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Computational
Psychoanalysis and
Formal Bi-Logic
Frameworks
Giuseppe Iurato
Independent Researcher, Italy
A volume in the Advances in Human and Social

Aspects of Technology (AHSAT) Book Series
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Iurato, Giuseppe, 1972- editor.
Title: Computational psychoanalysis and formal bi-logic frameworks / by
Giuseppe Iurato.
Description: Hershey, PA : Information Science Reference, [2018]
Identifiers: LCCN 2017028587| ISBN 9781522541288 (hardcover) | ISBN
9781522541295 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychoanalysis. | Logic.
Classification: LCC BF175 .C635 2018 | DDC 150.19/5--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017028587
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Table of Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................................................... vi
Introduction........................................................................................................................................ xvii
Chapter 1
An Epistemological Introduction and a General Overview..................................................................... 1
Chapter 2
Some Basic Elements of Psychoanalysis According to Sigmund Freud............................................... 38
Chapter 3
A Brief Account of Ignacio Matte Blanco Theory and Other Related Psychoanalytic Themes......... 114
Chapter 4
First Attempts to Formalize Some Main Aspects of Psychoanalysis: Towards a Computational
Psychoanalysis..................................................................................................................................... 136
Chapter 5
Foundations of Classical Logic and Its Applications to Informatics................................................... 206
Chapter 6
The Role of Unconscious Constructs in Logic and Their Applications to Informatics....................... 222
Chapter 7
Further Formalization Attempts of Matte Blanco’s Theory, of Other Psychoanalytic Ideas, and
Their Possible Applications to Informatics.......................................................................................... 255
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 300
About the Author............................................................................................................................... 330
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 331

vi
Preface
Computational psychoanalysis officially is born with the works of the Special Session (A5) kindly hosted
by the 13th IEEE ICCI*CC-2014 annual International Conference on Cognitive Informatics & Cognitive
Computing, held in London, UK, on August 18-20, 2014. As a truly new discipline, it started, on the
basis of the previous primary work made by Ignacio Matte Blanco in working out a formal ground to
the Freudian psychoanalysis, with the early basic works and contributions due to Andrei Khrennikov1,
Rosapia Lauro-Grotto and Fionn Murtagh, cited in chronological order. As one of the main purposes,
it basically tries to understand what are the primary formal structures and running mechanisms of the
unconscious, with the ambitious aim to possibly implement them into the wide computer sciences realm.
With respect to the works of the authors just mentioned above, we have anyhow tried to work out, in this
book, an independent, alternative framework in which to lay out some of the main concepts and notions
of Freudian psychoanalysis, mainly centred on logic.
The central aim of psychoanalysis, as established by Sigmund Freud since the end of 19th century,
has been to identify and understand the underlying unconscious mechanisms of consciousness, so trying
to clarify what is the role played by unconscious in the mental activity of human being. This has been
possible thanks to a particular clinical intervention that sees involved closely patient and analyst in the
so-called analytical setting, where psychoanalytic therapy is performed according to a certain, well-
established praxis learned first – to be then professed – within a particular group, that of community of
psychoanalysts, within which formation and training of the profession of psychoanalyst is possible and
obliged to be achieved. Afterwards, the psychoanalyst may exert her or his profession for the psycho-
logical well-being of those humans who ask her or his help. From this, it follows a closely personal and
individual feature of psychoanalysis and its therapy.
This situation has entailed the “castling” of psychoanalysis in itself, conferring to it a kind of inac-
cessible self-referentiality that has led this discipline out of scientific ones, even excluding it from those
psychological sciences which have a certain methodology thanks to which they may be classified as
scientific. All that is mainly due to the lacking of any possible “intersubjective” assessment of psycho-
analysis itself. On their part, psychoanalysts counterreply saying that it is not possible to do otherwise,
just due to the intimate relationship upon which analytical setting must rely to be as such, but with the
consequent effect to make ever more closed their world. This is the main reason why psychoanalysts are
so diffident in regard to any other thing that may interfere with their private analytic work, so intimate
and personally oriented.
As briefly said above, such a situation is the outcome of the nature itself of psychoanalysis and its
therapy, in particular by the subjective feature which distinguishes analytic setting. Nevertheless, this
does not prevent a possible, fruitful comparison with other disciplines, in view of a revisiting and a fur-

Preface
ther improvement of psychoanalysis itself. This is just what modestly we have tried to do in this work,
that is to say, try to provide a minimal rigorous status to aspects of psychoanalytic framework in the
Freudian trend, putting into a fruitful and constructive comparison some main notions, concepts and
methods of psychoanalysis with what has been historical offered by other disciplines. Psychoanalysis
itself, as having to do with an ever changing and an ever more complex world which is that of human
psyche, is an eminently historic discipline (as Freud himself more times pointed out), whose theoretical
framework is mainly based on what is empirically provided by the clinical experience coming from the
analytic setting, as possibly testified by the deontological honesty of every psychoanalyst, who herself
or himself puts the handle to modify, if necessary, the theory itself. And, we have based our work just
on this precious testimony of many psychoanalysts, who historically have followed Freud, trying to
identify a coherently logic pathway for building up a theoretical pattern which has those prerequisites
to be classified as rigorous, at least formally.
So, we have started from Freud to French psychoanalytic school, mainly made by Jacques Lacan,
Jean Laplanche, Jean-Bertrand Pontalis, Daniel Lagache, André Green and others (but not fully limited
to the rich French tradition, which however has been the most opened one towards interdisciplinary
perspectives), so identifying a common, persistent “formal theme” which goes from unconscious realm
to conscious thought: it is the phallic logic, a basic, primordial2, irreducible logical nucleus, encysted
deeply in the unconscious phylogenetically but that manifests itself, along all the epi-ontogenetic route
which goes from deepest unconscious to consciousness, in that it is what basically confers that primary,
constitutive binary and oppositional nature (whence, entailing dichotomization) to either conscious and
unconscious thought. Of course, usual (Aristotelian) binary logic, that basically characterizes conscious
thought, is an outcome of this phallic logic along the crucial passage from primary to secondary process,
as well as the formal basis of any possible computation. Therefore, phallic logic seems to be the first
structural invariant which goes from deep (structural) unconscious to consciousness.
At the basis of phallic logic, there seems to be a primary functional-logical pattern exemplified by
the so-called “Fort/Da” reel game. In turn, French school of psychoanalysis, above all with the work of
Jacques Lacan, identified the main unconscious mechanisms underlying phallic logic, which were sub-
sequently recollected together, above all by André Green (1993), in a finite set of primary mechanisms
which seem to be, in turn, commonly joined around a chief basic psychic operation, that of negative.
Upon this set of primary psychic unconscious mechanisms, we have delineated a possible theoretical
psychoanalytic model for human symbolic function, which has been built up on the basis of some con-
siderable contributions due to many psychoanalysts of the French school and others, joined together
for giving rise a coherent more comprehending theoretical model whose basic functionality is still a
primary oppositional dialecticity between certain systems of psychic agencies and subagencies. Also in
this case, a primary functional-logical role is played by the phallic logic. Therefore, it seems that this
irreducible logical nucleus treads the entire route which goes from deepest unconscious to conscious-
ness, so it seems to be a structural invariant of human psyche, already localized – as already said – in
the deepest unconscious.
The existence of this phallic logic, which is basically binary and oppositional in its functionality,
might be therefore ascribed to a founding structural unconscious, universally and ahistorically present
as such in every human being, just in the original sense given to it by Claude Lévi-Strauss. Such a phal-
lic logic, therefore, should be meant as a kind of universal, atemporal syntactic structure just based on
binary opposition, this being coherent with the meaning that Lévi-Strauss intended to give to his notion
of structural unconscious (Dei 2016, Ch. 5, Sect. 4), of which we shall give brief outlines later. It is often
vii
Preface
said that Lévi-Strauss reached the notion of structural unconscious through Roman Jakobson’s work on
structural linguistics, but this is not properly correct historically3. In fact, according to Lévi-Strauss’
testimony (Lévi-Strauss & Eribon, 1988), he worked out this notion during his period in the United
States – which was a truly important period for his training – in studying the work of Franz Boas, who
had, as early before Jakobson, pointed out, since early 1910s, the fundamental importance of unconscious
for language and other social phenomena. Jakobson has then indicated to Lévi-Strauss that structural
linguistics could provide to him the right tools to work out formally his related ideas.
The encounter of Lévi-Strauss with structural linguistics marked then the abandon of the classical
conception of anthropology as an empirical discipline4, a favour of an abstract level of reflection, hence
identifying those principles (oppositions, structures, formal relations) which are deemed, by Lévi-Strauss,
as universals of human soul, and thanks to which it is possible to put into relationship the various elements
of empirical research. The passage from the empirical level to the structural one, settled up by Marxism
and psychoanalysis, is made explicitly possible just thanks to the tools of structural linguistics. This will
lead to the abolishment of the traditional distinction between the so-called logical, rational and civilized
thought of modern humans on the one hand, and the prelogical, mystic and wild thought of primitives on
the other hand. For Lévi-Strauss, what is really important is the identification and enunciation of those
laws and rules of thought (not its content) which are invariant just because as such are the structures
by means of human mind organizes the intellection of phenomenological world (Fabietti 2013, p. 32).
Lévi-Strauss introduced his notion of structural unconscious in Les structures élémentaires de la
parenté of 1949, with which opened the structuralistic trend in anthropology. In this celebrated work,
Lévi-Strauss, also with the support of the mathematician André Weil, claimed the importance to shift
the attention of anthropological analysis from terms or objects to their relations, which therefore will
become central for the whole of anthropology. These relations, then, will be brought back, by Lévi-
Strauss, to certain fundamental types, having a main oppositional nature5; so, binary oppositions will be
the generating transformations6 of all those possible relations which may be established socially. This
is in agreement with the in-depth prevalence of phallic logic as mentioned above, this primordial and
irreducible logical nucleus just having a main binary oppositional nature. Lévi-Strauss considered this
basic logical nucleus as founding symbolic thought, as early present in the primitives (and therefore
called, by Lévi-Strauss, “le pensée sauvage”, but not according to a derogatory intention) as such in their
mythic formations (Tullio-Altan, 1968, Ch. 1, Sect. 2; 1971, Ch. II, Sect. 9, IV; 1983, Ch. 20).
This phallic logic, as introduced by French school of psychoanalysis, also on the basis of what has
been done by Lévi-Strauss (by means of Lacan’s work), is moulded, as has been indicated above, by
the “Fort/Da” reel game, which, nevertheless, should be meant as introducing only a basic process of
opposition between signifiers – i.e., the institution of the trait of difference “/” – without any picking up
of signified. This is typical, for instance, of certain mythical thoughts and schizophrenic reasoning, in
which there is often an unending chain of multiple oppositions with a mere shifting from a signifier to
another, without any meaningful conclusion (Laplanche 2001, p. 307). This – Lacan says – because there
is no anchoring point with which the net of signifiers may catch at least one signified. But, this does
not entail the pinning up of a signified to a signified, but rather the pinning up of a signifier on another,
more basic signifier, i.e., the so-called primal signifier, or phallus7, which has been chosen symbolically
by humanity in its ancestrality, with a mythical act therefore, when the Name-of-the-Father was first
established, that is to say, when the Œdipal Law did its coming into human society. Even according to
Lacan, this primal anchoring could take place therefore only when a chain of signifiers stopped or col-
lapsed into a primary signifier, i.e., the phallus, already existent even before the existence of unconscious,
viii
Preface
rather itself founding the (structural) unconscious with a primordial act, whose mechanism Freud says
to be the original (or primal) repression.
This last would have given rise to such a primordial signifier that, in turn, would have played its basic
function of breaking the continuous and endless shifting of the chain of signifiers, thanks to its basic
nature of attractor of this chain, collapsing into it. So, primal repression would have therefore mythically
created an attracting hole (due to a primordial absence coming from “Fort/Da” mechanism) around which
to throw down these signifier chains, placed at the deepest meanders of unconscious, the main source
of that typical human psyche feature which is the existential anguish. In this fashion unconscious arose,
and in this sense it should be meant as a maker of meaning by means of its characteristic structure of set
of signifiers (Laplanche, 2001). Just the rising of this hole is the first, primordial, mythical, founding
act of the phallic logic and its running; this hole, then, arises from an original repression, in that it was
primordially a signifier which couldn’t remain into consciousness, so it was just originally repressed
by fixation.
