TA B L E S , A N D
EXHIBITS

Figures
Figure 1.1. Students Bring Their Backgrounds and Lived
Experiences into the Learning Context 13
Figure 2.1. Qualities of Prior Knowledge That Help or Hinder
Learning42
Figure 3.1. Differences in How Experts and Novices Organize
Knowledge68
Figure 3.2. Examples of Knowledge Organizations 71
Figure 4.1. Impact of Value and Expectancy on
Learning and Performance 88
Figure 4.2. Interactive Effects of Environment, Efficacy,
and Value on Motivation 97
Figure 5.1. Elements of Mastery 110
Figure 5.2. Stages in the Development of Mastery 110
Figure 6.1. Cycle of Practice and Feedback 134
Figure 6.2. Unequal Effects of Practice on Performance 144
Figure 7.1. Factors That Influence Course Climate and
Thus Learning and Performance 166
Figure 8.1. Cycle of Self-­Directed Learning 191
Figure D.1. Sample Concept Map 231

xi
 List of Figures, Tables, and Exhibits

Tables
Table G.1. Sample Verbs for Bloom’s Taxonomy 245
Table H.1. Sample Active Learning Strategies 248

Exhibits
Exhibit B.1. Sample Ground Rules 224
Exhibit B.2. A Method for Helping Students Create Their Own
Ground Rules 225
Exhibit C.1. Sample Self-­Assessments 227
Exhibit E.1. Rubric for Class Participation 233
Exhibit E.2. Rubric for Oral Exams 234
Exhibit E.3. Rubric for Papers 236
Exhibit E.4. Senior Design Project Rubric 238
Exhibit E.5. Rubric for Online Discussion Post 241
Exhibit F.1. Sample Paper Checklist 243
Exhibit G.1. Sample Learning Objectives 246
Exhibit I.1. Sample Reader Response/Peer Review Instrument 251
Exhibit J.1. Sample Exam Wrapper 253

xii
FOREWORD TO THE
FIRST EDITION:
A P P LY I N G T H E
SCIENCE OF
LEARNING TO
COLLEGE TEACHING

I n 1899, the famous American psychologist William James published a little

book called Talks to Teachers, in which he sought to explain how to apply psy-
chology to education—­that is, he sought to use what he called “the science of the
mind’s workings” to generate practical advice for classroom teachers. At the time,
the book was not much of a success, largely for two reasons: (1) there was a lack
of research evidence on how learning works (i.e., the science of learning) and
(2) there was a lack of research-­based principles concerning how to help people
learn (i.e., the science of instruction).
Much has happened in the learning sciences in the past 100 years, particu-
larly in the last few decades. We finally have the makings of a research-­based
theory of how people learn that is educationally relevant (i.e., the science of
­learning) and a set of evidence-­based principles for how to help people learn that
is grounded in cognitive theory (i.e., the science of instruction). Indeed, these are
exciting times if you are interested in fulfilling William James’s mission of
­applying the science of learning to education.
The book you are holding—­ How Learning Works: Seven Research-­ Based
Principles for Smart Teaching—­is the latest advancement in the continuing task of
applying the science of learning to education—­particularly, college teaching. The
authors are experts in helping college teachers understand how research in the
science of learning can improve their teaching. If you are interested in what
research in the science of learning and instruction has to say for you as a college
teacher, then this book is for you.
The book is organized on seven learning principles—­each a gem that is based
on research evidence from the science of learning and the science of instruction.

xiii
 Foreword to the First Edition

The principles concern the role of the student’s prior knowledge, motivation, and
developmental level, as well as opportunities for the student to practice, receive
feedback, and learn to become a self-­directed learner. Each chapter focuses on one
of the principles, such as “Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.”
Each chapter begins with a concrete scenario in college teaching that exemplifies
the principle being highlighted in the chapter, provides a clear statement and
rationale for the principle, summarizes the underlying research and its implica-
tions, and offers specific advice on how to apply the principle.
Consider the following scenario: You are teaching a course in your field.
Based on years of study and work, you are an expert in your field—­but you are
certainly not an expert in how to teach others about your field. In fact, you have
almost no training in how to teach. Yet a fundamental part of your job involves
college teaching. You have devised a teaching style that works for you, but you
wonder whether there is any way to base what you are doing on scientific princi-
ples of learning and teaching. This description fits many college teachers.
The book you are holding is based on the idea that you wish to consider
taking an evidence-­based approach to college teaching—­that is, you wish to
inform your instructional decisions with research evidence and research-­based
theory. Why should you take an evidence-­based approach? You could base your
instructional choices on fads, ideology, opinions, expert advice, or habit—­but
these approaches may not be ideal if your goal is to be an effective teacher.
Admittedly, advice from experts and your own personal experience can be useful
aids to you in planning instruction, but they may be incomplete. In taking an
evidence-­based approach, you seek to add to your knowledge base by discovering
what works and how it works. In short, it is helpful to understand what the sci-
ence of learning has to offer you in your role as a college teacher.
Where should you look for help in improving your college teaching?
Consider three common choices:

Sources that are too hard: You could try to digest research articles in the field of
learning and instruction, but you might find them somewhat tedious and
perhaps daunting. This approach is too hard because it focuses on scientific
evidence without much focus on how to apply the evidence to teaching.
Sources that are too soft: You could read self-­help guides that offer practical advice
that is not necessarily based on research evidence or research-­based theory.
This approach is too soft because it focuses on practical advice without sup-
porting evidence or theory to back up the advice.

xiv
 Foreword to the First Edition

Sources that are just right: You could read this book, which synthesizes empirical
research evidence and research-­based learning theory into practical advice for
how to improve your college teaching. In short, the strength of this book is
that it combines research evidence and practical advice to produce an
evidence-­based approach to improving your college teaching. If you are inter-
ested in what the science of learning has to contribute to your college teach-
ing, then this book is for you.

What should you look for in this book? In reading this book, I suggest that
you look to make sure that it meets four basic criteria for applying the science of
learning to your college teaching:

Theory-­grounded: the advice is grounded in a research-­based theory of how people

learn.
Evidence-­based: the advice is supported by empirical research evidence showing
how to help people learn.
Relevant: the advice has clear and practical implications for how to improve your
teaching.
Clear: the advice is understandable, concrete, and concise.

As you read about each of the seven basic learning principles in this book,
you will find advice that is grounded in learning theory, based on research evi-
dence, relevant to college teaching, and easy to understand. The authors have
extensive knowledge and experience in applying the science of learning to college
teaching, and they graciously share it with you in this organized and readable
book.
I congratulate you for your interest in improving your teaching and com-
mend you for taking the important step of reading this book. If you want to
improve your teaching, it is useful to understand what research says about how
learning works and about how to foster learning. In light of these goals, I wel-
come you to the feast of evidence-­based advice you will find in this volume.

Richard E. Mayer
University of California, Santa Barbara

xv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

C reating the second edition of How Learning Works involved significant time
and effort—­not only on our part as coauthors but also from friends and
colleagues who made extremely important contributions along the way. First, we
would like to thank our educational development colleagues, Victoria Genetin
(from the University of Michigan) as well as Phoebe Cook and Janet Lawler (from
Carnegie Mellon University), for providing thoughtful and perceptive comments
on our revised chapter drafts. The text was markedly improved as a result of their
thorough reviews. We also thank Michelle Pierson for her assistance with
copyediting the new manuscript and for the painstaking work of checking and
properly formatting references.
Readers familiar with the original edition of How Learning Works are sure to
have benefited from the conceptually helpful and visually attractive figures
throughout the book (not to mention the striking cover). All of these visuals were
created by our talented colleague Judy Brooks, who was willing to collaborate
with us again on the second edition—­creating new figures (for the new Chapter 1
and overhauled Chapter 7), enhancing several original figures to be more crisp
and clear, and updating the full set to be stylistically coordinated. As ever, we are
deeply grateful for Judy’s expertise in design, her thoughtful approach to the
learning principles at hand, and her artful creativity in depicting them so effec-
tively. We also love the new cover—­how it connects with but stands apart from
the first edition’s. And most of all, we appreciate the great conversations about
the principles that were sparked by Judy’s incisive questions and inspiring design
ideas!
To the many friends and colleagues who contributed to the first edition,
we reiterate our sincere thanks and acknowledge that the indelible mark of their

xvii
 Acknowledgments

comments, suggestions, and ideas are carried forward in the current edition.
These thanks go to Anne Fay for her early contributions to the first edition,
which shaped the principles and the research reported, to Aimee Kane for her
thoughtful and reflective feedback later in that process, and to Lisa Ritter for
careful attention and exacting standards as she served in the role of internal edi-
tor by copyediting the original manuscript. We are also thankful for an outstand-
ing set of colleagues, at Carnegie Mellon and other universities in the United
States and abroad, who were willing to take time from their busy schedules to
read and provide insightful feedback on different chapters from the first edition.
These colleagues include Vincent Aleven, Ryan Baker, Rebecca Freeland, Scott
Kauffman, Edmund Ko, Ken Koedinger, Norma Ming, Matt Ouellett, Ido Roll,
and Christian Schunn.
Finally, we would never have embarked on this entire endeavor in the first
place if it were not for the thousands of faculty members and graduate students
with whom we have worked over the years. We are humbled by your ongoing
dedication to your students and by your willingness to share your stories and
experiences, open up your courses to us, and reflect thoughtfully on and refine
your teaching practice. We continue to learn and benefit from our interactions
with you, and we hope this book provides something useful in return.

xviii
ABOUT
THE AUTHORS

M arsha C. Lovett is vice provost for teaching and learning innovation at

Carnegie Mellon University (CMU). In addition, she is director of CMU’s
Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence & Educational Innovation and a teaching
professor in the Department of Psychology. Marsha leads a team of teaching
consultants, learning engineers, designers, data scientists, and technologists to
help instructors create meaningful and demonstrably effective educational
experiences—­for in-­person, hybrid, and online learning. She received her doctor-
ate in cognitive psychology from CMU and spent a year as a visiting scholar in
the Graduate School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley.
Marsha has taught a variety of courses—­from introductory cognitive psychology
to graduate research methods—­and one of her favorite teaching memories is a
seminar on human expertise that included students juggling, playing poker, and
sharing cooking techniques. Marsha has studied learning in the laboratory and
the classroom, leading to more than 50 articles on learning and instruction. She
has presented workshops, keynotes, and invited talks across the United States
and abroad. Marsha has also created several innovative, educational technologies
to promote student learning and metacognition, and she has developed and/or
evaluated online courses in the sciences, social sciences, and humanities. Marsha
is happiest when she is working with educators to collect qualitative and quan-
titative data in their own courses and then leverage the results to enhance stu-
dents’ learning outcomes and sense of belonging.
Michael W. Bridges is executive director of the University Center for
Teaching and Learning (UCTL) at the University of Pittsburgh. In this role, he
leads the university’s efforts to create exceptional and consequential learning
experiences. Toward this goal he directs and works with a large team of