This primal signifier, however, had to be conscious before it had being repressed, so, mythically,
there should have been a primordial stage (of humanity) in which there wasn’t a distinction between
conscious and preconscious, that is, there had to be a unilinear language made by senseless chains of
signifiers, like that of schizophrenics or mythical thought, continuously shifting. Whence, in agreement
with Jacques Lacan, Jean Laplanche and Serge Leclaire (Laplanche, 2001), this primal fixation, by
anticathexis, inscribed an original signifier (or chain of primal signifiers) which gave rise to the very
first, irreducible nucleus of unconscious, i.e., the phallic logic. Just Freud himself, we here note, had an
astonishing intuition: he says that this primordial nucleus of unconscious is as if it were sprung out from
a hole, from a something which is yet empty, hence, such a phallic logic, binarily oppositional ( + / − ),
is as if it were sprung out from an emptiness, like two opposite electric charges ( + / − ) sprung out, by
splitting, from a nothing8 (Laplanche 2001, p. 313). Anyway, this original cleavage, according to a re-
visitation of original Freudian ideas by Lacan, unconscious producing, should be identified with the
existence of certain key-signifiers which will regulate and ordinate all the human language; one of these,
is the phallus (as paternal metaphor).
Now, following closely Lévi-Strauss’ words, we give a simple instance of formalization of the idea of
structural unconscious according to Lévi-Strauss which will provide, among other things, an emblematic
formal pattern for the further formalization processes carried out later. In this regard, Lévi-Strauss before
all says that the notion of structure is unthinkable without making reference to that of transformation
which, in turn, was drawn up from history of natural sciences, first of all, from D’Arcy W. Thompson’s
celebrated work On the Growth and Form of 1917, in which he saw the many possible differences between
species of the same genus as the outcomes of the action of a transformation of something typical of that
genus9. Formalizing suitably this idea, Lévi-Strauss reached to consider the category of algebraic systems,
i.e., sets equipped with their own relations, so that what he calls structure should be nothing but the set
of all the possible transformations (like, for instance, the homomorphisms) each of which act from one
algebraic system to another. The set of all the possible transformations of this type, then, has naturally
the algebraic structure of a group, which therefore acts on the category of these algebraic systems.
Thus, a structure, according to Lévi-Strauss, should be formally given by a certain transformation
group acting on a certain set of algebraic systems (like, for instance, a category). Lévi-Strauss then speci-
fies that, in structural anthropology, such transformations have, above all, binary oppositional nature.
Anyway, what Lévi-Strauss wishes to point out is the primordial establishment of these transformations,
which confer a universal, invariant and ahistorical nature to the basic human behaving. Indeed, Lévi-
ix
Preface
Strauss highlights that, for instance, if we wish to account for the diversity of all the marriage rules
existing between the subgroups of society, then we may invoke a unique, primary basic syntactic law
underlying them, that of exchange10, founded originally by the Œdipal principle, which identifies an
original transformation whose possible functional states or realizations are just these possible marriage
rules changing, in the time, in their semantic (i.e., the meaning assigned to a marriage) and pragmatic
(i.e., the contextual usage and aim of a marriage) features, but however undergoing a universal, atemporal
transformation primordially established11 which intersubjectively rules (together other transformations)
human mind, its functioning and the consequent behaviour (Lévi-Strauss & Eribon, 1988, Chs. 11, 13).
In a few words, the group of these transformations, called into question by Lévi-Strauss, should be
those deeply enrooted in the deepest meanders of human mind, that is to say, in the unconscious, which
therefore assumes a structural nature universally shared. The various historical realizations of the ac-
tion of these transformations as a group elements, will be what historically make so subjective the life
experience of every human being, giving content to these forms already predetermined or inborn, maybe
prehistorically established during homination process. Along this formal line opened by Lévi-Strauss,
we have retaken this last formal view claiming a remarkable role played by the action of a certain group
of transformations for the development of human consciousness itself, whose elements are defined in
the unconscious, and whose realizations are nothing but the product of the historicity of every human
being. As such, the action of these transformations is accordingly related unavoidably with the crucial
passage from the primary process (regarding unconscious) to the secondary one (regarding conscious-
ness), so that we have followed this line in trying to further formalize this passage.
To this end, we have made appeal first to Ignacio Matte Blanco work, which has reconsidered the
Freudian theory from a formal viewpoint, trying to identify its formal aspects, so reaching to a defi-
nition of structural unconscious which should be then clarified in its possible relationships with that
introduced by Lévi-Strauss. To be precise, the work of Matte Blanco has been mainly turned toward
the identification of the formal aspects of the Freudian unconscious as a domain upon which then will
functionally act those universal transformations that set up those invariant and ahistorical pre-schemata
of human mind. So, we have to distinguish between a static structural unconscious as worked out (almost
axiomatically) by Matte Blanco, and a dynamical structural unconscious as worked out by Lévi-Strauss,
or better, Matte Blanco has identified the static aspects (like the absence of the space-time dimensions,
the occurrence of the internal mechanisms of displacement, condensation and absence of negation, and
so on), while Lévi-Strauss has identified the dynamical aspects of the structural unconscious (i.e., how
functionally it works, for example, by repression12), whose next historical realizations will account for
the subjective aspects of it, for every human individual experience of life. This, so to say, Matte Blanco/
Lévi-Strauss structural unconscious, we hypothesize might be phylogenetically arisen during the com-
mon, very long homination process which has undergone human evolution before the coming of genus
Homo, just parallel to the brain formation process13.
Only supposing phylogenetically pre-existent a model of structural unconscious of this type, then epi-
ontogenetically14 determined subjectively along each individual human life experience, we may look at
an objective status to psychoanalysis. Since the latest neuroscience researches applied to psychoanalysis
(Kandell, 2005; Kaplan-Solms & Solms, 2000; Mancia, 2006; Oliverio, 1982, 2009, 2011, 2016; Sasso,
2005, 2011; Solms & Turnbull, 2003) point out what fundamental role plays unconscious for the whole
psychic life of every human being, whose roots should be identified in the most ancient brain zones
(i.e., in the paleoencephalon and mesencephalon), it seems that the primal instincts, whose functions
are localized just in these most ancient zones, have been subsequently ruled by the higher functions of
x
Preface
the other, most recent (phylogenetically) cerebral zones (from midbrain to forebrain, and above all by
this last15), so structuring, in a more complex manner, these drives mainly by attachment or anaclisis,
that is, as already stated by Freud himself, through an inseparable coexistence of the sexual drives with
the somatic needs, inextricable of each other in the childhood and with the former that only later may
become independent gradually from the latter16.
These last views are quite reasonable for what has been indicated above in regard to embodiment
theory of mind. Further, coherently with this viewpoint, Jean Laplanche (2008) has taken into account
the possible existence of a drive subversion in the sense that, besides the existence of the primary in-
stincts to be satisfied for the life and self-preservation principles ruling needs, brain evolution has also
entailed a pleasure/displeasure principle ruling (by neopallium) desire, which nevertheless often goes
against the first needs of instinctual satisfactions (by hindbrain and midbrain), so giving rise to a basic,
binary oppositional feature which characterizes human beings, but that implies too the parallel chance to
overcome possibly this basic contrast by means of symbolic formation and elaboration17. These consid-
erations, together the main identification of a basic phallic logic by the French school of psychoanalysis
(whose work, in turn, is based on Lévi-Strauss’ ideas), have led us to give credit to a possible formal
pattern for human symbolic function based on embodied mind hypothesis, and whose basic dialecticity
is liable to be easily formalized. So, with the phylogenetic rising of neocortex upon subcortical cerebral
zones, we have, by means of (psychoanalytic) defence mechanisms ruling (by neopallium, during epi-
ontogenesis) basic drives and instincts (coming from paleopallium), the development of consciousness
in all its complexity.
But, retaken Lévi-Strauss’ ideas as briefly mentioned above in its essential formal sketch, as well as
its possible links with Matte Blanco’s ideas on structural unconscious, so reaching to identify a more
composed construct of structural unconscious (i.e., the Matte Blanco/Lévi-Strauss structural unconscious),
we have further worked out other possible formalizations of some Matte Blanco’s ideas within this new
formal framework, as those of symmetry and asymmetry principles and their relationships within bi-
logic, making use of elementary notions of mathematics and theoretical physics, as those of groupoid
and symmetry breaking, to account for the chief feature of human consciousness, that is to say, the order-
ing, from which, for example, arises the temporal dimension and its psychic evaluation. We have then
made too other more advanced formalizations on the basis of these first more elementary statements
which however are in agreement with the discovery of the above mentioned phallic logic in that such
an ordering springs out from a basic inversion symmetry breaking. Carrying on along this line, we have
then mentioned some further mathematical models of other psychoanalytic notions, based on p-adic
analysis, hence we have also briefly recalled the main aspects of the so-called affect logic, due to Luc
Ciompi, which is a proposal whose pattern seems very close to Matte Blanco’s ideas but independently
worked out from these latter. We have also mentioned the possible links with physics put forward by
Ciompi in regard to his model, to support further what we have done before from the same perspective.
Finally, on the basis of what has been expressed so far, we have put a lot of attention to certain pos-
sible computational implementations, applications and developments of unconscious constructs, taking
into account the main features of these latter. Indeed, from the previous discussions and arguments
achieved, we have indentified some typical features of unconscious, among which are above all the
absence of the non-contradiction principle and timelessness. This has been mainly pursued within the
framework of logic and its possible trends, identifying and arguing with those which seem to be more
xi
Preface
able to accomplish the computational realizations of these two chief unconscious features. At the same
time, we have also considered those informatic notions, like synchronicity/asynchronicity, parallel/con-
current and sequential circuits, which are liable to be related with these last requests. In particular, we
have devoted a part of our treatment to discuss temporal and modal logics and their related applications
aimed to achieve possible computational implementations of unconscious constructs as analyzed above.
In conclusion, the main aim of this work has been to identify those possible formal aspects of uncon-
scious processes, above all through the works of French school of humanities. In pursuing this, we have
identified a basic, irreducible logical nucleus called phallic logic, which characterizes human psyche
development and function, from unconscious realm to consciousness, it being the primary ground for
the binary oppositional and dichotomical nature featuring human psyche in its wholeness. This early,
innate and irreducible logical nucleus is also at the basis of the origin of the usual binary reasoning of
Aristotelian logic, hence of elementary Boolean algebra, so that quite evident are the possible implica-
tions to informatics. This crucial outcome has been made possible from the overall analysis of formal
applications of exact and natural sciences methods and notions to psychoanalytic context, which is licit
to be pursued only when we assume that epistemological stance according to which there exist certain
universal, inborn pre-schemata of human psyche which therefore, as such, may be objectively grasped
hence formally treated.
These have been placed into the so-called structural unconscious, as moulded by Lévi-Strauss and
Matte Blanco, and two typical instances of them are just phallic logic and original (or primal) phantasies.
Afterwards, going on in analysing the formal features of this structural unconscious, it has been possible
to identify other aspects which verify this requirement of formality, among which is timelessness, which
has been then considered further in view of its possible computational usage and implementation. Just in
this regard, we stress the fact that what we have mainly considered is the unconscious according to Freud,
as revisited by Lévi-Strauss, by Matte Blanco and by French psychoanalysts, not the other constructs of
unconscious according to neurosciences18, of which we have at most taken into account those features
that are in common with Freudian unconscious – like timelessness – which is mainly characterized as
an entity due to repression mechanism.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
My thanks go to the Director of IGI Global Publisher, Jan Travers, as well as to my Assistant Develop-
ment Editor, Jordan Tepper, for what they have done to make possible this new publication.
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ENDNOTES
1
After the pioneering works of Matte Blanco (1975, 1988), which have opened, for the first time, the
interdisciplinary intertwinements between psychoanalysis and exact sciences, Khrennikov (2002)
has written the first, organic and complete work on a possible mathematical physics treatment of
psychological sciences (with a particular attention to psychoanalysis) from an advanced standpoint.
2
We believe that this ancestral logical nucleus sprung out during homination process – as will be
briefly mentioned in the Introduction – according to a psychic pattern based on a set of primary
unconscious mechanisms recollected around the negative, according to André Green (1993), as
exposed in (Iurato 2013b,c, 2014c, 2016e), and supported by the considerations made in (Kim
2016, Part I, Ch. 2).
xiv
Preface
3
Cf. (Moravia 2004, p. 291). Anyhow, the constant reference to the unconscious dimension of lin-
guistic (phonemic, in particular) competence of human language, will become the epistemological
foundation of the whole structuralistic anthropology (Carotenuto 1992, p. 173; Silvestri 2013, p.
111).
4
See also (Dei & Simonicca, 2008) for some epistemological perspectives in anthropology.
5
Cf. (Deliège 2006, Ch. 5).
6
According to structural linguistics, in a functional manner similar to the modalities of functioning
of genetic code with its finite basis (Fabietti 2013, p. 35).
7
Henceforth, when we shall use the term of phallus, we refer to its widest psychoanalytic sense,
above all to its pregnant symbolic meaning.
8
Here, we see a conceptual analogy with Paul Dirac’s hole theory of electric charges, as well as with
the basic elements of the theory of spontaneous symmetry breaking of elementary particle theory
(see later).
9
Cf. (Lévi-Strauss & Eribon 1988, Ch. 11).
10
That Lévi-Strauss puts at the early and basic foundational act of society with its elaborated orga-
nization. This act of exchange has concerned firstly exchange of economical assets from which,
then, culture arose (Lévi-Strauss & Eribon 1988, Ch. 14); see also (Iurato, 2016d).