xix
 About the Authors

instructional designers, teaching consultants, educational technologists, learn-

ing space designers, and assessment experts to support excellent teaching. Mike
received his doctorate in social psychology from Carnegie Mellon University in
1997. His early career focused on understanding the role of psychosocial varia-
bles in recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery and breast cancer. He for-
merly served as the vice president for educational strategy and excellence at
iCarnegie Global Learning, where he used the principles in this book to help
instructors in Russia, Kazakhstan, India, Mexico, Colombia, and Qatar to design,
develop, and deliver great courses. Mike has more than 30 years of teaching expe-
rience and still feels a mixture of anxiety and excitement on the first day of every
class. His most recent interests focus on understanding the role of narratives in
teaching and the unending quest for a recipe for perfect falafel.
Michele DiPietro is the executive director for faculty development, recog-
nition, and the Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CETL) and a
professor in the School of Data Science and Analytics at Kennesaw State
University. As executive director of CETL, Michele oversees university-­wide fac-
ulty and graduate student development efforts, both in pedagogy and career and
leadership development. They received their doctorate in statistics from Carnegie
Mellon University in 2001. Their scholarly interests include the application of
learning sciences to enhance college teaching, holistic faculty development,
inclusion and justice in the classroom, teaching in times of tragedies, and more.
Michele practices “shine theory,” helping educators and administrators shine
bright and find fulfillment in their work so that they might help their students
shine. Michele has served as president of the POD Network in Higher Education,
the premiere educational development organization in North America, and as a
board member of the International Consortium for Educational Development.
Their first year seminar “The Statistics of Sexual Orientation” has been featured
in a variety of media, including The Chronicle of Higher Education. Michele is the
recipient of the Bob Pierleoni Spirit of POD award, the highest award bestowed
by the POD Network for professional achievement and legacy to the field.
Marie K. Norman is associate professor of medicine and clinical and trans-
lational science at the University of Pittsburgh. She is director of the Innovative
Design for Education and Assessment (IDEA) Lab, where she leads hybrid and
online educational initiatives for the Institute for Clinical Research Education
(ICRE). She is also co-­director of the Team Science Core of the Clinical and
Translational Science Institute. Marie received her doctorate in cultural anthro-
pology from the University of Pittsburgh and conducted her fieldwork in Nepal,

xx
 About the Authors

funded by a Fulbright award. Her first love is teaching, and she is proud to have
taught in higher education for more than 25 years, first in undergraduate and
now in graduate education, teaching a wide range of courses, seminars, and
workshops on topics from anthropology to leadership to team science to adult
learning theory. She also brings experience from the business world, having
served as director of intercultural education at iCarnegie Global Learning and
senior director for educational excellence at Acatar, an educational technology
start-­up. Marie has been fortunate to work with educators in Colombia,
Kazakhstan, Tatarstan, and Qatar, sharing the principles from this book and
learning from their expertise. She has been closely involved in a number of diver-
sity, equity, and inclusion initiatives, serving on the ICRE’s Diversity Advisory
Committee and helping to develop and administer the LEADS, PROMISED,
Building Up, and TRANSFORM programs for scientists from underrepresented
backgrounds. She is happiest working in collaboration with smart, curious,
socially engaged people on projects at the intersections of teaching, learning,
culture, technology, and design.

xxi
P R E FAC E TO T H E
SECOND EDITION

W hen we wrote the first edition of this book, we all lived in the same
­mid-­sized city in the Mid-­Atlantic and worked at the same institution, a
­mid-­sized university with a reputation for excellence in technical and creative
fields. A lot of mids, in other words. Since then, a great deal has changed, not
only in the world and in higher education but also in our own lives.
Michele became the director of a teaching center at a southern state uni-
versity, considerably less resourced than what they had been used to, making
strides in spite of those conditions but grappling with issues of salary compres-
sion and sometimes even salary inversion. The demographic makeup of the stu-
dent body was much more diverse, with social attitudes spanning the full political
spectrum. Class sizes were large and teaching assistants scarce, and faculty mem-
bers struggled to put recommended teaching strategies into practice, simply
because the administrative and grading burdens were too great. Michele encoun-
tered undocumented students and students living in poverty and began to better
appreciate the precarity of their lives and its effect on their studies: students who
had to skip class to avoid a police roadblock or make a court appearance, for
instance. While the students were bright and dedicated, a few included veterans
grappling with PTSD and students whose previous education was so insufficient
they could not manage college classes. Through rapidly changing institutional
leadership, Michele’s campus made the national news multiple times over con-
troversies about free speech and accusations of racism. A state law allowing guns
in unrestricted areas of campus raised safety concerns for educators who taught
controversial subjects. Long interested in yoga, Michele began to integrate their
yoga practice into their work to foster a more compassionate, holistic, and radi-
cal approach to supporting faculty.
Marsha stayed at the university where we all first met, but she moved into
new administrative roles and collaborations. Many of these collaborations
focused on the intersections of learning and technology, specifically the uses of

xxiii
 Preface to the Second Edition

learning analytics. She developed several novel technologies to enhance students’

learning and metacognition. At the same time, her personal experiences with fac-
ulty and students from different backgrounds shifted her outlook on teaching
and learning. She encountered students who, despite attending an elite institu-
tion, regularly confronted food insecurity. She witnessed colleagues with disabil-
ities, trans colleagues, and colleagues from minoritized groups navigating the
entrenched hierarchies and rigid norms of institutions that were not designed
for them, and in fact were sometimes openly rejecting. When she read the results
of a qualitative study of students’ experiences related to diversity and inclusion
on her campus, she found the stories painful to read.
Meanwhile, Mike and Marie moved out of academia (temporarily) and
into the business world, working together at a global education start-­up. Their
positions took them overseas to countries from Kazakhstan to India to Colombia
and gave them a deep appreciation for the ways in which education and culture—­
not to mention politics and economics—­are intertwined. Their work also intro-
duced them to the fast-­paced, competitive culture of business, which is so
strikingly different from academia. In the process, they learned communication
and marketing skills that are relevant to teaching and learning yet rarely part of
academic training. Eventually, both found their way back to academia.
Marie joined the faculty in a school of medicine, coming to better appreci-
ate the needs of adult learners in professional schools as well as the different
forms of teaching that characterize clinical preceptorship, mentorship, and even
team science. Her involvement in collaborations with Minority Serving
Institutions and Hispanic and Native American Centers of Excellence disrupted
her assumptions about how different institutions and institutional cultures
operate and widened her understanding of the issues facing faculty members and
students from different backgrounds. At the same time, she became deeply
involved in online program development and the factors that make for engaging,
rigorous, and creative online learning.
Mike returned to academia as an administrator, leading online education
and faculty development initiatives at several universities, each with a distinctive
institutional flavor. Guiding institutional strategy and working with a large,
diverse staff widened his understanding of the roles and responsibilities of insti-
tutions of higher ed. At the same time, watching his own child progress through
the school system and learn new skills, both academic and non-­academic, has
made him appreciate learning—­and the learning principles featured in this
book—­in new ways.

xxiv
 Preface to the Second Edition

At the same time, the world changed radically around us and higher edu-
cation itself shifted in seismic ways. Demographic changes—­a shrinking pool of
college-­aged students and population shifts to the southern and western parts of
the country—­left many institutions of higher education scrambling for students.
To attract applicants, many doubled down in an arms race of campus amenities,
sometimes to the detriment of academics. Some colleges and universities, unable
to compete, folded. Greater ideological division in the country prompted more
scrutiny of academic institutions through state boards of regents and other over-
sight agents. Declining state educational budgets led public institutions to
tighten their belts, replacing tenure-­track faculty with less-expensive adjuncts,
increasing class sizes, and cutting programs. Competition from industry and
alternate forms of training and credentialing forced academia to develop new
business models and offerings, including “unbundled” degree programs, massive
open online courses (MOOCs), micro-­credentials, bootcamps, continuing and
professional education units, and programs to engage alumni under the banner
of “lifelong learning.” New technologies entered (and left) the scene, changing
the way instruction was delivered as well as the pressures on faculty. The rise of
online programs brought new ways to reach students but with them a host of
new challenges, both pedagogical and administrative.
And, of course, COVID-­19 rocked higher education. As fears of the virus
intensified, institutions closed their physical facilities and sent students home.
Courses moved suddenly to remote delivery, only to move back to the physical
classroom, then back online based on the shifting public health situation.
Administrators, faculty members, and students learned to pivot quickly to keep
up, developing more agility than they knew they had. But as students joined
classes from home, universities struggled to justify their high cost and maintain
relevance. A slew of questions arose: Would higher education remain online?
What would this mean in terms of inclusion and access? Were physical campuses
and in-­person learning even necessary? What could universities offer that justi-
fied the increasingly high cost of a degree?
The murder of George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and so many others at the
hands of police brought to the surface a long overdue racial reckoning. The after-
math has left many institutions interrogating the role they should play in a mod-
ern democracy, and committing to dismantling structural bias and injustice
more intentionally (and, one would hope, sincerely). Diversity, equity, and inclu-
sion initiatives became more extensive and sophisticated. The #MeToo move-
ment sparked deeper conversations about gender and power, and a nationwide

xxv
 Preface to the Second Edition

explosion of interest in more fluid expressions of gender and sexual identity

changed the conversation on college campuses—­with a subsequent backlash. At
the same time, the country saw the proliferation of misinformation, disinforma-
tion, and conspiracy theories. We saw verifiable facts discounted as “fake news,”
accuracy devalued in favor of personal opinion, and fabrications legitimized
under the guise of free speech. As some legislatures capitalized on the confusion
and fear of the moment to dictate what could and could not be taught in public
universities, educators struggled with the assault on academic freedom and
mourned what often felt like a loss of meaning in their work. Students and their
families, for their part, have been buffeted by the turmoil, left with spiraling stu-
dent debt from the rising cost of higher education, and a growing sense of cyni-
cism about the cost of education relative to its value.
Throughout these social shifts—­and sometimes in direct response to
them—­the research on learning evolved, providing empirical evidence where
there were once just anecdotes and hunches, debunking long-­standing assump-
tions about teaching and learning, and expanding into new areas of inquiry. The
terminology of learning research—­cognitive load, social presence, stereotype
threat, growth mindset—­moved into the mainstream, although many lessons
from the learning sciences have yet to make their way into classroom practice.
The sum of these changes—­in our own lives, the larger landscape, and the
learning sciences—­prompted our decision to rethink How Learning Works. To be
clear, we are immensely proud of the first edition; however, we are not blind to its
limitations. While we had aimed to be research-­based, the research we referenced
was, understandably, only in English. The studies we included were conducted
largely with traditional-­aged college students and not the broad population of
students attending colleges and universities today. Our cases and strategies were
predicated on our own experience teaching at an elite university. Indeed, the very
definition of learning we used was steeped in Western thought and embedded in
the cultural currents of the early 2000s. We were not fully cognizant then of how
fully our perspectives were shaped and constrained by our cultural, linguistic,
and institutional context. We are more so now.
So it is time for an update.
We have made significant changes in the second edition. Most notably, we
have expanded from seven to eight principles, which has enabled us to delve more
deeply into the social and emotional components of learning. A brand-new chap-
ter (Chapter 1) explores individual differences among learners, and the intersec-
tions of identities and backgrounds that shape how students enter, respond to,

xxvi
 Preface to the Second Edition

and shape the learning environment. A reworked chapter (Chapter 7) investigates

more fully the ways that instructors can shape the climate of their courses to
make students feel included or marginalized—­and the implications for learning
and performance. Across all eight principles, we updated the research previously
discussed while integrating new areas of research. Wherever possible, we applied
a diversity, equity, and inclusion lens, exploring issues of power, identity, and
belonging as they relate to teaching and learning. We have also referenced a
broader range of institution types and student populations than in the previous
edition and incorporated case studies and strategies relevant to emerging educa-
tional technologies and online and hybrid learning modalities.
As we have worked together, comparing notes from our experiences since
writing the first edition, we have rediscovered how enduring the principles elabo-
rated here are. They have proven to be as relevant in skill-­oriented professional
schools as they are in highly theoretical undergraduate courses, as applicable in
large classes as in small, as important online as in person. Moreover, when we
have presented the principles in our travels around the world, they have always
resonated with our audiences. So much so, in fact, that How Learning Works has
been translated into Arabic, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Italian, and Spanish. We
cherish the fact that our work is being used to spark conversations about teach-
ing and learning around the world.
In closing . . . . .
One of the great joys of writing the second edition of this book was the
opportunity for the four of us to reconnect with one another and reignite a col-
laboration we value deeply. Our original coauthor, Susan A. Ambrose has since
retired and did not rejoin the effort. But the fun we had working together this
time reminded us of the fun we had the first time.
We hope you enjoy the second edition of How Learning Works as much as we
enjoyed writing it.