11
See also (Dei 2014, Ch. 5, Sect. 4).
12
A typical instance of this, is just the mechanism of primal (or original) repression giving rise to
original phantasies, which are just universal features of human psyche, hence to be ascribed to
Lévi-Strauss’ structural unconscious.
13
This is in agreement with latest neuropsychoanalytic trends according to which most of psychic
life in humans seems however ruled, in a certain manner (i.e., unconsciously), by those most phy-
logenetically ancient zones of human brain localized in the paleoencephalon and mesencephalon
(Oliverio, 1982, 2009, 2011; Piscicelli, 1994; Rosenthal, 1971; Solms & Turnbull, 2003). Moreover,
current presences of phylogenetic remnants in the epi-ontogenetic development of every human
being, are retraceable also physiologically; cf. (Iurato, 2015c). In a few words, phylogenesis is the
chromosomal heredity as results from human species evolution, ontogenesis is the extrachromo-
somal memory which warrants the functional development of all the functional (phylogenetic)
acquisitions potentially present into the human species at a given moment of its evolution, while
epigenesis is the action of the adaptive social and environmental influences (Piscicelli 1994, Cap.
I).
14
Ontogenesis occurs as an integration point between the individual history of epigenesis and the
universal history of phylogenesis (Piscicelli 1994, Cap. I).
15
See, above all, (Oliverio 1982, Parte II, Capp. 5, 6; 2011, Cap. II; Piscicelli 1994, Cap. I, pp. 18-
26). Three are the main phenomena involved in the phylogenetic evolution of human brain: 1) the
augmentation of the cerebral mass, in particular of the neocortex undergoing the so-called rule of
cerebral progression; 2) the encephalization, consisting in a hierarchization of cerebral structures
in which the most recent ones dominate on the most ancient ones, in terms of phylogenesis, also
with integration and association functions; 3) the cellular reorganization and restructuration of
cerebral tissues. In particular, in regard to point 2), a very remarkable factor concurring in the en-
cephalization process is the extensive and capillary embodiment of the two-ways neural information
going through the whole nervous system, from the peripheral one (as sensory-motor information)
xv
Preface
to the central one (as mental content), and vice versa (Oliverio 1982, Cap. 5). This provides solid
neurophysiological bases to the embodied theories of mind and related theories of human psyche.
16
But never completely disjoined of each other; sublimation, for instance, is due to an independence
from the somatic attachment. This is coherent with all those theories of embodied mind, with which
we rely, for instance, when we shall describe a possible model of human symbolic function based
on fetishism (see next Chapter 2, Sect. 2.8). See also (Piscicelli 1994, Cap. I).
17
Cf. (Conrotto 2014, Ch. 3, Sect. 3).
18
See (Oliverio, 2009).
xvi
xvii
Introduction
A possible way to give a formal framework to psychoanalysis (but the argument is also valid for general
psychological sciences), is to look at those trends of epistemology of human sciences that claim the
existence of innate pre-schemata structurally performing human mind and its psychic manifestations. We
argue that these might have been implemented during the long homination process in concomitance with
the rising of midbrain and, above all, forebrain, which have played the main role to regulate and control
drive pushes coming from hindbrain. In such a manner, it is licit to search for possible formal aspects of
these underlying mental structures of human being (like the primal phantasies, in psychoanalytic case),
phylogenetically predetermined and epi-ontogenetically re-enacted during the life course of human
being. This is the main epistemological stance we have adopted in working out possible formalization
attempts of psychoanalysis.
Whatever they (i.e., its detractors) may say about psychoanalysis, a little of intellectual honesty, at
least internally evoked1 and accordingly felt if any, is quite enough to recognize, without any doubt, the
great, revolutionary impact exerted by psychoanalysis, by the genius of Sigmund Freud, his foresight,
his bravery, his honesty and his perseverance, on the whole of human knowledge, beyond its benefits
achieved at the psychological and clinical level. Freud has inexorably inflicted another, harder and
deeper “narcissistic wound” to the human beings, reappraising a lot, her or his apparent “omnipotence”.
Accordingly, the many, violent and continuous attacks that psychoanalysis has undergone, are therefore
quite justified, if we may say so, just in the light of what it has really discovered, that is to say, the deep
and obscure nature of human psyche. Neglecting fully those criticisms that settle out psychoanalysis as
a non-science2 and wholly devoid of any possible scientific feature, in that they are not reasonable and
not deeply discussed or rightly argued as ought, we instead provide herein a brief but complete justifi-
cation of our intentions and methods pursued in this brief work, mainly aimed to expose some possible
formalization attempts of psychoanalysis, according to Freudian trend.
The various criticisms on the alleged non-scientificity of psychoanalysis are “rationally” due to the
usual positivistic standpoints of the so-called natural and exact sciences, whose models would be the
only depository of real objective knowledge, if one admits existing a unique reality structured in only
one level, that of the external world whose empirical phenomenology should be more or less directly
determined only with experimental methods. The objectivity of the scientific knowledge would also derive
from certain invariance principles which basically establish a certain constant extrasubjective presence
of this external reality which warrants its determination in every place and at each instant (space-time
invariance principle3) thanks to a precise methodology scientifically settled according to commonly
shared criteria of the so-called scientific community of all around the world. The experimental data so
gained, are then formally treated, according to a precise statistical methodology, hence laid out within a
theoretical framework which will provide a theory for those phenomenology so observed.

Introduction
This latter step, is mainly characterized by the use of mathematical methods, in that mathematics
is deemed, after Galileo Galilei, as the “formal language” of nature. Certain trends of philosophy of
sciences would want hence to see the notions and structures of mathematics as forming that formal
language with which human being is able to know external reality, so having a theoretical framework
worked out mathematically, is deemed to be a preliminary condition in order to a theory of knowledge
may be considered as rigorous and objective, hence scientifically valid only when there holds a certain
methodological correspondence, more or less direct, between what is declared by theory and its empiri-
cal counterpart experimentally ascertained in the case of natural science. This last dialecticity between
theory and experience is an unavoidable requisite for the scientificity of a theory. It is not given once
and for all, but it should actuated periodically in the course of time, from which a basic historic feature
of scientific theories follows too.
Therefore, also scientific knowledge has an intrinsic historical feature in that the knowledge of the
external world which it would want to recognize, is not given just as has been already said above, once
and for all, but it constantly undergoes to a revision and control under the coming of either new knowledge
from other fields and progresses of technology because the close and inseparable relationships between a
scientific theory and its experimental verifications, are inevitably mediated by technology, which allows
us a contact with certain aspects of the external reality, just the object of study of scientific knowledge.
This has also allowed us to may suitably change and control these aspects of external reality, as, for in-
stance, is possible to do in the biological science context. And, just this last capability is that conferring
a strong sense of objectivity to the scientific knowledge, as well as an ever more increasing “sense of
omnipotence” of human being, together (we hope) to an ethical responsibility in handling this capability.
Likewise, if scientific knowledge has a typical historical feature in regard to the examination of an
external reality presumed to be objective and spatial-temporally invariant, it follows that historicity is a
perspective which has a pregnant epistemological aim4. To be precise, it is with the evolution of human-
ity, meant in its widest sense, that progresses in the knowledge are achievable, even for objects which
are supposed to be invariant and independent from humans, like the external reality. For more reason,
this discussion is primary for the object of study of humanities, which is often a reality changing with
the humanity’s evolution itself5. This is the case of human psyche, whose changing is mainly due to the
inextricable intertwinements between the genotype, phylogenetically6 established, and its phenotypic
expression, occurring along epi-ontogenesis7 of the human being, depending on the (epigenetic) com-
plexity of the possible environmental influences which it may undergo (Kandel, 2005; Morris, 2015).
In a few words, what is really important for the human epi-ontogenetic evolution is the phenotypic
expression of the genotype (as phylogenetically determined8), whence the fundamental importance of
the environment9, meant in its widest sense, for the general development of the human being. And this,
of course, holds too for the development of human psyche, so that, in the particular case of its theoretical
models, a crucial role should be played by the environmental conditions in which human being grows
up. For psychoanalysis, this last point is one of its epistemological pillars, in that a primary attention is
paid just to the first years of development of the child and to the environment in which he or she grows
up, a crucial period of the life of every human being, this, which plays a fundamental deterministic role
in the next psychic development. The psychoanalytic therapy is just focussed on the events of this period,
especially the early part. The analytical setting, then, as a precious intimate moment to be shared only
between analyst and patient, is centred on a certain re-actualization of this period, with the aim to solve
the conflicts established in the childhood.
xviii
Introduction
And, it is just upon this last scenario that psychoanalysis has received its most violent attacks, de-
claring as not scientifically pertinent the outcomes of the analytical setting, as well as not liable to be
properly assessed, in that the subjectivity there involved is so high to make almost impossible a statistical
evaluation of the needed data required by the ordinary scientific methodology. So, for psychoanalysis,
the usual psychometric methodology, commonly adopted by other psychological disciplines (deemed,
for this, to have a scientific status), is not applicable, just for the impossibility of a statistical treatment
of the outcomes of analytical setting. This, independently from any other criticism moved to the theo-
retical framework of psychoanalysis from an epistemological standpoint, like the celebrated ones due
Karl Popper on the lacking of falsificability of psychoanalytic theory, in that every its interpretation, of
a psychic event or fact, is equally and however valid.
Nevertheless, just for the fundamental importance that historicity plays for the general progress of
human knowledge, included the scientific one, we should be more inclined to assume another, more
comprehensive and reasonable, point of view, besides this last. To be precise, we should be more favour-
able to undertake the point of view that looks at the founding historical nature owned by the psycho-
analytic movement (De Mijolla & De Mijolla Mellor 1998, pp. 5-12), an intrinsic historical feature of
psychoanalysis that as early Freud himself claimed. So, it is built up on the multitudinous testimonies,
works and practices of who has belonged to the so-called psychoanalytic community, contributing to
its theory, therapy, clinic. So, psychoanalysis is being to acquire its own corpus of doctrine meanwhile
it gradually assimilates coherently and constructively all these contributions, enlarging and improving
its theoretical framework as well as its clinical praxis, and vice versa, in that these latter are inseparable
of each other (Freudian Junktim10).
Now, along this historical process of gradual and progressive enrichment within Freudian Junktim,
we might adopt a particular method of historical comparison thanks to which descry possible, underlying
conceptual analogies and constancies leading to the identification of certain almost universal structures
characterizing human psyche and its functioning, whose form is basically predetermined phylogenetically
(at the epigenetic level), hence is collective, but whose content, being then epi-ontogenetically established,
is personal, individual, by means of the so-called symptom. This might explain why psychoanalysis has
a chief “subjective character” which excludes it from scientific disciplines ordinarily meant as such, a
feature, this, that will be put into place, intimately, in the analytical setting. But, the possible testimonies
in favour of psychoanalytic technique in regard to its therapeutic efficiency, have been deemed as not
valid at an epistemological level11 (Funari 2007, pp. 156-157).
According to the latest epistemological issues12, at the early basis of human knowledge there seems
to exist pre-existing psychic (or mental) structures which resemble Plato’s and Kant’s related notions,
hence we are quite near also to structuralism Lévi-Strauss’ ideas as well as to Jerry Fodor’s modularity
theory of mind13, and which have been phylogenetically pre-determined (above all, at the epigenetic
level14) during the very long15 homination process (within Hominidae), started about 30 million years
ago, and ended with the last remained and not extinguished species of genus Homo, that of Homo
sapiens, appeared about 190,000 years ago. Along this long evolutionary process, it took place an ex-
traordinary regression of the natural instincts, gradually replaced by the culture, which has been made
possible thanks to the rising of symbolic function16 (Cuche, 2004; Tartabini & Giusti, 2006), whence,
of the language, at around 80,000 years ago17 when, in a very narrow time interval18, a small group of
African hominids underwent, so to say, a kind of functional “rewiring” of brain structures which estab-
lished the main functional linguistic operations that only later will be externalized in a sensory-motor
way; language, therefore, appeared to accomplish internal functional (hence, mainly qualitative) scopes
xix
Introduction
and aims of thought, and not for communication needs (Berwick & Chomsky, 2016). During this very
long course, a parallel evolution of the brain has occurred too, which was characterized above all by the
new formations of the neopallium19, i.e., that region of the brain mainly deputed to the execution and
control of higher-order brain functions, such as cognition, sensory-motor perception, language, as well
as in presiding over the emotions (above all, thanks to prefrontal cortex, which is interested by most of
neural circuits) 20. Recent neurosciences21, then, say us that our brain mainly runs according to already
preformed functions (or functional pre-schemas or modules22), phylogenetically determined (above all,
at the epigenetic level) but not closely located or rigidly constrained into certain brain zones, which are
then epi-ontogenetically subjectively re-enacted, more or less efficaciously, along the individual life, in
dependence on the personal environment and upbringing.