Marsha, Michele, Mike, and Marie

xxvii
Introduction:
Bridging Learning
Research and
Teaching Practice

Learning results from what the student does and thinks and only
from what the student does and thinks. The teacher can advance
learning only by influencing what the student does to learn.
HERBERT A. SIMON,1 one of the founders of the field of cognitive
science, Nobel Laureate, and university professor (deceased) at Carnegie
Mellon University

A ny conversation about effective teaching must begin with a consideration

of how students learn. Yet instructors who want to investigate the mecha-
nisms and conditions that promote student learning may find themselves caught
between two kinds of resources: research articles with technical discussions of
experimental designs and learning data or books and websites with concrete
strategies for course design and classroom pedagogy. Texts of the first type focus
on learning but are often inaccessible and lack clear application to the classroom,
while texts of the second type are written in accessible language but often leave
instructors without a clear sense of why (or even whether) particular strategies
work. Neither of these genres offers what many instructors really need—­a model
of student learning that enables them to make sound teaching decisions. In
other words, instructors need a bridge between research and practice, between
teaching and learning.

1
 How Learning Works

We wrote this book to provide such a bridge. The book grew out of over 29
years of experience consulting with faculty colleagues about teaching and learn-
ing. In these consultations, we encountered a number of recurring problems that
spanned disciplines, course types, and student skill levels. Many of these prob-
lems raised fundamental questions about student learning. For example: Why
can’t students apply what they have learned? Why do they cling so tightly to mis-
conceptions? Why are they not more engaged by material I find so interesting?
Why do they claim to know so much more than they actually know? Why do they
continue to employ the same ineffective study strategies?
As we worked with faculty to explore the sources of these problems, we
turned to the research on learning, and from this research we distilled seven prin-
ciples, each of which crystallizes a key aspect of student learning. We expanded
this to eight principles in the second edition, with the goal of exploring the
social, emotional, and cultural dimensions of learning more deeply and grap-
pling with inequality and marginalization more explicitly. These principles have
become the foundation for our work. Not only have we found them indispensa-
ble in our own teaching and in our consultations with faculty but also, as we have
talked and worked with thousands of faculty members from around the world,
we have also found that the principles—­and the research that informs them—­
resonate across disciplines, institution types, student populations, learning
modalities, and cultures. In our experience, these principles provide instructors
with an understanding of student learning that can help them (1) understand
why certain teaching approaches are or are not supporting students’ learning, (2)
generate or refine teaching approaches and strategies that more effectively foster
student learning in specific contexts, and (3) transfer and apply these principles
to new courses, learners, and contexts.
In this book, we offer these principles of learning, along with a discussion
of the research that supports them, their implications for teaching, and a set of
instructional strategies targeting each principle. Before briefly summarizing the
full set of principles and discussing the characteristics they share and some ways
that this book can be used, we begin by discussing what we mean by learning.

WHAT IS LEARNING?

Any set of learning principles is predicated on a definition of learning. In this

book, we define learning as a process that leads to change, which occurs as a

2
 Introduction: Bridging Learning Research and Teaching Practice

result of experience and increases the potential for improved performance and
future learning (adapted from Mayer, 2002). There are three critical components
to this definition:

1. Learning is a process, not a product. However, because this process takes place
in the mind, we can only infer that it has occurred from students’ products
or performances.
2. Learning involves change in knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, or attitudes. This
change unfolds over time; it is not fleeting but rather has a lasting impact on
how students think and act.
3. Learning is not something done to students, but rather something students
themselves do. It is the direct result of how students interpret and respond
to their experiences—­conscious and unconscious, past and present.

OUR PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Our eight principles of learning come from a perspective that is developmental

and holistic. In other words, we begin with the recognition that (1) learning is a
developmental process that intersects with other developmental processes in a
student’s life and (2) students enter our classrooms not only with skills, knowl-
edge, and abilities but also with social and emotional experiences that influence
what they value, how they perceive themselves and others, and how they will
engage in the learning process. Consistent with this holistic perspective, readers
should understand that, although we address each principle individually to
highlight particular issues pertaining to student learning, they are all at work
simultaneously in real learning situations and are functionally inseparable.
In the following paragraphs, we briefly summarize each of the principles
in the order in which they are discussed in the book.

Students differ from each other on multiple dimensions—­for example, in

their identities, stages of development, and personal histories—­and these
differences influence how they experience the world and, in turn, their
learning and performance.

3
 How Learning Works

The starting point for all good teaching is this question: Who are my stu-
dents? Because learning requires integrating new knowledge and skills with one’s
current worldview, the maturity, identities, and experiences students bring with
them into our classroom affect their learning profoundly. Furthermore, these
crucial components of learning are not static but rather evolve over one’s life
span. Consequently, teaching effectively requires close attention to individual
differences among students as well as their social and intellectual development.

Students’ prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.

Students come into our courses with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes
gained in other courses and through daily life. As students bring this knowledge
to bear in our classrooms, it influences how they filter and interpret what they
are learning. If students’ prior knowledge is robust and accurate and activated at
the appropriate time, it provides a strong foundation for building new knowl-
edge. However, when knowledge is inert, insufficient for the task, activated inap-
propriately, or inaccurate, it can interfere with or impede new learning.

How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what
they know.

Students naturally make connections between pieces of knowledge. When

those connections form knowledge structures that are accurately and meaning-
fully organized, students are better able to retrieve and apply their knowledge
effectively and efficiently. By contrast, when knowledge is connected in inaccu-
rate or random ways, students can fail to retrieve or apply it appropriately.

Students’ motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they

do to learn.

Students in higher education have considerable autonomy, so motivation

plays a critical role in guiding the direction, intensity, persistence, and quality of

4
 Introduction: Bridging Learning Research and Teaching Practice

the learning behaviors in which they engage. When students find positive value
in a learning goal or activity, expect to successfully achieve a desired learning
outcome, and perceive support from their environment, they are likely to be
strongly motivated to learn.

To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice

integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned.

Mastery requires that students develop not only the component skills and
knowledge necessary to perform complex tasks but also they must practice com-
bining and integrating their skills and knowledge to develop greater fluency and
automaticity. Finally, students must learn when and how to apply the skills and
knowledge they learn. The process of helping students gain mastery is con-
founded by the fact that, because of their expertise, instructors may have lost
conscious awareness of these elements.

Goal-­directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality

of students’ learning.

Learning and performance are best fostered when students engage in prac-
tice that focuses on a specific goal or criterion, targets an appropriate level of
challenge, and is of sufficient quantity and frequency to meet the performance
criteria. Practice must be coupled with feedback that explicitly communicates
about some aspect(s) of students’ performance relative to specific target criteria,
provides information to help students progress in meeting those criteria, and is
given at a time and frequency that allows it to be useful.

The classroom environment we create can profoundly affect students’

learning, positively or negatively.

The social and emotional dimensions of the learning environment shape

students’ learning, engagement, achievement, and persistence in significant

5
 How Learning Works

ways. Thus, the classroom climates instructors establish are of critical impor-
tance. While a subtly or overtly alienating classroom climate can inhibit and
derail learning, faculty members have the power to create classroom environ-
ments that are both intellectually challenging and welcoming to all students,
enhancing learning in powerful ways. In particular, faculty members can use
strategies that foster a sense of belonging, adopt course content that is deliber-
ately inclusive, be thoughtful about the tone of documents and interactions, and
cultivate a strong sense of instructor immediacy and presence, particularly online.

To become self-­directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust

their approaches to learning.

Learners may engage in a variety of metacognitive processes to monitor and

control their learning—­assessing the task at hand, evaluating their own strengths
and weaknesses, planning their approach, applying and monitoring various strat-
egies, and reflecting on the degree to which their current approach is working.
When students develop these metacognitive skills, they gain intellectual habits
that not only improve their performance but also their effectiveness as learners.

WHAT MAKES THESE PRINCIPLES POWERFUL?

The principal strength of these eight principles is that they are based directly on
research, drawing on literature from cognitive, developmental, and social psy-
chology, anthropology, education, and diversity studies, and research targeting
not only higher education but also K–12 education. Although this book does
not provide an exhaustive literature review and any summary of research neces-
sarily simplifies a host of complexities, we believe that our discussions of the
research underlying each principle are faithful to the scholarship and describe
features of learning about which there is widespread agreement. Indeed, several
of our principles align with those that others have delineated (Pashler et al., 2007;
Pittsburgh Science of Learning Center, 2009), a convergence that we believe
attests to their salience.

6
 Introduction: Bridging Learning Research and Teaching Practice

Not only are our eight principles research-­based but also, as we have shared
them with colleagues over the years, we have found that they are

• Domain-­independent: They apply equally well across all subject areas, from
biology to design to history to robotics; the fundamental factors that affect
the way students learn transcend disciplinary differences.
• Experience-­independent: The principles apply to all educational levels and ped-
agogical situations. In other words, although the pedagogical implications of
a principle will be somewhat different for first-­year undergraduate students
in a lab environment as opposed to graduate students in a studio environ-
ment, the principle still applies.
• Cross-­culturally relevant: Although the research we discuss has been conducted
primarily in the Western world, faculty colleagues in other countries have
resonated with the principles, finding them relevant to their own classes and
students. That said, it is important to bear in mind that culture can and does
influence how the principles should be applied as instructors design and
teach their courses.

INTENDED AUDIENCES

This book is intended for anyone interested in understanding more about how
students learn and in applying that information to improve instruction. This
includes—­but is not limited to—­faculty members, graduate students, faculty
developers, instructional designers, and librarians. It also includes K–12 educa-
tors. In addition, the principles outlined here are valuable for instructors at all
experience levels. They can help new and inexperienced instructors understand
the components of effective course design and classroom pedagogy. They can
help experienced instructors troubleshoot problems or adapt effective strategies
to suit new courses, student populations, or modes of delivery. They can also
help highly successful and experienced instructors reflect on what makes their
approaches and methods effective. Finally, these principles can enable faculty
members to better support student learning without having to rely on outside
experts (a benefit that is particularly valuable for faculty at campuses without
teaching and learning centers).

7
 How Learning Works

HOW TO READ THIS BOOK

Perhaps you are an instructor who has heard about best practices in teaching
but do not understand why these practices work. Or maybe you know the
research on learning but do not know how to put it into practice. We hope you
will find this book a helpful bridge connecting research with practice in an
approachable and feasible way.
Each chapter in this book begins with stories that represent teaching situ-
ations that we hope will strike readers as familiar. Although the instructors
described in these stories are fictional, the scenarios are authentic, representing
composites of real problems we have encountered over many years of consulting
with faculty. We analyze these stories to identify the core problems or issues
involved and use them to introduce the learning principle relevant to those prob-
lems. Then we discuss the principle in relation to the research that underlies it.
Finally, we provide a set of strategies to help instructors design instruction with
that principle in mind.
Because all of these principles combine to influence learning, no one prin-
ciple stands alone. Consequently, the chapters can be read in any order.