So, we might hypothesize, according to evolutionary biology and psychology23, that, during this long
and crucial period of homination24, the phylogenetic evolution of the brain25 together the body (and vice
versa), ran parallel to the development of psyche and its (mental) structuration, with the (phylo)genetic
implementation (above all, at the epigenetic level) of the actual mental functions mainly by attachment
(or anaclisis, according to the newest psychoanalytic trends26), just in agreement with those recent trends
of philosophy of mind and neurosciences, which see body and mind as rightly inseparable (embodied
mind). This should be the early origin of the pre-schemes or modules of psychic functions, so phylo-
genetically determined by (epigenetic) implementation occurred along homination, then, from Homo
sapiens onwards, ready to be ontogenetically re-enacted individually with the phenotypic expression of
own genotype. In this view, we might think to psychoanalysis as a particular humanistic discipline which
tries to identify and study those (almost) universal (as phylogenetically predetermined) psychic functions
understandable according to its explaining model worked out initially by Freud, but afterwards continu-
ously, historically underwent, within psychoanalytic community, to changes, improvements and enlarge-
ments in dependence on the outcomes of either its therapeutic praxis and its theoretical interpretation.
This, should confer a more objective status to psychoanalysis, being turned towards a collective
behaviour rather than an individual one. To be precise, admitted the phylogenetic pre-determination of
psychic functions (at the epigenetic level), we may look at the universality feature of these, even when
they are studied and approached according to psychoanalytic methods, provided that these are reformu-
lated in such a manner to search for the universality feature characterizing them, like for original (or
primal) phantasies, as clearly highlighted, for instance, by Jean Laplanche and Jean-Bertrand Pontalis
(1967, 1988). It has been the remarkable and wide work of these last two eminent French psychoanalysts
(but not strictly limited to them – see later), to have tried to identify that universal feature characterizing
concepts and notions of Freudian psychoanalysis, thanks to which it is therefore feasible to looking for
a possible “objective” feature of psychoanalytic concepts and notions27. This is, besides, coherent with
the simple fact that psychoanalysis has mainly to do with affect, a primary psychic component not only
of human beings but also of all primates and of many other animals (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1996; Panksepp
& Biven, 2012) which share with us main basic components of it, so, it is presumable that along homi-
nation, above all control and execution of affects have been the main evolutionary tasks to be faced28.
So, psychoanalysis should be viewed from an evolutionary standpoint, in the sense that just in the
homination period, most of Freudian concepts, notions and methods find their natural collocation and
motivation from a genetic epistemology standpoint. For instance, we might hypothesize that defence
mechanisms of the Ego (Anna Freud, 1937; Nicasi, 1981), which rule, with their outcomes, conscious-
xx
Introduction
ness29, have spring out just along this critical evolutionary course, in which predominated, in a bloody
fight, death and life drives (also pushed by hormonal onrushes), and couldn’t be otherwise at that state.
Therefore, just in this critical period, we should retrace the possible deterministic bases for the human
psychic development, for instance searching for possible universal schemas of behaviour, genotypically
invariant but liable to be phenotypically developed30 (as well as changeable at the epigenetic level); among
these, we may, for example, lay out just the original (or primal) phantasies, as regard more properly
psychoanalytic context. Thus, parallel to an individual biological development and differentiation, we
may have a kind of psychic development and differentiation which starts with an undifferentiated mixed
between Id (or Es) and Ego, hence with a first phase of differentiation (by phenotype) between these two
main agencies by environmental action, to be followed afterwards by a second phase of differentiation
by the familial action (Œdipal triadicity), with the rising of the third (normative) agency, the Super-Ego,
so reaching the psychic individuality by each human being (Semi 1988-89, Vol. I, Ch. 7, Sect. 7.3).
In this regard, Freud himself, in Moses and Monotheism (of 1934-38), just the last works wrote by him,
were extremely foresight in applying psychoanalysis to the historical analysis, stating, among other things,
that the crucial passage from “nature” to “culture” took place with the rising of the language31 and with
the shift from matriarchate32 (with the rising of the undifferentiated pair Es-Ego) to patriarchate (with
the rising of Super-Ego, mainly by rituality). Maybe, these precious and clear considerations by Freud,
should be applied even before the historical period analyzed by him, to be more precise, these should
be applied to the homination period, until up the coming of latest species of the genus Homo, above all
Homo sapiens. Freud also speaks of “mnestic traces of archaic experiences of the human species33”, as,
for instance, the original phantasies (Laplanche & Pontalis, 1988). All this, is in part coherent with what
recently done, for example, by the work of Giordano Fossi (2003), who has proposed a new trend, just
defined as evolutionary psychoanalysis, addressed to take into account neuroscience and evolutionary
biology discoveries, but not contemplating the existence of any type of unconscious.
Therefore, compared the very brief duration of the period which goes from Homo sapiens to our times,
with respect to the millions of years of homination, from which follows most of what we are nowadays
phylogenetically impressed, even the unconscious, we are inclined to think that the (phylo)genetically
preformation functionality and structuration of the brain during the former period surely overbears that
of the latter period, mainly governed by culture and symbolism ruled by the former brain structural
functionality (phylo)genetically predetermined. So, just this latter, at least in its structural aspects, might
be considered as arising during homination process, along which all the possible universal psychic struc-
tures have crystallized atemporally in their typical form, but without content (afterwards determined by
culture) as claimed, for last, by Lévi-Strauss. The notion of structure according to Lévi-Strauss refers to
the logic (hence, to the internal order) of the set of all the possible functional transformations to which
a given algebraic system of relations (among the constituent parts, or elements, of such a system) may
undergo (Abbagnano, 1998; Bastide, 1966; Boudon 1970, pp. 30-31; CSFG, 1977; Lévi-Strauss &
Eribon 1988, pp. 161-163; Vattimo et al., 1993). Therefore, a structure identifies the transformational
syntax of a system of relations, which is invariant and ahistorical (Lévi-Strauss, 1977) in that it refers
to the syntactical aspects (i.e., to the mere forms) of these transformations, not to their historical valence
which will be provided by semantics and pragmatics (Charles W. Morris), conferring (diachronically)
content to these “empty” structures; in this regard, see, for instance, (Neubauer, 2004) for a brief survey
on the historical semantic and its semasiologic method to study diachronic variation of meaning giving
pre-eminence to signifier with respect to signified.
xxi
Introduction
According to Lévi-Strauss, any phenomenon of human mind is understandable only identifying

(synchronously and) preliminarily its underlying (unconscious) structures from the various systems of
ethnographic research. This implies neither a formal dissolution nor a rational stiffening of history, because
the search for structures leads to a metahistorical level, implying a rationalization of human nature, as a
structure identifies what is intrinsic and invariant of the natural phenomena, that is to say, it should be
meant as a mental conceptual schema equipped of its own consistence and autonomy at the unconscious
level (structural unconscious). The structure is independent of its historical substratum, in that, it is the
outcome of the spatial-temporally transversal comparison of many different ethnographic realities and
data, so it turns out to be invariant with respect to a certain group of transformations which syntactically
characterizes it as such34. Then, the various (ethnographic) systems from which such a group arises, are
nothing but realizations of it, just in the mathematical sense of this term (Fabietti & Remotti, 1998).
Then, this transformational syntax is nothing but that the logic which rules the variations of such
systems. Lévi-Strauss, then, gives pre-eminence to the oppositional transformations, hence to a binary
logic, to be applied to a common (hence, universal), deepest and underlying invariant ground (i.e., the
structural unconscious) from which springs out the rich and variegated phenomenology of human con-
sciousness. Indeed, starting from an idea due to Franz Boas, according to which under any logical apparatus
lies unconscious35, also consciousness is the outcome of the pre-reflexive and collective unconscious
mechanisms. The social-cultural facts may be studied from different levels which, along a continuum, go
from full consciousness to unconscious level, or better structural unconscious level, basically meant as
opposed to the so-called événementiel level. In it, subject and object encounter not phenomenologically
but unconsciously and metahistorically, independently of any historical and individual determination,
but rather with a universal, formal and ahistorical feature (Fabietti & Remotti, 1998).
Moreover, human mind, according to Lévi-Strauss, is the place of the structures which basically
run according to an oppositional logic, as they are at the basis of that universal attitude of human being
to classify, a function which is typical of every social phenomenon, comprised science. Lévi-Strauss
also reaches even to consider as existing a kind of homology (just structural) among mental, social and
natural structures, unconsciously mediated (Fabietti & Remotti, 1998). So, Lévi-Strauss, explicitly and
peremptory, stresses the fundamental and primary importance of pre-existent, transcendental, innate
schemata which hereditarily36 structurate binarily human being and her or his intellectual activity37. At
the basis of this view, then, there is the preference for a binary logic as it lies at the deepest core of the
functioning of any human phenomenology. This precious legacy of Lévi-Strauss38, was preciously ac-
quired above all by Jacques Lacan, as well as by the French school of psychoanalysis which has always
paid a great and deep attention to the possible formal aspects of psychoanalysis, and human sciences in
general (Francioni, 1982).
Mario Francioni (1982, Introduction, p. 11), in analysing historically and epistemologically French
psychoanalysis along its evolution, has yet identified some general features of the epistemological status
of psychoanalysis. Indeed, just from the quite singular historical route followed by French psychoanalysis,
which, among other things, has been supported by many other disciplines like arts, literature, philoso-
phy, anthropology, sociology, political sciences, linguistics, exact sciences, Francioni claims that psy-
choanalysis has to be meant as a “science of support, attachment” (anaclisis, to be more precise) rather
than a “founding knowledge39”, as it unavoidably has made reference to (as well as has searched support
by) other fields of knowledge, also very far from psychology. In this regard, the scenario of the French
culture of 20th century, has been featured by an extremely rich vivacity and pervasive interdisciplinary
intertwinements, which have not had equal elsewhere. This, has enriched and enhanced psychoanalysis
xxii
Introduction
itself, which is not immune from the contact with other knowledge fields, inasmuch as its conceptual
framework is ever evolving and growing for the interdisciplinary relationships it has with other sciences
(Francioni 1982, p. 15). Above all in France, a new, foresight and open world has arisen around psy-
choanalytic knowledge, providing to this latter such a rich amount of new trends and insights, to have
made possible the identification and pursuing of new perspective from which to look at psychoanalytic
knowledge (Francioni, 1978; Francioni 1982, Ch. 15, Sect. 1).
Now, just within this rich, lively, variegated and exiting cultural community40 of the France of 20th
century, is placed our work. Indeed, reconnecting us with what has been said above, about a part of Lévi-
Strauss’ oeuvre, there have been important and valuable psychoanalysts and scholars, among whom are
Jacques Lacan, Jean Laplanche, Jean-Bertrand Pontalis, Serge Leclaire, André Green, and many others,
who have tried, in their interdisciplinary work, to identify those formal aspects underlying psychoanalysis
and human sciences in general. They are, more or less, tied with Lacan and his teaching that, basically,
is centred on a certain logic of the lack that structurates the subject of the unconscious, i.e., the logic of
the desire which, on its turn, springs out from an unbridgeable écart, or difference, between the needs on
the one side and the demand of eternal, full and unconditioned love – the perennial encore – by others
(alterity) on the other side41, a gap which may be overcome only by means of language. The primeval
satisfactions of primary needs, have been inscribed into the imaginary register, mainly made by corporal
or bodily pleasures received during infancy by mother and transcribed as deep mnestic traces; the infant,
mainly moved, by the deadly compulsion to repeat mechanism (which acts according to the real regis-
ter), to relive these lost satisfactions, is able to accomplish this only phantasmatically by hallucination
(symptom at the reality level, or dream at the imaginative level) to re-find the lost object, so he or she
would like to realize this, but life principle imposes him or her to may pursue this only symbolically, so
entering into the symbolic register, upon which occurs entire real life. These three registers are insepa-
rable of each other, and their reciprocal intertwinement (Borromean knot) rules entire psychic life of
every human being (Francioni, 1978; Francioni 1982, Ch. 15, Sect. 1).
But, while, on the one side, the need is satisfiable materially by presence of real objects (pleasure),
and, on the other side, the demand of full and unconditioned love42 by others is almost unrealizable as
such (because of its reciprocity function), then only a third way is possible, that of desire, which is the
desire of something lacking, hence ruled by a logic of the lack, which is the logic of the subject of un-
conscious, i.e., the desire, just arising from the unbridgeable gap between need and demand of primary
narcissism. Desire may be accomplished, on the other hand, only symbolically, from which it follows
language, meant in its widest sense. This explains why Lacan says that unconscious is structured like a
language, mediated by symbolic order which should not mean as the field of what stays behind symbol, its
content, the symbolized, but rather it refers to the common structure of instinctual (i.e., drive) dynamics
of unconscious which follows laws and rules similar to the ones discovered by structural linguistics and
anthropology. Thus, Lacan has discovered that, the unconscious support underpinning symbolic register
mediating the intersubjective relationships (for example, those of kinship) and the transcendence of the
langue with respect the single subject (who speaks according to an historical actuation of the langue,
i.e., the parole43), are mainly due to the action of the compulsion to repeat mechanism, i.e., the basic
structural operation of unconscious (Francioni, 1978; Francioni 1982, Ch. 15, Sect. 1).
Thus, Lacan has above all discovered the basic structurality of unconscious by means of the laws
and rules of its subject (i.e., the subject of unconscious, that is to say, the desire), whose logic is a logic
of the lack, i.e., the lacking of the object (need, love, primary experience of satisfaction, lacking of the
penis, etc.), as a necessary outcome to overcome or fill that gap between need and demand. With the
xxiii
Introduction
realization of this logic, the individual finally enters into the symbolic order – otherwise it falls into the
realm of psychosis – leaving primary narcissism (imaginary register) for the secondary narcissism, with
the acquisition of language. But, doing so, the individual not only relegates herself or himself, and all
the others, into the imaginary register (in that, desire springs out from the impossibility to accomplish
really to primary narcissism impellent requests of imaginary register, but however tries to go towards
it through a symbolic manoeuvre which is trying to restore however this state of initial and full well-
being, that of the fusional state child-mother, which starts since prenatal one), but above all alienates
herself or himself under the domain of the Other, so becoming a barrelled subject, in which there is a
kind of inversion of the Kantian relation between a transcendental Ego and a psychological Ego. Thus,
human being turns out not only dominated, but above all sequestered by the alterity of symbolic order
(the Other), to which he or she accesses leaving, as the main protagonist of the scene, the unconscious
in its basic identification with the Other (Francioni, 1978; Francioni 1982, Ch. 15, Sect. 1).
These are the very basic, key elements of Lacan’s theory and its revolutionary attainment. Among
these, to have discovered the basic structural nature of unconscious by means of its symbolic order,
which is structured according to structural linguistics (Ferdinand De Saussure) and anthropology (Claude
Lévi-Strauss), whence it follows its universal and atemporal44 nature, among other things. As has been
said above, for Lacan, who besides has been always aimed only to rediscovery Freud45,
What is crucial for unconscious dynamics is just the compulsion to repeat principle, which rules
mainly desire and hallucinatory reproduces childhood perceptions by now became signs or traces of
an imaginary satisfaction. Lacan recognized the importance of this unconscious mechanism which is
involved in many different types of logics conscious and unconscious. Nevertheless, the real logic of
unconscious, according to Lacan, is just the logic of the lack (or logic of the negative). The lack, on the
other hand, takes place according to three main modalities46, namely privation, frustration and castra-
tion, which, in any case, all are functionally characterized by a primary alternation of the type presence/
absence, which should be however considered always at the symbolic level (or order), in that, in the
reality, nothing is lacking; so, the lacking object should not be confused with a lost object of reality
(Chemama & Vandermersch, 1998).
Only with the occurrence of a signifier47 (hence, belonging to the symbolic), it is possible to have a
condition of lacking marked by this signifier as a symbol of such an absence, so allowing, to the desir-
ing subject, the access to the language. Lacking therefore is the indispensable condition in order that
human being be a talking (or speaking) being depending on a constitutional and indelible defect which
is so necessary as much as unobservable. Such lacking is then supported and gradually re-found by the
mourning experience48 which takes over after a period of full and strong satisfaction of pleasure, like that
experienced during fusional state child-mother. So, human being becomes a desiring being when he or
she becomes aware that the only condition underpinning his or her being is just this recurrent lacking,
on its turn supported by the compulsion to repeat mechanism which makes desire as incessant. Now,
Lacan identifies, in the so-called “Fort/Da” (coming from the Freud’s “Fort/Da” reel game described in
Beyond the Pleasure Principle of 1920), the basic key of functioning of the logic of the lack, the founding
nucleus of symbolic register in which “the absence is evoked in the presence and, vice versa, the pres-
ence in the absence”; whence, the access to the language49. This primary logical principle of “Fort/Da”
is the one which has given rise to the so-called phallic logic, which therefore is the common, primary
logical nucleus upon which every other logic relies. Lacan has centred psychoanalytic theory on phallus
as main desire signifier; the Œdipus complex itself is seen as a dialectic between the basic alternatives
xxiv
Introduction
of “to be or not to be the phallus”, “to have or not to have the phallus” (Chemama & Vandermersch,
1998; Conrotto, 2014; Laplanche & Pontalis, 1967, 1988; Laplanche, 2000, 2001).
Now, it has been above all the French school of psychoanalysis, mainly along Lacan’s tradition, to
have tried to identify those unconscious mechanisms underlying “Fort/Da” basic process, hence the
phallic logic. As discussed in (Iurato, 2013b,c), initially we had proposed, following an insight due to
Jean Laplanche and Jean-Bertrand Pontalis (1967), to consider disavowal as one of the main psychic
mechanism underlying the formation of symbolic register, in that it relies at the early basis of any other
possible logic (just according to what Lacan has said), and regarding general anxiety or anguish states
and the defence against them, hence we have applied50, just in passing, this pattern to a possible phylo-
genetic origin of the symbolic function (before language), applying it to the human evolution (homina-
tion), to be precise, after those stages in which early species of the genus Homo, having acquired upright
position (i.e., bipedism51, that preceded encephalization process52 – with sexual dimorphism already
gained – but with which has remained correlated closely until up nowadays), could experience and feel
traumatically (hence, with anguish production) primitive early forms of castration anxiety (or any other
traumatic event, which has however produced a very strong anxiety53), to be then handled and symboli-
cally elaborated – through a set of unconscious psychic mechanisms recollected around the negation,
among which is disavowal, according to what stated by André Green (1993) – for reaching, afterwards,
certain crucial and deep neural changes, discontinuously occurred, which have entailed the rising of a
symbolic function preceding language formation and production, in agreement with what very recent
neurolinguistics claims54 (Berwick & Chomsky, 2016). This is therefore coherent with the hypothesis
according to which the phallic logic lies just at the early and primary basis, as a key founding nucleus
(Conrotto 2014, p. 99), of the next developments of all other forms of logics. Further, just the involve-
ment of psychic mechanisms regrouped around the negative (according to André Green – see above),
is coherent with what is said in (Tartabini & Giusti 2006, Cap. II, Sect. 2.11) about the origin of sym-
bolic function in the genus Homo, preceding language, on the basis of some previous hypotheses, put
forward by Edgar Morin and Terrence W. Deacon (1997), on the crucial role played by religious and
sacred practices, together their unavoidable contrasting meanings whose dialecticism is just overcome
by symbolic formation.
So, we might suppose that, along the crucial homination process, during which human brain developed
considerably until up to reach almost the same neurophysiological configuration of the present one, cer-
tain neural circuits established to give rise almost universal schemata moulding human behaviour, hence
phylogenetically implemented and, from time to time, epi-ontogenetically activated during the phenotypic
expression of our own genotype. From a psychodynamic point of view, then, these pre-schemata so phy-
logenetically predisposed, should correspond to those original (or primal) phantasies (or phantasms)
predicted by psychoanalysis, just epi-ontogenetically re-activated, for instance, by original (or primal)
repression (Conrotto 2014, p. 99) which acts as real interpretative schemata, so assigning a semiotic-
semantic function just to unconscious, which would arise just in the moment in which these original
repression mechanisms run. Likewise, we might consider the Ego defence mechanisms as phylogeneti-
cally established and epi-ontogenetically liable to be, more or less, re-activated. Even the unconscious
would be established just at the moment of institution of the primordial “Fort/Da” (Conrotto, 2009), just
as an early founding act, so restoring epi-ontogenetically those primary, original (or primal) phantasies
(in first, castration, as well as others) which therefore structurate it, as stable (trans-individual and trans-
cultural) associative schemata through different generations and cultures (Moore & Fine, 1990; Petrini
et al. 2013, p. 145) or as aprioristic interpretative schemas (i.e., as previously empty forms which will
xxv
Introduction
receive, then, a content55 – following Lévi-Strauss56 – accomplishing, thus, to their semiotic-semantic

main function), which will give rise then individual phantasies (or phantasms57). The main effort made
by Freud as well as by all the psychoanalytic thought, has been that to explain and understanding the
stability, the efficacy, and the organized setting of the phantasmatic life of every individual, through
which desire tries to be fulfilled going through defences and interdictions (Laplanche & Pontalis, 1967,
1988). Anyway, clinical psychoanalysis has verified what role play fantasies which can be qualified as
primal, however one regards their historicity, in that they are the basis of every individual fantasy (De
Mijolla 2005, p. 552).
The original repression, according to Lacan, is basically due to a primeval hindrance – because of
castration – of a primary signifier, namely the imaginary phallus58, to access to consciousness (Chemama
& Vandermersch, 1998); instead, according to Freud59, it is due the action of a primordial counter-cathexis
or anticathexis (because, it cannot be otherwise, i.e., neither a cathexis nor a withdrawal of cathexis, in
that these require both an already existing unconscious), by the Ego, of certain presentations that cannot
enter into consciousness – so undergoing a fixation – and that arose from a crucial yet traumatic event
of archaic prehistory, enormously charged because of its traumaticity, which lacerates protective shield;
this is the prototypical situation with which first original repressions occurred. Thus, human organism,
mobilising a part of the internal energy, created a permanent barrier against traumatic experiences, limit-
ing the flow of external stimuli; and in such a manner, it took place the deepest, impenetrable nucleus of
unconscious. So, this phylogenetic process of constitution of the deepest unconscious nucleus by original
repression, from then onwards, repeats epi-ontogenetically in every human being60. Of course, there
should be a close connection between the formation of this shield and the defence mechanisms of the
Ego, as well as between original repression and original phantasies (Laplanche & Pontalis, 1967, 1988).
In conclusion, if we wish to looking for a possible scientific status of psychoanalysis, then a reasonable
way to be pursued fruitfully to this end, is that turned to look at the structural aspects of unconscious,
which should be considered as phylogenetically acquired (at the epigenetic level) during the homination
process61, along which occurred encephalization (whose big increment was mainly due to the enrich-
ment of socialization). This psychic structuration, almost contemporary to encephalization, has prob-
ably implemented62 such mental schemas of pre-interpretations, which nowadays structurally rule our
thinking and reasoning; the notions of original (or primal) phantasy and repression, are clear instances
of these structures and their action, which should be meant (although not in the aim of a mere and full
formal reductionism63) just in the structuralistic sense due to Lévi-Strauss. The unconscious construct
is the central pillar of the whole psychoanalytic framework, so that the first step to do in view of a pos-
sible formalization attempt of psychoanalysis is just turned towards the possible structural aspects of the
unconscious, those phylogenetically acquired along homination process, in their basic formal structure,
which will be then variously filled epi-ontogenetically (for instance, by repression) by that singular,
individual content coming from the life experience of each human being.
On the basis of these latter considerations, we have simply tried to follow a route which could be
in agreement with this “neostructuralistic” perspective from which to look “scientifically” at the foun-
dations of psychoanalysis, believing strongly in the phylogenetic constitution of intersubjective deep
mental structures (hence, almost universal64), epigenetically implemented above all during homination,
then epi-ontogenetically re-established individually. So, we have first reconsidered the appreciable work
achieved by Ignacio Matte Blanco65 just on the foundations of psychoanalysis, taking into particular at-
xxvi
Introduction
tention his notion of structural unconscious and his ideas on the crucial and inseparable intertwinements
between primary and secondary processes that he has formalized by means of mathematical logic. This,
besides, has led us to may perform a conceptual analysis and a theoretical recognition of the possible
psychoanalytic foundations of formal logic, mainly Boolean logic, which, conversely, have also allowed
to reconsider and rethink, from these new standpoints, some basic psychoanalytic theoretical concepts
and notions, above all that of unconscious and its logic, always in comparison with the related psychic
phenomenology. In particular, this route has led us to understand, besides other, the basic binary nature
of unconscious logic, prelude to the next, basic discriminating task and dialectic66 nature of conscious-
ness, and its possible relationships with usual logical binary operators commonly involved in Boolean
algebra (hence, Aristotelian logic), so making possible to establish too a very elementary formalization
attempt schematizing algebraically the crucial passage from the primary process to the secondary one,
within Freudian framework. Furthermore, it seems too that, usually, people reason even making an
“unawareness” use of natural deductions (Lolli 2000, p. 87), as if these were already present, just in an
unconscious fashion, in their deepest soul, without to be neither syntactic nor semantic in their logical
nature, but rather, according to H. Paul Grice (1993), conversational (hence, regarding a collective, social
and non-conventional metalevel of communication67).