NOTE

1. Herb Simon was a university professor at Carnegie Mellon University and had joint
appointments in the departments of psychology and computer science. While at
Carnegie Mellon, Herb played a major role in the development of the Graduate School
of Industrial Administration (renamed the Tepper School of Business in 2004), the
Department of Psychology, the School of Computer Science, and the College of
Humanities and Social Sciences. He was one of the founding fathers of the fields
of cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence, and won the Nobel Prize in Economics
in 1978 and the National Medal of Science in 1986. For many years (until his death),
Herb served as a member of the Advisory Committee to the Eberly Center for Teaching
Excellence. He was often heard paraphrasing this quote from Elliott Dunlap Smith, a
past president of Carnegie Mellon University.

8
CHAPTER 1

Why Do Students’
Identities and
Stages of
Development
Matter for Learning?

“End of Story”
Yesterday in my Economics class, we were discussing an article about the
cost of illegal immigration to the US economy. The discussion was moving
along at a brisk pace when one student, Gloria, began to intervene quite
forcefully, saying the reading was biased and didn’t represent the situation
accurately. Another student, Danielle, responded: “Gloria, why do you
always have to bring up race? Why can’t we just discuss the figures in the
articles without getting so defensive?” A third student, Kayla, who had been
quiet up to this point in the semester, said that, as far as she was
concerned, illegal immigrants should be arrested and deported, “end of
story.” Her grandparents were Polish immigrants, she continued, and had
come to the US legally, worked hard, and made good lives for themselves,
“but now even my dad says this country is getting sucked dry by Mexican
illegals who have no right to be here, and it’s just plain wrong.” At that
point, the rest of the class got really quiet, and I could see my three
Hispanic students exchange furious, disbelieving looks. Annoyed, Gloria
shot back: “Those ‘illegals’ you’re talking about include some people very
close to me, and you don’t know anything about them.” The whole thing

9
 How Learning Works

erupted in an angry back-­and-­forth, with Gloria calling Kayla entitled and

racist and Kayla looking close to tears. I tried to regain control of the class
by asking Gloria to try to depersonalize the discussion and focus on the
central economic issues, but when we returned to the discussion I couldn’t
get anyone to talk. Kayla and Gloria sat silently with their arms folded,
looking down, and the rest of the class just looked uncomfortable. I know
I didn’t handle this situation well, but I really wish my students were mature
enough to talk about these issues without being at each other’s throats over
secondary, unrelated points.
Professor Leandro Battaglia

Too Many Reasons

I used to think I was pretty good at getting students to participate in class,
but lately I’ve been facing a “wall of silence.” Knowing a few colleagues who
do mid-­semester feedback in their courses, I decided to give it a try and
specifically asked my students why they don’t participate more during class.
Boy, did they give me an earful! One student wrote that, on top of a full
course load, they are working late hours at two jobs. By the time they get to
my class, they are too exhausted to think. One reported that she (I’m
assuming it’s a she) tried participating early in the semester but stopped
when she didn’t feel like her contributions were appreciated—­like the time
two male students made essentially her same points and were praised for
the stolen ideas. Another disclosed that they are on the autism spectrum
and have a hard time navigating social interactions, like when to jump into
a discussion without being rude or weird, or how to disagree without
sounding angry or condescending. . . . To avoid the uncertainty, they simply
don’t participate. Yet another mentioned feeling hurt when they were
misgendered in class and, after that, they disengaged. And yet another
wrote that professors, especially Southern ladies like me, don’t really want
to hear from their Black students. That stung. I try not to make
assumptions about my students, but they seem to have no problem making
assumptions about me. On and on it went. There were as many reasons for
not participating as there were students. I tried to find some common
theme that would point to one clear solution, but no. I want to help my

10
 Why Do Students’ Identities and Stages of Development Matter for Learning?

students, I truly do. But each one seems to want something different from
me, and I can’t personalize my course for each individual student. Plus, now
I’m even afraid I’ll say the wrong thing and make it worse. What
should I do?
Professor Charlotte Calhoun

WHAT IS GOING ON IN THESE TWO STORIES?

In both of these stories, students are bringing important aspects of their identi-
ties into the classroom, and these identities create a powerful lens for how they
see and respond to the learning experience. Although Professor Battaglia has
assigned a reading that touches on a controversial topic, he expects his students
to be able to discuss the material in terms of economic principles rather than
personal experience and ethnic identity, which in his mind are mutually exclu-
sive. What begins with an intellectual discussion of the reading quickly devolves
into a highly charged exchange about racial issues—­in his mind, only marginally
related to the course content—­culminating in hurt feelings, discomfort, disen-
gagement, and ultimately a complete collapse of the discussion. Professor
Battaglia finds himself unable to rein in the chaos. The fracas that arises leaves
him feeling helpless and wondering why students are unable to stay on topic or
at least be civil about their disagreements.
If Professor Battaglia’s discussion was derailed by vociferous conflict,
Professor Calhoun’s course is marred by silence and disengagement. Here is an
educator who understands the value of course participation, tries her best, and
uses best practices such as mid-­semester feedback to assess her teaching, only to
discover a seemingly endless list of explanations for non-­participation. Some of
the reasons are beyond her control, like the outside commitments some stu-
dents have, and yet her course is suffering the consequences. Some responses
would make many of us realize how much of our social interactions we take for
granted, like in the case of the student on the spectrum, but again are way out-
side of Professor Calhoun’s capacity to help. Some she likely didn’t even realize
until they were brought up, like the misgendering or the misattributing student
contributions. And some are painful to read, like the student stating she doesn’t
care about Black students. It feels like an intractable predicament even for a

11
 How Learning Works

well-­meaning instructor, or as many intractable predicaments as there are

­students in her course. Either way, the learning experience for everybody is
­negatively affected.

WHAT PRINCIPLE OF LEARNING IS AT WORK HERE?

Even though the students in these stories were ostensibly part of the same learn-
ing environment, they were affected by it, and in turn affected their environment,
in different ways. Their experiences were colored by their values and belief
systems, their histories, identities, and other individual characteristics. In subse-
quent chapters, we will focus on processes that are common across all students.
For instance, everybody needs to pay attention to learn something. Everybody
needs practice opportunities and constructive feedback to develop skills, and so
on. The strategies stemming from this approach will maximize our efficiency as
educators, because they will apply to most of our students. But the uniqueness
and individuality of our students also play a crucial role in the learning process,
and we need to start there for an important reason.
The empirical evidence we rely on emerges from many studies involving
tens of thousands of students in total, and the results are averaged across stu-
dents to arrive at teaching and learning strategies that work for the average stu-
dent. But as statisticians point out, often the average does not exist. Just like no
family has exactly 2.3 children (the average number of children from the classic
demographic studies of the 1960s), the average student loses any individuality
that the actual students in those studies possessed, with an inevitable loss of
information. In this trade-­off, we give up a nuanced understanding of each stu-
dent for a synthetic understanding of the average student, with definite advan-
tages but also disadvantages. In particular, some researchers point out that most
quantitative educational research in the United States is “essentially raceless”
(Patton et al., 2015).
We will delve into the powerful results from this body of research in the
next chapters, but we want to start by acknowledging that the uniqueness and
individuality of our students, as well as the systems of power and inequity in
which we are all situated, play a crucial role in the learning process. Accordingly,
our first principle calls attention to the unique backgrounds and perspectives
our students’ bring to the learning environment (see Figure 1.1).

12
 Why Do Students’ Identities and Stages of Development Matter for Learning?

Individual differences
influence
how students
experience
the learning environment

“Who are my students?”

Figure 1.1. Students Bring Their Backgrounds and Lived Experiences into the
Learning Context

Principle: Students differ from each other on multiple dimensions—­for

example, in their identities, stages of development, and personal histories—­
and these differences influence how they experience the world and, in turn,
their learning and performance.

If learning was about filling empty brains with knowledge, there would be
no need for this chapter. But learning also means integrating knowledge and
skills into one’s worldview; therefore, we need to unpack the role that develop-
mental stage, identities, and experience play in learning. Furthermore, these cru-
cial components of learning are not static, but they are evolving and developing
through the life span, so it is important to examine some crucial insights from

13
 How Learning Works

developmental theory, particularly as related to social identity development and

intellectual development.
The concept of life span development acknowledges that people face
developmental challenges at every stage of life, but two considerations are impor-
tant when dealing with college students. First, the college years are particularly
important when it comes to developmental milestones. In fact, a preponderant
body of research over decades documents that the developmental gains students
make during college are considerably greater than the cognitive gains over the
same span of time (Mayhew et al., 2016; Pascarella & Terenzini, 1991). Second,
unresolved developmental challenges can derail our students’ academic pursuits
if they have not yet learned to channel them productively.
Ultimately, we have to teach the students we have at whatever developmen-
tal stage they occupy, not the enlightened version of the students we wish we had.
But the good news is that if we understand how these variables influence the
learning process, we can let this understanding inform our teaching.

WHAT DOES THE RESEARCH TELL US ABOUT

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES?

Just as the holistic movement in medicine calls for doctors to treat patients, not
symptoms, student-­centered teaching requires us to teach students, not content.
Thus, it is important to recognize students as individuals who bring their unique
combination of social, emotional, and intellectual characteristics to our courses.
By considering “Who are my students?” along various dimensions of difference,
we can better understand and support their learning needs.
This is an important part of making higher education more accessible and
inclusive, and yet it is important to acknowledge that it can lead to several ten-
sions. First, our natural inclination might be to treat all students the same, rather
than giving different types or amounts of support to some. However, equal treat-
ment would only advance student success if all of our students came to us with
identical starting conditions. The concept of equity in education focuses on
creating a learning environment that achieves parity in the educational outcomes
experienced by groups of students who differ along dimensions such as race, gen-
der, sexuality, and first-­generation status (see Center for Urban Education, 2021;
McNair et al., 2020). Preliminary steps to achieving equitable outcomes include

14
 Why Do Students’ Identities and Stages of Development Matter for Learning?

recognizing where inequities currently exist and understanding what external

factors likely contributed to underperformance (e.g., inadequate previous
resources) so that they can be addressed. Research on dimensions of difference
that have historically shown inequitable student outcomes can help us proac-
tively make a positive difference for our students. This might require not treating
all students the same (equality), but giving each student what they need (equity).
The second tension related to understanding and supporting our stu-
dents’ different learning needs is captured by this question: How could one
course or faculty member ever tailor instructional supports to meet each stu-
dent’s unique social, emotional, and intellectual needs? This is precisely the ques-
tion Professor Calhoun is asking. While differentiating instruction for each
individual student may not be realistic, there are research-­based strategies we can
employ across situations to acknowledge, value, and leverage the diversity we
find in our classes.
The third tension lies in the paradox between a common set of learning
mechanisms that apply to all students—­that is, the eight principles in this book—­
and the variety of ways those mechanisms unfold for individual students, based
on the experiences and opportunities they have had. In other words, throughout
the book we aim to strike a balance between describing general principles that
hold across students and empowering instructors to apply those principles to
their particular situations, contextualizing the relevant strategies accordingly.
For this first principle on individual differences, there is an important implica-
tion. As instructors, when we observe different patterns of learning among our
students, we should not interpret disparities in performance as inherent differ-
ences in the learning mechanisms or learning capabilities of students from par-
ticular groups (e.g., the mistaken interpretation that “those students just learn
differently”). Instead, research demonstrates that many other factors explain
these disparities including insufficient access to learning opportunities and
resources, lack of positive societal expectations regarding students’ success, his-
tory of being dismissed or mistreated, and more general societal influences such
as racism, sexism, and classism. The good news is that, as teachers, the more we
know about these factors, the more effectively we can mitigate them. Indeed,
many examples highlight that when educators work to address these disparities
in thoughtful and deliberate ways, they can be reduced and even eliminated
(Maton et al., 2016; Treisman, 1992).
It is worth highlighting that one response to the desire to recognize
observed differences in learning has been to hypothesize that students have

15
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kolahtanut kolme päätä yhteen, sillä kohtalo — se on hirvitys,
Kuzjma Kuzjmitš! Realismia, Kuzjma Kuzjmitš, realismia! Mutta
koska teidät on jo kauan sitten pitänyt jättää huomioon ottamatta,
niin jää jäljelle kaksi päätä, kuten lausuin, kenties lausuin kömpelösti,
mutta minä en olekaan kirjailija. Se on, toinen pää on minun, ja
toinen on tuon pedon. Siis valitkaa: minäkö vai peto? Kaikki on nyt
teidän käsissänne — kolme kohtaloa ja kaksi arpaa… Antakaa
anteeksi, minä sekaannuin, mutta te ymmärrätte… minä näen teidän
kunnioitettavista silmistänne, että te olette ymmärtänyt… Mutta jos
ette ole ymmärtänyt, niin hukun jo tänään, siinä se!»