So, carrying on along this path, we have reconsidered some theoretical psychoanalytic patterns68 of
human psyche related to symbolic function, whose functioning is mainly centred on those set of psy-
chic unconscious mechanisms revolving around the negative, as above all done by André Green (1993),
like disavowal, splitting, foreclosure, and so on, which operate not only in pathological cases, but also
in the normal psychic life, its course and developments. All that, in particular, has enabled us to take
into account, as well as to be coherent and in agreement with, that fundamental binary nature of human
structural unconscious as has emerged from Freud’s works themselves together the support, the improve-
ments, the progresses made possible thanks to the work of other his successors, among whom are many
exponents of French school69 of psychoanalysis, like André Green, Jacques Lacan, Daniel Lagache, Jean
Laplanche, Serge Leclaire, Jean-Bertrand Pontalis, and others, thanks to which we have identified the
persistent and pervasive binary logic (to be precise, the phallic logic) featuring structural unconscious
and its functioning, with obvious repercussions on the consciousness. This has allowed to trace further
a special line starting from structural unconscious realm, with its phallic logic, towards gradually the
usual binary logic of the so-called “rational” thought, mainly featured by the Boolean logic, just thanks
to Matte Blanco’s work and his bi-logic, which has therefore casted the bases for a psychoanalytic foun-
dation of logic, together the works of other as much important and valid psychoanalysts (quoted above).
Then, ever thanks to Matte Blanco’s work on structural unconscious and its formal features, in
particular from its timelessness, we have understood what primary role plays ordering for human con-
sciousness, hence recursion processes, which are formally the very early bases of computation. So,
taking into loan, some notions and elementary methods of theoretical physics and mathematics, like
those of symmetry breaking and groupoid, we have tried to formalize better some ideas due to Matte
Blanco, hence to provide an elementary formal framework within which to lay out the basic notion of
ordering and its role for consciousness, showing how is possible to get such a notion by means of a
suitable nuanced application of the notion of symmetry breaking to the categorial notion of groupoid.
From this, further, advanced formal constructions and considerations have followed, ever regarding
possible formalizations of some main concepts and processes of psychoanalysis (e.g., ultrametric and
xxvii
Introduction
p-adic, mathematical physics and topological models of unconscious, possible formal origins of time
and its role for consciousness). In particular, from the formal analysis of the temporal aspects and di-
mensionalities of conscious and unconscious processes, we have outlined, very briefly, the possible role
played by unconscious construct in informatics, from a logic stance. On the other hand, also according
to André Leroi-Gourhan, the historical domestication of space and time by humans, even much more
than the usage and handling of instruments, is the human fact par excellence. It is placeable within the
most general ability of human being to establish nexuses among things, in that temporal relation may
be seen as a kind of triadic relation in which a human interpreting establishes a correlation between two
events or durations, in which one is what is measured and the other is what measures. This capability is
universal, is at the basis of the scientific thought, and changes only for the reference systems adopted to
accomplish this task (Fabietti & Remotti, 1998).
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d’étonnement. Enfin les cuivres ont résonné brillamment, les
trompettes ont éclaté! La lumière, source d’harmonie, a inondé la
nature, toutes les richesses musicales se sont alors étalées avec
une violence, avec un éclat pareils à ceux des rayons du soleil
oriental. Il n’y a pas jusqu’au triangle dont l’ut répété ne vous ait
rappelé le chant des oiseaux au matin par ses accents aigus et ses
agaceries lutines. La même tonalité, retournée par cette main
magistrale, exprime la joie de la nature entière en calmant la douleur
qui vous navrait naguère. Là est le cachet du grand maître: l’unité!
C’est un et varié. Une seule phrase et mille sentiments de douleur,
les misères d’une nation; un seul accord et tous les accidents de la
nature à son réveil, toutes les expressions de la joie d’un peuple.
Ces deux immenses pages sont soudées par un appel au Dieu
toujours vivant, auteur de toutes choses, de cette douleur comme de
cette joie. A elle seule, cette introduction n’est-elle pas un grand
poëme?
—C’est vrai, dit le Français.
—Voici maintenant un quinquetto comme Rossini en sait faire; si
jamais il a pu se laisser aller à la douce et facile volupté qu’on
reproche à notre musique, n’est-ce pas dans ce joli morceau où
chacun doit exprimer son allégresse, où le peuple esclave est
délivré, et où cependant va soupirer un amour en danger. Le fils du
Pharaon aime une Juive, et cette Juive le quitte. Ce qui rend ce
quintette une chose délicieuse et ravissante, est un retour aux
émotions ordinaires de la vie, après la peinture grandiose des deux
plus immenses scènes nationales et naturelles, la misère, le
bonheur, encadrées par la magie que leur prêtent la vengeance
divine et le merveilleux de la Bible.
—N’avais-je pas raison? dit en continuant la duchesse au
Français quand fut finie la magnifique strette de
Voci di giubilo
D’in’orno echeggino,
Di pace l’Iride
Per noi spuntò.
(Que des cris d’allégresse retentissent autour de nous, l’astre de

la paix répand pour nous sa clarté.)
—Avec quel art le compositeur n’a-t-il pas construit ce
morceau?... reprit-elle après une pause pendant laquelle elle attendit
une réponse, il l’a commencé par un solo de cor d’une suavité
divine, soutenu par des arpéges de harpes, car les premières voix
qui s’élèvent dans ce grand concert sont celles de Moïse et d’Aaron
qui remercient le vrai Dieu; leur chant doux et grave rappelle les
idées sublimes de l’invocation et s’unit néanmoins à la joie du peuple
profane. Cette transition a quelque chose de céleste et de terrestre à
la fois que le génie seul sait trouver, et qui donne à l’andante du
quintetto une couleur que je comparerais à celle que Titien met
autour de ses personnages divins. Avez-vous remarqué le ravissant
enchâssement des voix? Par quelles habiles entrées le compositeur
ne les a-t-il pas groupées sur les charmants motifs chantés par
l’orchestre? Avec quelle science il a préparé les fêtes de son allégro.
N’avez-vous pas entrevu les chœurs dansants, les rondes folles de
tout un peuple échappé au danger? Et quand la clarinette a donné le
signal de la strette Voci di giubilo, si brillante, si animée, votre âme
n’a-t-elle pas éprouvé cette sainte pyrrhique dont parle le roi David
dans ses psaumes, et qu’il prête aux collines?
—Oui, cela ferait un charmant air de contredanse! dit le médecin.
—Français! Français! toujours Français! s’écria la duchesse
atteinte au milieu de son exaltation par ce trait piquant. Oui, vous
êtes capable d’employer ce sublime élan, si gai, si noblement
pimpant, à vos rigodons. Une sublime poésie n’obtient jamais grâce
à vos yeux. Le génie le plus élevé, les saints, les rois, les infortunes,
tout ce qu’il y a de sacré doit passer par les verges de votre
caricature. La vulgarisation des grandes idées par vos airs de
contredanse, est la caricature en musique. Chez vous, l’esprit tue
l’âme, comme le raisonnement y tue la raison.
La loge entière resta muette pendant le récitatif d’Osiride et de
Membré qui complotent de rendre inutile l’ordre du départ donné par
le Pharaon en faveur des Hébreux.
—Vous ai-je fâchée? dit le médecin à la duchesse, j’en serais au
désespoir. Votre parole est comme une baguette magique, elle ouvre
des cases dans mon cerveau et en fait sortir des idées nouvelles,
animées par ces chants sublimes.
—Non, dit-elle. Vous avez loué notre grand musicien à votre
manière. Rossini réussira chez vous, je le vois, par ses côtés
spirituels et sensuels. Espérons en quelques âmes nobles et
amoureuses de l’idéal qui doivent se trouver dans votre fécond pays
et qui apprécieront l’élévation, le grandiose d’une telle musique. Ah!
voici le fameux duo entre Elcia et Osiride, reprit-elle en profitant du
temps que lui donna la triple salve d’applaudissements par laquelle
le parterre salua la Tinti qui faisait sa première entrée. Si la Tinti a
bien compris le rôle d’Elcia, vous allez entendre les chants sublimes
d’une femme à la fois déchirée par l’amour de la patrie et par un
amour pour un de ses oppresseurs, tandis qu’Osiride, possédé
d’une passion frénétique pour sa belle conquête, s’efforce de la
conserver. L’opéra repose autant sur cette grande idée, que sur la
résistance des Pharaons à la puissance de Dieu et de la liberté,
vous devez vous y associer sous peine de ne rien comprendre à
cette œuvre immense. Malgré la défaveur avec laquelle vous
acceptez les inventions de nos poëtes de livrets, permettez-moi de
vous faire remarquer l’art avec lequel ce drame est construit.
L’antagonisme nécessaire à toutes les belles œuvres, et si favorable
au développement de la musique, s’y trouve. Quoi de plus riche
qu’un peuple voulant sa liberté, retenu dans les fers par la mauvaise
foi, soutenu par Dieu, entassant prodiges sur prodiges pour devenir
libre? Quoi de plus dramatique que l’amour du prince pour une
Juive, et qui justifie presque les trahisons du pouvoir oppresseur?
Voilà pourtant tout ce qu’exprime ce hardi, cet immense poëme
musical, où Rossini a su conserver à chaque peuple sa nationalité
fantastique, car nous leur avons prêté des grandeurs historiques
auxquelles ont consenti toutes les imaginations. Les chants des
Hébreux et leur confiance en Dieu sont constamment en opposition
avec les cris de rage et les efforts du Pharaon peint dans toute sa
puissance. En ce moment Osiride, tout à l’amour, espère retenir sa
maîtresse par le souvenir de toutes les douceurs de la passion, il
veut l’emporter sur les charmes de la patrie. Aussi reconnaîtrez-vous
les langueurs divines, les ardentes douceurs, les tendresses, les
souvenirs voluptueux de l’amour oriental dans le:
Ah! se puoi cosi lasciarmi.
(Si tu as le courage de me quitter, brise-moi le cœur.)

d’Osiride, et dans la réponse d’Elcia:
Ma perchè cosi straziarmi.
(Pourquoi me tourmenter ainsi, quand ma douleur est affreuse?)

—Non, deux cœurs si mélodieusement unis ne sauraient se
séparer, dit-elle en regardant le prince. Mais voilà ces amants tout à
coup interrompus par la triomphante voix de la patrie qui tonne dans
le lointain et qui rappelle Elcia. Quel divin et délicieux allégro que ce
motif de la marche des Hébreux allant au désert! Il n’y a que Rossini
pour faire dire tant de choses à des clarinettes et à des trompettes!
Un art qui peut peindre en deux phrases tout ce qu’est la patrie,
n’est-il donc pas plus voisin du ciel que les autres? Cet appel m’a
toujours trop émue pour que je vous dise ce qu’il y a de cruel, pour
ceux qui sont esclaves et enchaînés, à voir partir des gens libres!
La duchesse eut ses yeux mouillés en entendant le magnifique
motif qui domine en effet l’opéra.
—Dov’è mai quel core amante (Quel cœur aimant ne partagerait
mes angoisses), reprit-elle en italien quand la Tinti entama
l’admirable cantilène de la strette où elle demande pitié pour ses
douleurs. Mais que se passe-t-il? le parterre murmure.
—Genovese brame comme un cerf, dit le prince.
Ce duetto, le premier que chantait la Tinti était en effet troublé
par la déroute complète de Genovese. Dès que le ténor chanta de
concert avec la Tinti, sa belle voix changea. Sa méthode si sage,
cette méthode qui rappelait à la fois Crescentini et Veluti, il semblait
l’oublier à plaisir. Tantôt une tenue hors de propos, un agrément trop
prolongé, gâtaient son chant. Tantôt des éclats de voix sans
transition, le son lâché comme une eau à laquelle on ouvre une
écluse, accusaient un oubli complet et volontaire des lois du goût.
Aussi le parterre fut-il démesurément agité. Les Vénitiens crurent à
quelque pari entre Genovese et ses camarades. La Tinti rappelée fut
applaudie avec fureur, et Genovese reçut quelques avis qui lui
apprirent les dispositions hostiles du parterre. Pendant la scène,
assez comique pour un Français, des rappels continuels de la Tinti,
qui revint onze fois recevoir seule les applaudissements frénétiques
de l’assemblée, car Genovese presque sifflé, n’osa lui donner la
main, le médecin fit à la duchesse une observation sur la strette du
duo.
—Rossini devait exprimer là, dit-il, la plus profonde douleur, et j’y
trouve une allure dégagée, une teinte de gaieté hors de propos.
—Vous avez raison, répondit la duchesse. Cette faute est l’effet
d’une de ces tyrannies auxquelles doivent obéir nos compositeurs. Il
a songé plus à sa prima donna qu’à Elcia quand il a écrit cette
strette. Mais aujourd’hui la Tinti l’exécuterait encore plus
brillamment, je suis si bien dans la situation, que ce passage trop gai
est pour moi rempli de tristesse.
Le médecin regarda tour à tour et attentivement le prince et la
duchesse, sans pouvoir deviner la raison qui les séparait et qui avait
rendu ce duo déchirant pour eux. Massimilla baissa la voix et
s’approcha de l’oreille du médecin.