Mitja katkaisi järjettömän puheensa tuohon »siinä se» ja hypähti

paikaltaan odottaen vastausta typerään ehdotukseensa.
Lausuessaan viimeisen lauseensa hän tunsi äkkiä ja toivottomasti,
että kaikki oli mennyt myttyyn ja, mikä oli tärkeintä, että hän oli
puhunut hirmuisen joukon pötyä. »Omituista, tänne tullessani näytti
kaikki hyvältä, ja nyt se on pötyä!» välähti äkkiä hänen toivottomassa
päässään. Kaiken aikaa hänen puhuessaan oli ukko istunut
liikkumatta ja jäisin katsein tarkannut häntä. Pitäen häntä kuitenkin
noin minuutin verran odotuksen vallassa Kuzjma Kutzjmitš viimein
lausui mitä päättävimmällä ja lohduttomimmalla äänenpainolla:

— Suokaa anteeksi, me emme harjoita tämänlaatuisia liiketoimia.

Mitja tunsi äkkiä jalkojensa pettävän.

— Kuinkas minä nyt, Kuzjma Kuzjmitš, — mutisi hän hymyillen

hervottomasti. — Minähän olen nyt mennyttä miestä, vai mitä te
arvelette?

— Suokaa anteeksi…
 Mitja seisoi yhä ja katseli jäykästi ja liikkumattomana, ja huomasi
yhtäkkiä, että jotakin liikahti ukon kasvoissa. Hän vavahti.

— Katsokaahan, hyvä herra, tämmöiset asiat ovat meille hankalat,

— lausui ukko hitaasti, — alkaa käräjöinnit, täytyy käyttää
asianajajia, siinä on ihan hukassa! Mutta jos tahdotte, niin täällä on
eräs mies, jonka puoleen voisitte kääntyä…

— Herra Jumala, kuka se on!… Te saatte minut jälleen elämään,

Kuzjma
Kuzjmitš, — alkoi Mitja äkkiä epäselvästi puhua.

— Hän ei ole täkäläinen, se mies, eikä häntä nyt täällä ole. Hän
tekee talonpoikien kanssa metsäkauppoja, on nimeltään Ljagavyi. Jo
vuoden verran hän on hieronut Fjodor Pavlovitšin kanssa kauppaa
tuosta lehdostanne Tšermašnjassa, mutta eivät sovi hinnasta, olette
kukaties kuullut. Nyt hän on taas tullut ja asustaa nyt pappi Iljinskin
luona, Volovjan kievarista lienee sinne noin kaksitoista virstaa,
Iljinskin kylässä. Hän on kirjoittanut tänne minullekin tästä asiasta,
nimittäin tästä metsiköstä, pyysi neuvoa. Fjodor Pavlovitš aikoo itse
mennä hänen luokseen. Niin että jos te ennättäisitte ennen Fjodor
Pavlovitšia ja esittäisitte Ljagavyille samaa, mitä puhuitte minulle,
niin kenties syntyy hänen kanssaan kaupat…

— Nerokas ajatus! — keskeytti Mitja innostuneena. — Hän juuri,

hänelle se juuri sopii! Hän hieroo kauppaa, häneltä pyydetään
paljon, ja nyt hän juuri saakin omistuskirjan siihen, hahaha! — Ja
Mitja alkoi äkkiä nauraa lyhyttä, puisevaa nauruaan, aivan
odottamatta, niin että Samsonovinkin pää nytkähti.

— Kuinka voin kiittää teitä, Kuzjma Kuzjmitš, — intoili Mitja.

 — Ei mitään, — sanoi Samsonov kumartaen päätään alemmaksi.

— Te ette tiedäkään, te olette pelastanut minut, oi, minut toi teidän

luoksenne aavistus… Siis tuon papin luo!

— Ei kestä kiittää.

— Riennän ja lennän. Olen käyttänyt väärin teidän

terveydentilaanne.
En ikänäni unohda tätä, venäläinen mies sanoo teille tämän, Kuzjma
Kuzjmitš, v-venäläinen mies!

— Jaa-hah.

Mitja oli tarttumaisillaan ukon käteen puristaakseen sitä, mutta

jotakin ilkeämielistä välähti tämän silmissä. Mitja veti takaisin
kätensä, mutta soimasi heti itseään epäluuloisuudesta. »Hän on
väsynyt»… välähti hänen mielessään.

— Hänen tähtensä! Hänen tähtensä, Kuzjma Kuzjmitš! Te

ymmärrätte, että se on hänen tähtensä! — rääkäisi hän äkkiä, niin
että koko sali kajahti, kumarsi, kääntyi jyrkästi ympäri ja lähti
entiseen tapaan nopein ja pitkin askelin taakseen katsomatta ovea
kohti. Hän värisi innostuksesta. »Olinhan ihan tuhon omaksi
joutumassa, ja nyt suojelusenkeli pelasti», liikkui hänen mielessään.
»Jos kerran sellainen käytännön mies kuin tämä ukko (ihmeen jalo
ukko, ja millainen ryhti!) osoitti tälle tielle, niin… niin tietysti voitto on
varma. Heti ja aika kyytiä! Ennen yön tuloa palaan, yöllä palaan,
mutta asia on voitettu. Saattoiko ukko todellakin pitää minua
pilkkanaan?» Näin huudahteli Mitja astellessaan asuntoonsa, eikä
hän mielessään tietysti muuta voinut kuvitellakaan, t.s. joko se oli
asiallinen neuvo (semmoisen käytännöllisen miehen antama), —
joka johtui asiantuntemuksesta ja tuon Ljagavyin (omituinen
sukunimi!) tuntemisesta tai — tai ukko oli tehnyt hänestä pilaa! Voi!
Tuo jälkimmäinen ajatus vain olikin oikea. Myöhemmin, pitkän ajan
kuluttua, kun koko katastrofi jo oli tapahtunut, ukko Samsonov itse
nauraen tunnusti pitäneensä silloin »kapteenia» pilanaan. Hän oli
ilkeä, kylmä ja ivallinen mies, jolla sen lisäksi oli sairaalloiset
antipatiat. Kapteenin innostunut muotokuva, tämän »tuhlarin ja
rahojen syytäjän» typerä uskoko, että hän, Samsonov, voi tarttua
sellaiseen mielettömyyteen kuin oli hänen »suunnitelmansa»,
mustasukkaisuusko Grušenjkaan nähden, jonka nimeen »tämä
huimapää» oli tullut hänen luokseen hupsuttelulla saamaan rahoja,
— en tiedä, mikä nimenomaan sai silloin ukon toimimaan, mutta sillä
hetkellä, kun Mitja seisoi hänen edessään tuntien jalkojensa
pettävän ja älyttömästi huudahteli olevansa mennyt mies, — sillä
hetkellä ukko katsoi häneen rajattoman ilkeyden valtaamana ja keksi
pitää häntä pilkkanaan. Mitjan mentyä Kuzjma Kuzjmitš kalpeana
kiukusta kääntyi poikansa puoleen ja käski laittamaan niin, ettei
vastedes tuota kerjäläistä täällä näkyisi, eikä häntä saisi päästää
pihallekaan, muuten…

Hän ei lausunut julki, mikä olisi seurauksena, mutta hänen

poikansakin, joka usein oli nähnyt hänet vihastuneena, vavahti
pelästyksestä. Kokonaisen tunnin sen jälkeen ukko tärisi vihasta ja
tuli iltaan mennessä niin sairaaksi, että lähetti hakemaan lääkäriä.

2.

Ljagavyi
 Piti siis lähteä »laukkaamaan», mutta rahoja hevosten tilaamiseen
ei ollut kopeekkaakaan, t.s., oli kaksi kaksikymmenkopeekkaista,
mutta siinä olikin kaikki, kaikki, mitä oli jäänyt niin monien vuosien
entisestä omaisuudesta! Mutta hänellä oli kotona vanha hopeainen
kello, joka jo kauan sitten oli lakannut käymästä. Hän sieppasi sen ja
vei juutalaiselle kellosepälle, jolla oli pieni kauppa markkinapaikalla.
Tämä antoi hänelle siitä kuusi ruplaa. »En odottanut saavani
niinkään paljoa!» huudahti ihastunut Mitja (hän oli yhä edelleen
ihastuksissaan), kaappasi kuusi ruplaansa ja juoksi kotiinsa. Kotona
hän täydensi rahamääräänsä lainaamalla isäntäväeltään kolme
ruplaa, minkä nämä antoivat hänelle mielellään, vaikka ne olivatkin
heidän viimeiset rahansa, niin paljon he hänestä pitivät.
Innostuksensa tilassa Mitja samassa ilmoitti heille, että hänen
kohtalonsa nyt ratkaistaan, ja kertoi heille, hyvin kiireesti tietenkin,
melkein koko »suunnitelmansa», jonka hän äsken juuri oli esittänyt
Samsonoville, sekä Samsonovin antaman ratkaisun, tulevat
toiveensa ym. Isäntäväelleen hän oli ennenkin uskonut monta
salaisuuttaan, ja senvuoksi nämä pitivätkin häntä omana ihmisenä
eikä ollenkaan ylpeänä herrana. Saatuaan tällä tavoin kokoon
yhdeksän ruplaa Mitja lähetti tilaamaan kyytihevoset Volovjan
majataloon. Mutta tällä lailla painui mieliin ja tuli pannuksi merkille se
tosiasia, että »erään tapahtuman edellisenä päivänä Mitjalla ei ollut
kopeekkaakaan ja että hän saadakseen rahoja möi kellonsa ja
lainasi isäntäväeltään kolme ruplaa, kaikki todistajain läsnäollessa».

Huomautan tästä asiasta ennakolta; myöhemmin selviää, miksi

teen niin.

Volovjan majataloon ajettuaan Mitja tosin säteili iloisesta

aavistuksesta, että viimeinkin saa loppumaan ja selvitetyksi »kaikki
nämä asiat», mutta hän vapisi myös pelosta: mitä tapahtuu nyt
Grušenjkalle hänen poissaollessaan? Entäpä jos hän päättääkin
juuri tänään lopultakin mennä Fjodor Pavlovitšin luo? Tästä syystä
Mitja oli lähtenyt matkaan ilmoittamatta mitään Grušenjkalle ja
käskien isäntäväkeään tarkoin pitämään salassa, minne hän oli
joutunut, jos joku häntä kysyisi. »Ehdottomasti, ehdottomasti on tänä
iltana palattava takaisin», hoki hän rattailla täristessään, »ja tuo
Ljagavyi on kenties kuljetettava tänne… tämän asian
loppuunsuorittamista varten»… näin ajatteli Mitja mielen ahdistusta
tuntien, mutta voi! — hänen haaveittensa ei oltu ollenkaan sallittu
toteutua hänen »suunnitelmansa» mukaisesti.