—Vous allez entendre une magnifique chose, la conspiration du
Pharaon contre les Hébreux. L’air majestueux de A rispettar mi
apprenda (qu’il apprenne à me respecter) est le triomphe de
Carthagenova qui va vous rendre à merveille l’orgueil blessé, la
duplicité des cours. Le trône va parler: les concessions faites, il les
retire, il arme sa colère. Pharaon va se dresser sur ses pieds pour
s’élancer sur une proie qui lui échappe. Jamais Rossini n’a rien écrit
d’un si beau caractère, ni qui soit empreint d’une si abondante, d’une
si forte verve! C’est une œuvre complète, soutenue par un
accompagnement d’un merveilleux travail, comme les moindres
choses de cet opéra où la puissance de la jeunesse étincelle dans
les plus petits détails.
Les applaudissements de toute la salle couronnèrent cette belle
conception, qui fut admirablement rendue par le chanteur et surtout
bien comprise par les Vénitiens.
—Voici le finale, reprit la duchesse. Vous entendez de nouveau
cette marche inspirée par le bonheur de la délivrance, et par la foi en
Dieu qui permet à tout un peuple de s’enfoncer joyeusement dans le
désert! Quels poumons ne seraient rafraîchis par les élans célestes
de ce peuple au sortir de l’esclavage. Ah! chères et vivantes
mélodies! Gloire au beau génie qui a su rendre tant de sentiments. Il
y a je ne sais quoi de guerrier dans cette marche qui dit que ce
peuple a pour lui le dieu des armées! quelle profondeur dans ces
chants pleins d’actions de grâce! Les images de la Bible s’émeuvent
dans notre âme, et cette divine scène musicale nous fait assister
réellement à l’une des plus grandes scènes d’un monde antique et
solennel. La coupe religieuse de certaines parties vocales, la
manière dont les voix s’ajoutent les unes aux autres et se groupent,
expriment tout ce que nous concevons des saintes merveilles de ce
premier âge de l’humanité. Ce beau concert n’est cependant qu’un
développement du thème de la marche dans toutes ses
conséquences musicales. Ce motif est le principe fécondant pour
l’orchestre et les voix, pour le chant et la brillante instrumentation qui
l’accompagne. Voici Elcia qui se réunit à la horde et à qui Rossini a
fait exprimer des regrets pour nuancer la joie de ce morceau.
Écoutez son duettino avec Aménofi. Jamais amour blessé a-t-il fait
entendre de pareils chants? la grâce des nocturnes y respire, il y a là
le deuil secret de l’amour blessé. Quelle mélancolie! Ah! le désert
sera deux fois désert pour elle! Enfin voici la lutte terrible de l’Égypte
et des Hébreux! cette allégresse, cette marche, tout est troublé par
l’arrivée des Égyptiens. La promulgation des ordres du Pharaon
s’accomplit par une idée musicale qui domine le finale, une phrase
sourde et grave, il semble qu’on entende le pas des puissantes
armées de l’Égypte entourant la phalange sacrée de Dieu,
l’enveloppant lentement comme un long serpent d’Afrique enveloppe
sa proie. Quelle grâce dans les plaintes de ce peuple abusé! n’est-il
pas un peu plus Italien qu’Hébreu? Quel mouvement magnifique
jusqu’à l’arrivée du Pharaon qui achève de mettre en présence les
chefs des deux peuples et toutes les passions du drame. Quel
admirable mélange de sentiments dans le sublime ottetto, où la
colère de Moïse et celle des deux Pharaons se trouve aux prises!
quelle lutte de voix et de colères déchaînées! Jamais sujet plus
vaste ne s’était offert à un compositeur. Le fameux finale de Don
Juan ne présente après tout qu’un libertin aux prises avec ses
victimes qui invoquent la vengeance céleste; tandis qu’ici la terre et
ses puissances essaient de combattre contre Dieu. Deux peuples,
l’un faible, l’autre fort, sont en présence. Aussi, comme il avait à sa
disposition tous les moyens, Rossini les a-t-il savamment employés.
Il a pu sans être ridicule vous exprimer les mouvements d’une
tempête furieuse sur laquelle se détachent d’horribles imprécations.
Il a procédé par accords plaqués sur un rhythme en trois temps avec
une sombre énergie musicale, avec une persistance qui finit par
vous gagner. La fureur des Égyptiens surpris par une pluie de feu,
les cris de vengeance des Hébreux voulaient des masses
savamment calculées; aussi voyez comme il a fait marcher le
développement de l’orchestre avec les chœurs? L’allegro assai en ut
mineur est terrible au milieu de ce déluge de feu. Avouez, dit la
duchesse au moment où en levant sa baguette Moïse fait tomber la
pluie de feu et où le compositeur déploie toute sa puissance à
l’orchestre et sur la scène, que jamais musique n’a plus savamment
rendu le trouble et la confusion?
—Elle a gagné le parterre, dit le Français.
—Mais qu’arrive-t-il encore? le parterre est décidément très-
agité, reprit la duchesse.
Au finale, Genovese avait donné dans de si absurdes
gargouillades en regardant la Tinti, que le tumulte fut à son comble
au parterre, dont les jouissances étaient troublées. Il n’y avait rien de
plus choquant pour ces oreilles italiennes que ce contraste du bien
et du mal. L’entrepreneur prit le parti de comparaître, et dit que sur
l’observation par lui faite à son premier homme, il signor Genovese
avait répondu qu’il ignorait en quoi et comment il avait pu perdre la
faveur du public, au moment même où il essayait d’atteindre à la
perfection de son art.
—Qu’il soit mauvais comme hier, nous nous en contenterons!
répondit Capraja d’une voix furieuse.
Cette apostrophe remit le parterre en belle humeur. Contre la
coutume italienne, le ballet fut peu écouté. Dans toutes les loges, il
n’était question que de la singulière conduite de Genovese, et de
l’allocution du pauvre entrepreneur. Ceux qui pouvaient entrer dans
les coulisses s’empressèrent d’aller y savoir le secret de la comédie,
et bientôt il ne fut plus question que d’une scène horrible faite par la
Tinti à son camarade Genovese, dans laquelle la prima donna
reprochait au ténor d’être jaloux de son succès, de l’avoir entravé
par sa ridicule conduite, et d’avoir essayé même de la priver de ses
moyens en jouant la passion. La cantatrice pleurait à chaudes
larmes de cette infortune. «—Elle avait espéré, disait-elle, plaire à
son amant qui devait être dans la salle, et qu’elle n’avait pu
découvrir.» Il faut connaître la paisible vie actuelle des Vénitiens, si
dénuée d’événements qu’on s’entretient d’un léger accident survenu
entre deux amants, ou de l’altération passagère de la voix d’une
cantatrice, en y donnant l’importance que l’on met en Angleterre aux
affaires politiques, pour savoir combien la Fenice et le café Florian
étaient agités. La Tinti amoureuse, la Tinti qui n’avait pas déployé
ses moyens, la folie de Genovese, ou le mauvais tour qu’il jouait,
inspiré par cette jalousie d’art que comprennent si bien les Italiens,
quelle riche mine de discussions vives! Le parterre entier causait
comme on cause à la Bourse, il en résultait un bruit qui devait
étonner un Français habitué au calme des théâtres de Paris. Toutes
les loges étaient en mouvement comme des ruches qui essaimaient.
Un seul homme ne prenait aucune part à ce tumulte. Émilio Memmi
tournait le dos à la scène, et les yeux mélancoliquement attachés
sur Massimilla, il semblait ne vivre que de son regard, il n’avait pas
regardé la cantatrice une seule fois.
—Je n’ai pas besoin, caro carino, de te demander le résultat de
ma négociation, disait Vendramin à Émilio. Ta Massimilla si pure et si
religieuse a été d’une complaisance sublime, enfin elle a été la Tinti!
Le prince répondit par un signe de tête plein d’une horrible
mélancolie.
—Ton amour n’a pas déserté les cimes éthérées où tu planes,
reprit Vendramin excité par son opium, il ne s’est pas matérialisé. Ce
matin, comme depuis six mois, tu as senti des fleurs déployant leurs
calices embaumés sous les voûtes de ton crâne démesurément
agrandi. Ton cœur grossi a reçu tout ton sang, et s’est heurté à ta
gorge. Il s’est développé là, dit-il en lui posant la main sur la poitrine,
des sensations enchanteresses. La voix de Massimilla y arrivait par
ondées lumineuses, sa main délivrait mille voluptés emprisonnées
qui abandonnaient les replis de ta cervelle pour se grouper
nuageusement autour de toi, et t’enlever, léger de ton corps, baigné
de pourpre, dans un air bleu au-dessus des montagnes de neige où
réside le pur amour des anges. Le sourire et les baisers de ses
lèvres te revêtaient d’une robe vénéneuse qui consumait les derniers
vestiges de ta nature terrestre. Ses yeux étaient deux étoiles qui te
faisaient devenir lumière sans ombre. Vous étiez comme deux anges
prosternés sur les palmes célestes, attendant que les portes du
paradis s’ouvrissent; mais elles tournaient difficilement sur leurs
gonds, et dans ton impatience tu les frappais sans pouvoir les
atteindre. Ta main ne rencontrait que des nuées plus alertes que ton
désir. Couronnée de roses blanches et semblable à une fiancée
céleste, ta lumineuse amie pleurait de ta fureur. Peut-être disait-elle
à la Vierge de mélodieuses litanies, tandis que les diaboliques
voluptés de la terre te soufflaient leurs infâmes clameurs, tu
dédaignais alors les fruits divins de cette extase dans laquelle je vis
aux dépens de mes jours.
—Ton ivresse, cher Vendramin, dit avec calme Émilio, est au-
dessous de la réalité. Qui pourrait dépeindre cette langueur
purement corporelle où nous plonge l’abus des plaisirs rêvés, et qui
laisse à l’âme son éternel désir, à l’esprit ses facultés pures? Mais je
suis las de ce supplice qui m’explique celui de Tantale. Cette nuit est
la dernière de mes nuits. Après avoir tenté mon dernier effort, je
rendrai son enfant à notre mère, l’Adriatique recevra mon dernier
soupir!...
—Es-tu bête, reprit Vendramin; mais non, tu es fou, car la folie,
cette crise que nous méprisons, est le souvenir d’un état antérieur
qui trouble notre forme actuelle. Le génie de mes rêves m’a dit de
ces choses et bien d’autres! Tu veux réunir la duchesse et la Tinti;
mais, mon Émilio, prends-les séparément, ce sera plus sage.
Raphaël seul a réuni la Forme et l’Idée. Tu veux être Raphaël en
amour; mais on ne crée pas le hasard. Raphaël est un raccroc du
Père éternel qui a fait la Forme et l’Idée ennemies, autrement rien ne
vivrait. Quand le principe est plus fort que le résultat, il n’y a rien de
produit. Nous devons être ou sur la terre ou dans le ciel. Reste dans
le ciel, tu seras toujours trop tôt sur la terre.
—Je reconduirai la duchesse, dit le prince, et je risquerai ma
dernière tentative... Après?
—Après, dit vivement Vendramin, promets-moi de venir me
prendre à Florian?
—Oui.
Cette conversation, tenue en grec moderne entre Vendramin et le
prince, qui savaient cette langue comme la savent beaucoup de
Vénitiens, n’avait pu être entendue de la duchesse et du Français.
Quoique très en dehors du cercle d’intérêt qui enlaçait la duchesse,
Émilio et Vendramin, car tous trois se comprenaient par des regards
italiens, fins, incisifs, voilés, obliques tour à tour, le médecin finit par
entrevoir une partie de la vérité. Une ardente prière de la duchesse à
Vendramin avait dicté à ce jeune Vénitien sa proposition à Émilio,
car la Cataneo avait flairé la souffrance qu’éprouvait son amant dans
le pur ciel où il s’égarait, elle qui ne flairait pas la Tinti.
—Ces deux jeunes gens sont fous, dit le médecin.
—Quant au prince, répondit la duchesse, laissez-moi le soin de
le guérir; quant à Vendramin, s’il n’a pas entendu cette sublime
musique, peut-être est-il incurable.
—Si vous vouliez me dire d’où vient leur folie, je les guérirais,
s’écria le médecin.
—Depuis quand un grand médecin n’est-il plus un devin?
demanda railleusement la duchesse.
Le ballet était fini depuis longtemps, le second acte de Mosè
commençait, le parterre se montrait très-attentif. Le bruit s’était
répandu que le duc Cataneo avait sermonné Genovese en lui
représentant combien il faisait de tort à Clarina, la diva du jour. On
s’attendait à un sublime second acte.
—Le prince et son père ouvrent la scène, dit la duchesse, ils ont
cédé de nouveau, tout en insultant aux Hébreux; mais ils frémissent
de rage. Le père est consolé par le prochain mariage de son fils, et
le fils est désolé de cet obstacle qui augmente encore son amour,
contrarié de tous côtés. Genovese et Carthagenova chantent
admirablement. Vous le voyez, le ténor fait sa paix avec le parterre.