Ensiksikin hän myöhästyi, kun lähti oikotietä Volovjan kievarista.

Tämä kyläntie ei ollutkaan kahdentoista, vaan kahdeksantoista
virstan pituinen. Toiseksi hän ei tavannut pappi Iljinskiä kotona, sillä
tämä oli mennyt naapurikylään. Sill'aikaa kuin Mitja etsiskeli häntä ja
ajoin naapurikylään yhä samoilla, jo matkasta väsyneillä hevosilla,
ennätti miltei yö tulla. Pappi, aran ja ystävällisen näköinen mies,
selitti hänelle heti, että Ljagavyi tosin oli aluksi asunut hänen
luonaan, mutta on nyt Suhoi Poselokissa ja yöpyy sinne
metsänvartijan mökkiin, sillä hänellä on sielläkin metsäkauppoja.
Kun Mitja innokkaasti pyysi pappia opastamaan hänet Ljagavyin luo
heti paikalla ja »siten tavallaan pelastamaan» hänet, niin pappi
aluksi hiukan epäröityään suostuikin opastamaan hänet Suhoi
Poselokiin; nähtävästi hänessä oli herännyt uteliaisuus. Mutta
pahaksi onneksi hän neuvoi menemään sinne jalkaisin, koska sinne
oli vain virstan verran ja »pikkuisen päälle». Mitja tietysti suostui ja
lähti harppaamaan pitkillä askelillaan niin, että pappi-rukka miltei
juoksi hänen jäljessään. Tämä ei ollut vielä vanha mies ja oli hyvin
varovainen. Mitja alkoi hänen kanssaan heti puhua suunnitelmistaan,
pyysi kiihkeästi ja hermostuneesti neuvoja Ljagavyihin nähden ja oli
äänessä koko matkan. Pappi kuunteli tarkkaavaisesti, mutta antoi
vähän neuvoja. Mitjan kysymyksiin hän vastasi vältellen: »En tiedä,
oh, en tiedä, mistäpä minä sen tietäisin» jne. Kun Mitja alkoi puhua
perintöriidoistaan isänsä kanssa, niin pappi ihan pelästyi, sillä hän oli
jossakin riippuvaisuussuhteessa Fjodor Pavlovitšiin. Ihmetellen hän
muuten tiedusteli, miksi Mitja nimitti tätä kauppaa käyvää talonpoika
Gorstkinia nimellä Ljagavyi, ja selitti vakavasti Mitjalle, että vaikka
tuo toinen todella on Ljagavyi, niin hän ei kuitenkaan ole Ljagavyi,
sillä tästä nimestä hän suuresti loukkaantuu, ja että häntä on
ehdottomasti nimitettävä Gorstkiniksi, »muuten ette saa mitään
toimeen hänen kanssaan eikä hän rupea edes kuuntelemaan»,
lopetti pappi. Mitja hämmästyi heti jossakin määrin ja selitti, että niin
oli tätä nimittänyt itse Samsonov. Tämän asianhaaran kuultuaan
pappi heti sotki pois koko asian, vaikka hän olisi tehnyt hyvän työn,
jos olisi silloin kohta selittänyt Dmitri Fjodorovitšille arvelunsa:
nimittäin että jos itse Samsonov oli lähettänyt hänet tuon talonpojan
luo nimittäen tätä Ljagavyiksi, niin eiköhän hän ollut jostakin syystä
tehnyt sitä piloillaan ja eiköhän siinä ollut jotakin kieroa? Mutta
Mitjalla ei ollut aikaa takertua »sellaisiin pikkuseikkoihin». Hän
harppaili kiireesti ja arvasi vasta heidän tultuaan Suhoi Poselokiin,
että he eivät olleet kulkeneet virstaa eikä puoltatoista, vaan
varmaankin kolme virstaa; se harmitti häntä, mutta hän nieli
harminsa. He astuivat sisälle mökkiin. Metsänvartija, papin tuttu, asui
mökin toisessa puoliskossa, ja toisessa, siistillä puolella eteisen
takana, piti majaa Gorstkin. Mentiin tuohon siistiin tupaan ja
sytytettiin talikynttilä. Tupaa oli kovasti lämmitetty. Honkaisella
pöydällä seisoi sammunut teekeitin sekä tarjotin, jolla oli kuppeja,
tyhjennetty rommipullo, ei aivan tyhjäksi juotu viinapullo sekä
vehnäleivän tähteitä. Itse matkamies makasi pitkällään penkillä,
päällysnuttu mytyksi käärittynä pään alla tyynyn virkaa
toimittamassa, ja kuorsasi raskaasti. Mitja jäi seisomaan
neuvottomana. »Tietysti hänet on herätettävä: minun asiani on hyvin
tärkeä, minä olen kovin kiiruhtanut ja minulla on kiire palata kotiin
vielä tänään», alkoi Mitja puhua hätäisesti; mutta pappi ja vartija
seisoivat äänettöminä lausumatta mielipidettään. Mitja astui
nukkuvan luo ja alkoi itse häntä herätellä, teki sen tarmokkaasti,
mutta nukkuva ei herännyt. »Hän on juovuksissa», päätteli Mitja,
»mutta mitä minun on tehtävä, Herra Jumala, mitä minun on
tehtävä!» Ja äkkiä hän hirveän kärsimättömänä alkoi nykiä nukkuvaa
käsistä ja jaloista, heilutella hänen päätään, nostaa häntä istumaan
penkille, ja sai sentään varsin kauan ponnisteltuaan vain sen verran
aikaan, että toinen alkoi järjettömästi mörähdellä ja pontevasti, joskin
epäselvin sanoin, kiroilla.

— Ei odottakaa mieluummin jonkin aikaa, — lausui viimein pappi,

— sillä nähtävästi hän ei mihinkään kykene.

— On juonut koko päivän, — lausui vartija.

— Herra Jumala! — huudahteli Mitja. — Jospa te vain tietäisitte,

miten välttämätöntä tämä minulle on, ja miten epätoivoissani nyt
olen!

— Ei, parempi olisi teidän odottaa aamuun, — sanoi pappi

uudelleen.

— Aamuun? Armahtakaa, se on mahdotonta! — Ja

epätoivoissaan hän oli vähällä taas syöksyä juopuneen kimppuun
tätä herättämään, mutta luopui heti aikeestaan ymmärtäen kaikki
ponnistelunsa hyödyttömiksi. Pappi oli vaiti, uninen vartija oli synkkä.

— Kuinka kauheita murhenäytelmiä ihmisille tuottaakaan realismi!

— lausui Mitja aivan epätoivoissaan. Hiki valui hänen kasvoistaan.
Käyttäen hetkeä hyväkseen pappi varsin järkevästi selitti, että vaikka
onnistuttaisiinkin herättämään nukkuja, niin hän juovuksissa ollen ei
kuitenkaan pysty mihinkään keskusteluun, »mutta koska teillä on
tärkeä asia, niin on varmempaa jättää se aamuun»… Mitja levitti
käsiään ja suostui.

— Pastori, minä jään tänne kynttilän kera ja otan otollisesta

silmänräpäyksestä vaarin. Kun hän herää, niin silloin heti alan…
Minä maksan sinulle kynttilästä, — kääntyi hän vartijan puoleen, —
ja yösijasta myös, muistat vielä myöhemminkin Dmitri Karamazovin.
En vain tiedä, miten teidän olonne, pastori, nyt järjestyy: mihin te
käytte makaamaan?

— Ei, minä menen kotiini. Ajan sinne hänen tammallaan, — sanoi

pappi näyttäen vartijaa. — Hyvästi nyt vain, toivon asianne
menestyvän hyvin.

Niin päätettiinkin. Pappi lähti matkaan tammalla, iloissaan siitä,

että oli lopultakin päässyt irti, mutta pyöritellen yhä ymmällä ollen
päätään ja ajatellen: eiköhän pitäne huomenna hyvissä ajoin
ilmoittaa tästä mielenkiintoisesta tapahtumasta hyväntekijälle Fjodor
Pavlovitšille, »muuten hän, kun sattuu paha onni, voi saada tietää
asiasta, suuttuu ja lakkaa osoittamasta suosiotaan». Vartija lähti
korvallistaan raapien ääneti omaan tupaansa, ja Mitja istuutui
penkille ottaakseen, kuten oli sanonut, vaarin silmänräpäyksestä.
Syvä surumielisyys laskeutui raskaan sumun tavoin hänen
sieluunsa. Syvä, kauhea suru! Hän istui, mietti eikä voinut mitään
keksiä. Kynttilä alkoi olla lopussa, sirkka alkoi sirittää, lämmitetyssä
huoneessa alkoi olla sietämättömän tukahduttavaa. Hänen
mieleensä nousi äkkiä puutarha, käytävä puutarhan perällä, isän
talossa avautuu salaperäisesti ovi, ja ovesta juoksee sisälle
Grušenjka… Hän hypähti lavitsalta.

— Murhenäytelmä! — lausui hän hampaitaan kiristellen, astui,

koneellisesti nukkuvan luo ja alkoi katsella hänen kasvojaan. Tämä
oli laiha, ei vielä vanha talonpoika, jolla oli sangen pitkulaiset kasvot,
ruskeat kiharat ja pitkä, ohut parta, yllä karttuunipaita ja musta liivi,
jonka taskusta näkyivät hopeisen kellon perät. Mitja katseli näitä
kasvoja hirveätä vihaa tuntien, ja jostakin syystä hänessä herätti
erityisesti vihaa se, että miehellä oli kihara tukka. Pääasiassa oli
sietämättömän harmillista se, että hän, Mitja, joka oli niin paljon
uhrannut, niin paljon jättänyt, seisoo tässä hänen edessään
kiireellisen asiansa kanssa perin kiusattuna, mutta tuo vetelehtijä,
»josta nyt riippuu koko minun kohtaloni, kuorsaa niinkuin ei olisi
mitään tapahtunut, aivan kuin olisi kokonaan toiselta
taivaankappaleelta». »Oi kohtalon ironiaa!» huudahti Mitja ja
hyökkäsi äkkiä aivan pyörällä päästään taas herättämään juopunutta
talonpoikaa. Hän herätteli tätä aivan raivostuneena, nyki häntä,
töykki, löikin, mutta puuhattuaan noin viisi minuuttia saamatta
taaskaan mitään toimeen hän palasi voimattoman epätoivon vallassa
penkille ja istuutui.

— Tyhmää, tyhmää! — huudahteli Mitja. — Ja… miten

epärehellistä onkaan tämä kaikki! — lisäsi hän äkkiä jostakin syystä.
Hänen päätään alkoi hirveästi kivistää: »Olisikohan jätettävä asia
sikseen? On mentävä kokonaan pois», välähti hänen mielessään.
»Ei, on oltava aamuun. Jään kuin jäänkin suottakin! Miksi minä
tulinkaan, jos nyt lähden? Eikä tässä pääse lähtemäänkään, miten
täältä nyt voisi ajaa tiehensä, oi, se on hullutusta!»
 Mutta hänen päätään alkoi kivistää yhä enemmän. Hän istui
liikkumatta eikä ymmärtänyt itsekään, kun alkoi torkahdella ja äkkiä
nukkui istualleen. Nähtävästi hän oli nukkunut pari tuntia tai
enemmänkin. Hän heräsi päänkivistykseen, joka oli niin sietämätön,
että pani huutamaan. Ohimoissa jyskytti, päälakea kivisti; herättyään
hän ei pitkään aikaan päässyt täysin selville itsestään eikä tajunnut,
mitä hänelle oli tapahtunut. Viimein hän arvasi, että lämmitetyssä
huoneessa oli hirveästi häkää ja että hän kenties olisi voinut kuolla.
Mutta juopunut talonpoika makasi yhä kuorsaten; kynttilä oli sulanut
ja oli sammumaisillaan. Mitja huudahti ja lähti hoippuen rientämään
eteisen läpi vartijan tupaan. Tämä heräsi pian, mutta kuultuaan
toisessa huoneessa olevan häkää hän, vaikka lähtikin liikkeelle
ryhtyäkseen tarpeellisiin toimenpiteisiin, otti koko asian niin
hämmästyttävän tyynesti, että se kummastutti ja loukkasi Mitjaa.

— Mutta hän on kuollut, hän on kuollut, ja silloin… mitä silloin? —

huuteli Mitja hurjistuneena hänen edessään.

Ovi avattiin, avattiin myös ikkuna, avattiin savutorvi, Mitja toi

eteisestä vesiämpärin, kasteli ensin oman päänsä ja sitten,
löydettyään jonkin rievun, pisti sen veteen ja asetti sen sitten
Ljagavyin päähän. Vartija suhtautui edelleen koko tapahtumaan
ikäänkuin halveksivasti ja lausui jurosti, kun oli avannut ikkunan:
»Hyvä on näinkin», sekä meni taas makaamaan jättäen Mitjalle
sytytetyn rautaisen lyhdyn. Mitja puuhasi häkää saaneen juopuneen
kanssa puolisen tuntia kostutellen tavan takaa hänen päätään ja oli
jo vakavasti aikeissa valvoa koko yön, mutta perin nääntyneenä hän
sattui hetkiseksi istahtamaan vetääkseen henkeä ja silloin hän
samassa sulki silmänsä sekä ojentautui sen jälkeen itse tietämättään
penkille ja nukkui sikeään uneen.
 Hän heräsi hirveän myöhään. Oli arviolta jo kello yhdeksän
aamua. Aurinko paistoi kirkkaasti sisälle tuvan kahdesta ikkunasta.
Eilinen kiharatukkainen talonpoika istui penkillä jo alustakkiin
pukeutuneena. Hänen edessään seisoi taas teekeitin ja uusi pullo.
Entinen, eilinen, oli jo tyhjennetty ja uudesta oli juotu enemmän kuin
puolet. Mitja hypähti ylös ja huomasi yhdellä silmäyksellä, että kirottu
moukka oli taas juovuksissa, pahasti ja auttamattomasti juovuksissa.
Hän katseli miestä minuutin verran silmät pullollaan. Talonpoika
puolestaan katseli häntä ääneti ja viekkaasti, suututtavan tyynesti,
vieläpä jonkinmoisella halveksivalla ylemmyydellä, näytti Mitjasta.
Hän riensi miehen luo.

— Anteeksi, nähkääs… minä… te olette luultavasti kuullut

täkäläiseltä vartijalta toisessa tuvassa: minä olen luutnantti Dmitri
Karamazov, sen ukko Karamazovin poika, jonka kanssa suvaitsette
hieroa kauppaa metsiköstä…

— Sen sinä valehtelet! — tokaisi talonpoika äkkiä lujasti ja

rauhallisesti.

— Mitenkä valehtelen? Tunnette kai Fjodor Pavlovitšin?

— En mitenkään tunne sinun Fjodor Pavlovitšiasi, — lausui

talonpoika ja hänen kielensä toimi omituisen kankeasti.

— Metsikköä, metsikköä te häneltä ostelette; herätkää toki,

muistakaa.
Isä Pavel Iljinski opasti minut tänne… Te olette kirjoittanut
Samsonoville, ja hän lähetti minut teidän luoksenne… — puhui Mitja
läähättäen.
 — V-valehtelet! — tokaisi taas Ljagavyi. Mitja tunsi jalkojensa
kylmenevän.

— Armahtakaa, eihän tämä ole leikkiä! Te olette kenties

päissänne. Voittehan lopultakin puhua, ymmärtää… muuten…
muuten minä en ymmärrä mitään!

— Sinä olet värjäri!

— Paratkoon, minä olen Karamazov, Dmitri Karamazov, minulla on

teille tarjous… edullinen tarjous… sangen edullinen… nimenomaan
metsikköä koskeva.

Talonpoika siveli arvokkaasti partaansa.

— Ei, sinä teit urakkasopimuksen ja kähvelsit kuin konna. Sinä

olet konna!

— Minä vakuutan teille, että te erehdytte! — Mitja väänteli käsiään

epätoivoissaan. Talonpoika siveli yhä partaansa ja siristi äkkiä
viekkaasti silmiään.

— Ei, tiedätkö, mitä sinun pitää minulle näyttää: näytä sinä minulle
sellainen laki, että on lupa laitella vahinkoja, kuuletko! Sinä olet
konna, ymmärrätkö sen?

Mitja vetäytyi synkkänä takaisin, ja äkkiä ikäänkuin »jokin iski

häntä otsaan», kuten hän itse myöhemmin sanoi.
Silmänräpäyksessä jokin valaisi hänen järkensä, »syttyi soihtu, ja
minä ymmärsin kaikki». Hän seisoi jähmettyneenä eikä voinut
käsittää, kuinka hän, älykäs mies, oli voinut antautua tämmöiseen
tyhmyyteen, takertua tuommoiseen juttuun ja jatkaa tätä kaikkea
melkein kokonaisen vuorokauden, puuhata tuon Ljagavyin kanssa,
kostutella hänen päätään… »No, mies on humalassa, niin että näkee
jo pikku piruja, ja juopi vielä yhtä painoa viikon, — mitäpä tässä
maksaa odottaa? Entäpä jos Samsonov on tahallaan lähettänyt
minut tänne? Entäpä jos Grušenjka… Voi hyvä Jumala, mitä
olenkaan tehnyt!…»

Talonpoika istui, katseli häntä ja naureskeli. Jossakin muussa

tapauksessa Mitja kenties olisi tappanut tuon hölmön vihapäissään,
mutta nyt hän itse oli mennyt niin heikoksi kuin lapsi. Hän astui hiljaa
lavitsan luo, otti päällystakkinsa, puki ääneti sen ylleen ja meni ulos
tuvasta. Toisessa tuvassa hän ei tavannut vartijaa, siellä ei ollut
ketään. Hän otti taskustaan pientä rahaa viisikymmentä kopeekkaa
ja pani ne pöydälle maksuksi yösijasta, kynttilästä ja häiriöstä.
Mentyään ulos tuvasta hän näki ympärillään vain metsää eikä mitään
muuta. Hän lähti kulkemaan umpimähkään, muistamatta edes mihin
suuntaan oli lähdettävä mökiltä — oikeaanko vai vasempaanko;
kiiruhtaessaan edellisenä yönä tänne papin kanssa hän ei ollut
tarkannut tietä. Ei minkäänlaista kostonhalua ollut hänen sielussaan,
ei edes Samsonovia kohtaan. Hän asteli kapeata metsätietä
ajattelematta mitään, hajamielisenä, »kadonnein aattein»,
huolehtimatta vähääkään siitä, minne meni. Vastaan tuleva lapsi olisi
voittanut hänet, niin voimattomaksi hän oli äkkiä tullut sielun ja
ruumiin puolesta. Jotenkuten hän kuitenkin joutui ulos metsästä:
hänen edessään oli äkkiä niitettyjä paljaita peltoja
silmänkantamattomiin: »Mikä toivottomuus, mikä kuolema
ylt'ympäri!» toisteli hän astuen yhä vain eteenpäin.

Ohikulkijat pelastivat hänet: ajomies kyyditsi kyläntietä jotakin

ukkoa, joka oli kauppias. Kun he saapuivat kohdalle, kysyi Mitja tietä,
ja selville kävi, että toisetkin olivat menossa Volovjaan. Ryhdyttiin
neuvottelemaan, ja Mitja pääsi rattaille mukaan. Noin kolmen tunnin
kuluttua oltiin perillä. Volovjan majatalossa Mitja tilasi heti kyydin
kaupunkiin, mutta huomasi äkkiä olevansa hirveän nälkäinen.
Hevosia valjastettaessa hänelle laitettiin munakokkeli. Hän söi sen
kaikki silmänräpäyksessä, söi ison leivänkimpaleen, söi esille
ilmestyneen makkaran ja joi kolme ryyppyä viinaa. Vahvistettuaan
itseään hän reipastui ja hänen mielensä kirkastui taas. Hän kiiti tietä
pitkin, hoputti kyytimiestä ja teki yht'äkkiä uuden ja aivan
»muuttumattoman» suunnitelman, miten saisi vielä ennen saman
päivän iltaa »nuo kirotut rahat». »Ja ajatella, ajatella, että noiden
jonninjoutavien kolmentuhannen takia tuhoutuu ihmiskohtalo!» Ja
jollei hän olisi lakkaamatta ajatellut Grušenjkaa ja sitä, eikö tälle ollut
jotakin tapahtunut, niin hän kenties olisi taas tullut aivan iloiseksi.
Mutta Grušenjkan ajattelu tunkeutui joka hetki hänen sieluunsa
terävän veitsen tavoin.

3.

Kultakaivos

Tämä oli juuri se Mitjan käynti, josta Grušenjka oli niin peläten
kertonut Rakitinille. Grušenjka odotteli silloin »pikalähettiään» ja oli
hyvin iloissaan siitä, että Mitja ei ollut käynyt edellisenä eikä sinä
päivänä, sekä toivoi, että hän, jos Jumala suo, ei tule ennen hänen
lähtöään, mutta silloin oli Mitja äkkiä tullutkin. Jatkon me tiedämme:
päästäkseen hänestä eroon oli Grušenjka heti pyytänyt häntä
saattamaan häntä Kuzjma Samsonovin luo, jonne Grušenjkan muka
välttämättömästi oli mentävä »rahoja laskemaan», ja kun Mitja oli
hänet sinne saattanut, niin hyvästellessään häntä Kuzjman portilla oli
Grušenjka ottanut häneltä lupauksen, että Mitja tulisi häntä
hakemaan kellon käydessä kahtatoista saattaakseen hänet takaisin
kotiin. Mitja oli iloissaankin tästä asiain järjestymisestä: »Hän istuu
Kuzjman luona, ei mene siis Fjodor Pavlovitšin luo… jollei hän vain
valehtele», lisäsi hän samassa. Mutta hänestä näytti, että Grušenjka
ei ollut valehdellut. Hänen mustasukkaisuutensa oli juuri sitä laatua,
että ollessaan erillään rakastamastaan naisesta hän kuvitteli heti
Jumala ties mitä kauheita asioita siitä, mitä naiselle tapahtuu ja
miten tämä siellä »pettää» häntä, mutta juostuaan taas naisen luo
järkytettynä, masentuneena, täysin vakuutettuna, että tämä on
ennättänyt olla hänelle uskoton, hän heti katsahdettuaan tämän
kasvoihin, tämän naisen nauraviin, iloisiin ja ystävällisiin kasvoihin,
tuossa tuokiossa reipastui mieleltään, lakkasi heti paikalla
epäilemästä ja iloisesti häveten soimasi itse itseään
mustasukkaisuudestaan. Saatettuaan Grušenjkan hän riensi
kotiinsa. Oi, hänen piti ennättää vielä toimittaa niin paljon tänään!
Mutta ainakin oli taakka sydämeltä pudonnut. »Pitäisi vain pian
saada tietää Smerdjakovilta, eikö siellä ole tapahtunut mitään eilen
illalla, eikö Grušenjka, mene tiedä, ole käynyt Fjodor Pavlovitšin
luona, uh!» välähti hänen päässään. Niin että hän ei ollut ennättänyt
vielä juosta asuntoonsa, kun mustasukkaisuus jo taas oli alkanut
liikahdella hänen rauhattomassa sydämessään.

Mustasukkaisuus! »Othello ei ole mustasukkainen, hän on

herkkäuskoinen», huomautti Puškin, ja jo tämä huomautus yksistään
todistaa tämän suuren venäläisen runoilijan älyn syvyyttä. Othellolla
on yksinkertaisesti rikki ruhjottu sielu, ja koko hänen
maailmankatsomuksensa on synkistynyt, sillä hänen ihanteensa on
sortunut. Mutta Othello ei rupea piileksimään, vakoilemaan,
pitämään salaa silmällä: hän on luottavainen. Päinvastoin häntä piti
johtaa äärelle, työntää eteenpäin, kiihoittaa erikoisin ponnistuksin,
että hän huomaisi uskottomuuden. Todella mustasukkainen ihminen
ei ole tämmöinen. On mahdotonta kuvitellakin koko sitä häpeätä ja
siveellistä alennustilaa, mihin mustasukkainen kykenee antautumaan
ilman mitään omantunnonvaivoja. Eikä ole niin, että he kaikki olisivat
alhaisia ja likaisia sieluja. Päinvastoin yleväsydäminen ihminen,
jonka rakkaus on puhdasta, täynnä uhrautuvaisuutta, voi kuitenkin
piiloutua pöytien alle, palkata halpamielisiä ihmisiä avukseen ja
viihtyä vakoilun ja salakuuntelun iljettävimmässä loassa. Othello ei
olisi voinut millään ehdolla tyytyä uskottomuuteen, — hän ei olisi
voinut antaa anteeksi ja tyytyä, — vaikka hänen sielunsa ei tunne
vihaa ja on viaton kuin lapsen sielu. Mutta toisin on todella
mustasukkaisen laita: vaikeata on kuvitella, mihin voi tyytyä ja viihtyä
ja mitä voi antaa anteeksi joku mustasukkainen! Mustasukkaiset
antavat anteeksi helpommin kuin kukaan muu, ja sen tietävät kaikki
naiset. Mustasukkainen kykenee tavattoman pian (tietysti pantuaan
ensin toimeen hirveän kohtauksen) antamaan anteeksi esimerkiksi jo
melkein todistetun uskottomuuden, hänen itsensä näkemät syleilyt ja
suutelot, jos hän samaan aikaan on esimerkiksi voinut jollakin tavoin
tulla vakuutetuksi siitä, että tämä tapahtui »viimeisen kerran» ja että
kilpailija tämän jälkeen heti katoaa, matkustaa maan ääriin tai että
hän itse vie naisensa pois johonkin sellaiseen paikkaan, johon tuo
peloittava kilpailija ei enää tule. Tietysti sovinto tapahtuu vain
hetkeksi, sillä jos kilpailija todella häviäisikin tiehensä, niin
mustasukkainen itse keksii jo seuraavana päivänä toisen, uuden, ja
tulee tälle mustasukkaiseksi. Luulisi, että mitä arvoa onkaan
sellaisella rakkaudella, jota täytyy noin pitää silmällä, ja mitä maksaa
rakkaus, jota pitää niin suurin ponnistuksin vahtia? Mutta juuri tätä ei
todella mustasukkainen koskaan käsitä, ja kuitenkin, toden totta,
semmoisten joukossa saattaa olla yleväsydämisiäkin ihmisiä.
Merkillistä on vielä se, että nämä samat yleväsydämiset ihmiset
seisoessaan jossakin komerossa salaa kuuntelemassa ja
vakoilemassa eivät, jos kohta he »ylevillä sydämillään» eivät selvästi
ymmärräkään kaikkea sitä siivottomuutta, johon he itse ovat
vapaaehtoisesti tuppautuneet mukaan, ainakaan sillä hetkellä, kun
seisovat tuossa komerossa, milloinkaan tunne omantunnonvaivoja.
Kun Mitja näki Grušenjkan, niin hänestä katosi mustasukkaisuus ja
hän muuttui silmänräpäyksen ajaksi luottavaiseksi ja jaloksi,
halveksipa itsekin itseään huonojen tunteittensa johdosta. Tämä
merkitsi vain sitä, että hänen rakkauteensa tuota naista kohtaan
sisältyi jotakin paljon korkeampaa kuin hän itse luulikaan eikä
ainoastaan intohimoa, ei ainoastaan »ruumiin kaartuma», josta hän
oli puhunut Aljošalle. Mutta kun Grušenjka katosi hänen näkyvistään,
niin Mitja alkoi heti taas epäillä hänessä kaikkea uskottomuuden
alhaisuutta ja kavaluutta. Eikä hän tällöin tuntenut mitään
tunnonvaivoja.

Mustasukkaisuus siis alkoi uudelleen kuohua hänessä. Joka

tapauksessa täytyi kiiruhtaa. Ensityöksi oli saatava vaikka pikkuisen
rahaa lainatuksi. Eiliset yhdeksän ruplaa olivat melkein kaikki
menneet matkalla, eikä aivan ilman rahaa tietenkään pääse
minnekään askeltakaan. Samalla kuin hän äsken rattailla istuessaan
oli miettinyt uutta suunnitelmaansa, oli hän myös tuuminut, mistä
saisi taskulainan. Hänellä oli pari kaksintaistelupistolia panoksineen,
ja se, että hän ei tähän saakka vielä ollut niitä pantannut, johtui siitä,
että hän piti niistä enemmän kuin mistään muista kapineistaan.
»Pääkaupunki»-ravintolassa hän oli jo kauan sitten jonkin verran
tutustunut erääseen nuoreen virkamieheen ja jotenkin saanut siellä
myös tietää, että tämä naimaton ja sangen varakas virkamies
intohimoisesti rakastaa aseita, ostelee pistoleja, revolvereja, tikareja,
ripustelee niitä seinilleen, näyttää tutuilleen, kehuskelee, osaa
mainiosti selittää revolverin rakenteen, kuinka se on ladattava,
kuinka laukaistava ym. Kauan ajattelematta Mitja heti meni hänen
luokseen ja ehdotti, että hän ottaisi pistolit pantiksi ja antaisi lainaksi
kymmenen ruplaa. Virkamies alkoi ilostuneena pyydellä häntä
myymään ne, mutta Mitja ei suostunut, ja virkamies antoi hänelle
kymmenen ruplaa ilmoittaen, ettei hän millään ehdolla ota korkoja.
He erosivat ystävinä. Mitja kiiruhti, hän riensi Fjodor Pavlovitšin talon
takalistoon, huvimajaansa, kutsuakseen mahdollisimman pian
puheilleen Smerdjakovin. Mutta tällä tavoin tuli merkille pannuksi
taaskin se tosiasia, että vain kolme tai neljä tuntia erään tapahtuman
edellä, josta tuonnempana tulee paljon puhuttavaksi, Mitjalla ei ollut
kopeekkaakaan rahaa ja että hän panttasi kymmenestä ruplasta
rakkaimmat kapineensa, kun taas äkkiä kolmen tunnin kuluttua
hänellä oli käsissään tuhansia… Mutta minähän teen hyppäyksen
eteenpäin.

Maria Kondratjevnan (Fjodor Pavlovitšin naapurin) luona häntä

odotti tieto Smerdjakovin sairaudesta, mikä tavattomasti hämmästytti
häntä ja teki hänet levottomaksi. Hän kuuli kertomuksen
putoamisesta kellariin, sitten kaatuvataudista, lääkärin tulosta, Fjodor
Pavlovitšin huolista; mielenkiinnolla hän kuuli senkin, että veli Ivan oli
jo aamulla lähtenyt Moskovaan. »Lienee ajanut ennen minua
Volovjan ohi», ajatteli Dmitri Fjodorovitš, mutta hän oli hirveän
huolissaan Smerdjakovin vuoksi: »Kuinka nyt käy, kuka nyt vahtii ja
antaa minulle tietoja?» Innokkaasti hän alkoi kysellä noilta naisilta,
eivätkö he olleet huomanneet mitään eilen illalla. Nämä ymmärsivät
sangen hyvin, mitä hän tiedusteli, ja haihduttivat täydelleen hänen
epäluulonsa: ei kukaan ollut käynyt, Ivan Fjodorovitš oli ollut yöllä
kotona, »kaikki oli täysin järjestyksessä». Mitja rupesi ajattelemaan.
Epäilemättä pitää tänäänkin vahtia, mutta missä: täälläkö vai
Samsonovin portilla? Hän päätti, että oli vahdittava kummassakin
paikassa, aina asianhaarain mukaan, kunnes, kunnes… Seikka oli
semmoinen, että nyt hänen edessään oli tuo »suunnitelma»,
äskeinen, uusi ja jo varma suunnitelma, jonka hän oli keksinyt
rattailla ja jonka toteuttamista ei enää voinut lykätä. Mitja päätti
uhrata siihen tunnin: »Tunnissa saan kaikki ratkaistuksi, saan kaikki
tietää, ja silloin, silloin, ensin menen Samsonovin taloon, otan
selville, onko Grušenjka siellä, ja sitten silmänräpäyksessä takaisin
tänne ja täällä kello yhteentoista asti, sitten taas Samsonovin luo
Grušenjkaa hakemaan ja saattamaan häntä kotiin.» Näin hän päätti.

Hän kiiruhti kotiinsa, peseytyi, kampasi tukkansa, puhdisti

vaatteensa, pukeutui ja lähti rouva Hohlakovin luo. Voi, hänen
»suunnitelmansa» oli täällä. Hän oli päättänyt lainata kolmetuhatta
tältä rouvalta. Ja tärkeintä on, että hän äkkiä ja ikäänkuin tuota pikaa
oli tullut tavattoman varmaksi siitä, ettei saa kieltävää vastausta.
Kenties ihmetellään sitä, että jos kerran hänellä oli tuo varmuus, niin
miksi hän ei jo aikaisemmin ollut mennyt sinne, niin sanoakseni
omaan piiriinsä, vaan lähti Samsonovin luo, laadultaan aivan oudon
miehen luo, jonka kanssa hän ei edes osannut oikealla tavalla
puhua. Mutta asia oli niin, että hän viime kuukauden aikana oli miltei
vieraantunut rouva Hohlakovista, jota hän aikaisemminkin tunsi
verraten vähän, ja sitäpaitsi hän tiesi varsin hyvin, ettei rouva
Hohlakovkaan voinut sietää häntä. Tämä rouva oli vihannut häntä
alusta alkaen yksinkertaisesti siitä syystä, että hän oli Katerina
Ivanovnan sulhanen, kun rouva Hohlakov taas jostakin syystä oli
saanut päähänsä, että Katerina Ivanovnan olisi hylättävä hänet ja
mentävä naimisiin »miellyttävän, ritarillisesti sivistyneen Ivan
Fjodorovitšin kanssa, jolla oli niin sievä käytöstapa.» Mitjan
käytöstapaa hän taas vihasi. Mitja puolestaan oli naureskellut
hänelle ja kerran jotenkin tullut sanoneeksi hänestä, että tämä rouva
on »yhtä vilkas ja ujostelematon kuin sivistymätönkin». Ja äsken
aamulla, rattailla, hänen mieleensä oli tullut valoisa ajatus: »Jos hän