Comme il met bien en œuvre les richesses de cette musique?... La
phrase dite par le fils sur la tonique, redite par le père sur la
dominante, appartient au système simple et grave sur lequel repose
cette partition, où la sobriété des moyens rend encore plus
étonnante la fertilité de la musique. L’Égypte est là tout entière. Je
ne crois pas qu’il existe un morceau moderne où respire une pareille
noblesse. La paternité grave et majestueuse d’un roi s’exprime dans
cette phrase magnifique et conforme au grand style qui règne dans
toute l’œuvre. Certes, le fils d’un Pharaon versant sa douleur dans le
sein de son père, et la lui faisant éprouver, ne peut être mieux
représenté que par ces images grandioses. Ne trouvez-vous pas en
vous-même un sentiment de la splendeur que nous prêtons à cette
antique monarchie?
—C’est de la musique sublime! dit le Français.
—L’air de la Pace mia smarrita, que va chanter la reine est un de
ces airs de bravoure et de facture auxquels tous les compositeurs
sont condamnés et qui nuisent au dessin général du poëme, mais
leur opéra n’existerait souvent point s’ils ne satisfaisaient l’amour-
propre de la prima donna. Néanmoins cette tartine musicale est si
largement traitée qu’elle est textuellement exécutée sur tous les
théâtres. Elle est si brillante que les cantatrices n’y substituent point
leur air favori, comme cela se pratique dans la plupart des opéras.
Enfin voici le point brillant de la partition, le duo d’Osiride et d’Elcia
dans le souterrain où il veut la cacher pour l’enlever aux Hébreux qui
partent, et s’enfuir avec elle de l’Égypte. Les deux amants sont
troublés par l’arrivée d’Aaron qui est allé prévenir Amalthée, et nous
allons entendre le roi des quatuors: Mi manca la voce, mi sento
morire. Ce Mi manca la voce est un de ces chefs-d’œuvre qui
résisteront à tout, même au temps, ce grand destructeur des modes
en musique, car il est pris à ce langage d’âme qui ne varie jamais.
Mozart possède en propre son fameux finale de Don Juan, Marcello
son psaume Cœli enarrant gloriam Dei, Cimarosa son Pria chè
spunti, Beethoven sa Symphonie en ut mineur, Pergolèse son
Stabat, Rossini gardera son Mi manca la voce. C’est surtout la
facilité merveilleuse avec laquelle il varie la forme qu’il faut admirer
chez Rossini; pour obtenir ce grand effet, il a eu recours au vieux
mode du canon à l’unisson pour faire entrer ses voix et les fondre
dans une même mélodie. Comme la forme de ces sublimes
cantilènes était neuve, il l’a établie dans un vieux cadre; et pour la
mieux mettre en relief, il a éteint l’orchestre, en n’accompagnant la
voix que par des arpéges de harpes. Il est impossible d’avoir plus
d’esprit dans les détails et plus de grandeur dans l’effet général. Mon
Dieu! toujours du tumulte, dit la duchesse.
Genovese, qui avait si bien chanté son duo avec Carthagenova,
faisait sa propre charge auprès de la Tinti. De grand chanteur, il
devenait le plus mauvais de tous les choristes. Il s’éleva le plus
effroyable tumulte qui ait oncques troublé les voûtes de la Fenice. Le
tumulte ne céda qu’à la voix de la Tinti qui, enragée de l’obstacle
apporté par l’entêtement de Genovese, chanta Mi manca la voce,
comme nulle cantatrice ne le chantera. L’enthousiasme fut au
comble, les spectateurs passèrent de l’indignation et de la fureur aux
jouissances les plus aiguës.
—Elle me verse des flots de pourpre dans l’âme, disait Capraja
en bénissant de sa main étendue la diva Tinti.
—Que le ciel épuise ses grâces sur ta tête! lui cria un gondolier.
—Le Pharaon va révoquer ses ordres, reprit la duchesse pendant
que l’émeute se calmait au parterre, Moïse le foudroiera sur son
trône en lui annonçant la mort de tous les aînés de l’Égypte et
chantant cet air de vengeance qui contient les tonnerres du ciel, et
où résonnent les clairons hébreux. Mais ne vous y trompez pas, cet
air est un air de Pacini, que Carthagenova substitue à celui de
Rossini. Cet air de Paventa restera sans doute dans la partition; il
fournit trop bien aux basses l’occasion de déployer les richesses de
leur voix, et ici l’expression doit l’emporter sur la science. D’ailleurs,
l’air est magnifique de menaces, aussi ne sais-je si l’on nous le
laissera longtemps chanter.
Une salve de bravos et d’applaudissements, suivie d’un profond
et prudent silence, accueillit l’air; rien ne fut plus significatif ni plus
vénitien que cette hardiesse, aussitôt réprimée.
—Je ne vous dirai rien du tempo di marcia qui annonce le
couronnement d’Osiride, par lequel le père veut braver la menace de
Moïse, il suffit de l’écouter. Leur fameux Beethoven n’a rien écrit de
plus magnifique. Cette marche, pleine de pompes terrestres,
contraste admirablement avec la marche des Hébreux. Comparez-
les? La musique est ici d’une inouïe fécondité. Elcia déclare son
amour à la face des deux chefs des Hébreux, et le sacrifie par cet
admirable air de Porge la destra amata (Donnez à une autre votre
main adorée). Ah! quelle douleur! voyez la salle?
—Bravo! cria le parterre quand Genovese fut foudroyé.
—Délivrée de son déplorable compagnon, nous entendrons la
Tinti chanter: O desolata Elcia! la terrible cavatine où crie un amour
réprouvé par Dieu.
—Rossini, où es-tu pour entendre si magnifiquement rendu ce
que ton génie t’a dicté, dit Cataneo, Clarina n’est-elle pas son égale?
demanda-t-il à Capraja. Pour animer ces notes par des bouffées de
feu qui, parties des poumons, se grossissent dans l’air de je ne sais
quelles substances ailées que nos oreilles aspirent et qui nous
élèvent au ciel par un ravissement amoureux, il faut être Dieu!
—Elle est comme cette belle plante indienne qui s’élance de
terre, ramasse dans l’air une invisible nourriture et lance de son
calice arrondi en spirale blanche, des nuées de parfums qui font
éclore des rêves dans notre cerveau, répondit Capraja.
La Tinti fut rappelée et reparut seule, elle fut saluée par des
acclamations, elle reçut mille baisers que chacun lui envoyait du
bout des doigts; on lui jeta des roses, et une couronne pour laquelle
des femmes donnèrent les fleurs de leurs bonnets, presque tous
envoyés par les modistes de Paris. On redemanda la cavatine.
—Avec quelle impatience Capraja, l’amant de la roulade,
n’attendait-il pas ce morceau qui ne tire sa valeur que de l’exécution,
dit alors la duchesse. Là, Rossini a mis, pour ainsi dire, la bride sur
le cou à la fantaisie de la cantatrice. La roulade et l’âme de la
cantatrice y sont tout. Avec une voix ou une exécution médiocre, ce
ne serait rien. Le gosier doit mettre en œuvre les brillants de ce
passage. La cantatrice doit exprimer la plus immense douleur, celle
d’une femme qui voit mourir son amant sous ses yeux! La Tinti, vous
l’entendez, fait retentir la salle des notes les plus aiguës, et pour
laisser toute liberté à l’art pur, à la voix, Rossini a écrit là des
phrases nettes et franches, il a, par un dernier effort, inventé ces
déchirantes exclamations musicales: Tormenti! affanni! smanie!
Quels cris! que de douleur dans ces roulades! La Tinti, vous le
voyez, a enlevé la salle par ses sublimes efforts.
Le Français, stupéfait de cette furie amoureuse de toute une
salle pour la cause de ses jouissances, entrevit un peu la véritable
Italie; mais ni la duchesse, ni Vendramin, ni Émilio ne firent la
moindre attention à l’ovation de la Tinti qui recommença. La
duchesse avait peur de voir son Émilio pour la dernière fois; quant
au prince, devant la duchesse, cette imposante divinité qui l’enlevait
au ciel, il ignorait où il se trouvait, il n’entendait pas la voix
voluptueuse de celle qui l’avait initié aux voluptés terrestres, car une
horrible mélancolie faisait entendre à ses oreilles un concert de voix
plaintives accompagnées d’un bruissement semblable à celui d’une
pluie abondante. Vendramin, habillé en procurateur, voyait alors la
cérémonie du Bucentaure. Le Français, qui avait fini par deviner un
étrange et douloureux mystère entre le prince et la duchesse,
entassait les plus spirituelles conjectures pour se l’expliquer. La
scène avait changé. Au milieu d’une belle décoration représentant le
désert et la mer Rouge, les évolutions des Égyptiens et des Hébreux
se firent, sans que les pensées auxquelles les quatre personnages
de cette loge étaient en proie eussent été troublées. Mais quand les
premiers accords des harpes annoncèrent la prière des Hébreux
délivrés, le prince et Vendramin se levèrent et s’appuyèrent chacun
à l’une des cloisons de la loge, la duchesse mit son coude sur
l’appui de velours, et se tint la tête dans sa main gauche.
Le Français, averti par ces mouvements de l’importance attachée
par toute la salle à ce morceau si justement célèbre, l’écouta
religieusement. La salle entière redemanda la prière en
l’applaudissant à outrance.
—Il me semble avoir assisté à la libération de l’Italie, pensait un
Milanais.
—Cette musique relève les têtes courbées, et donne de
l’espérance aux cœurs les plus endormis, s’écriait un Romagnol.
—Ici, dit la duchesse au Français dont l’émotion fut visible, la
science a disparu, l’inspiration seule a dicté ce chef-d’œuvre, il est
sorti de l’âme comme un cri d’amour! Quant à l’accompagnement, il
consiste en arpéges de harpe, et l’orchestre ne se développe qu’à la
dernière reprise de ce thème céleste. Jamais Rossini ne s’élèvera
plus haut que dans cette prière, il fera tout aussi bien, jamais mieux:
le sublime est toujours semblable à lui-même; mais ce chant est
encore une de ces choses qui lui appartiendront en entier.
L’analogue d’une pareille conception ne pourrait se trouver que dans
les psaumes divins du divin Marcello, un noble Vénitien qui est à la
musique ce que le Giotto est à la peinture. La majesté de la phrase,
dont la forme se déroule en nous apportant d’inépuisables mélodies,
est égale à ce que les génies religieux ont inventé de plus ample.
Quelle simplicité dans le moyen. Moïse attaque le thème en sol
mineur, et termine par une cadence en si bémol, qui permet au
chœur de le reprendre pianissimo d’abord en si bémol, et de le
rendre par une cadence en sol mineur. Ce jeu si noble dans les voix
recommencé trois fois s’achève à la dernière strophe par une strette
en sol majeur dont l’effet est étourdissant pour l’âme. Il semble qu’en
montant vers les cieux, le chant de ce peuple sorti d’esclavage
rencontre des chants tombés des sphères célestes. Les étoiles
répondent joyeusement à l’ivresse de la terre délivrée. La rondeur
périodique de ces motifs, la noblesse des lentes gradations qui
préparent l’explosion du chant et son retour sur lui-même,
développent des images célestes dans l’âme. Ne croiriez-vous pas
voir les cieux entr’ouverts, les anges armés de leurs sistres d’or, les
séraphins prosternés agitant leurs encensoirs chargés de parfums,
et les archanges appuyés sur leurs épées flamboyantes qui viennent
de vaincre les impies. Le secret de cette harmonie, qui rafraîchit la
pensée, est, je crois, celui de quelques œuvres humaines bien rares,
elle nous jette pour un moment dans l’infini, nous en avons le
sentiment, nous l’entrevoyons dans ces mélodies sans bornes
comme celles qui se chantent autour du trône de Dieu. Le génie de
Rossini nous conduit à une hauteur prodigieuse. De là, nous
apercevons une terre promise où nos yeux caressés par des lueurs
célestes se plongent sans y rencontrer d’horizon. Le dernier cri
d’Elcia presque guérie rattache un amour terrestre à cette hymne de
reconnaissance. Ce cantilène est un trait de génie.—Chantez, dit la
duchesse en entendant la dernière strophe exécutée comme elle
était écoutée, avec un sombre enthousiasme; chantez, vous êtes
libres.
Ce dernier mot fut dit d’un accent qui fit tressaillir le médecin; et
pour arracher la duchesse à son amère pensée, il lui fit, pendant le
tumulte excité par les rappels de la Tinti, une de ces querelles
auxquelles les Français excellent.
—Madame, dit-il, en m’expliquant ce chef-d’œuvre que grâce à
vous je reviendrai entendre demain, en le comprenant et dans ses
moyens et dans son effet, vous m’avez parlé souvent de la couleur
de la musique, et de ce qu’elle peignait; mais en ma qualité
d’analyste et de matérialiste, je vous avouerai que je suis toujours
révolté par la prétention qu’ont certains enthousiastes de nous faire
croire que la musique peint avec des sons. N’est-ce pas comme si
les admirateurs de Raphaël prétendaient qu’il chante avec des
couleurs?
—Dans la langue musicale, répondit la duchesse, peindre, c’est
réveiller par des sons certains souvenirs dans notre cœur, ou
certaines images dans notre intelligence, et ces souvenirs, ces
images ont leur couleur, elles sont tristes ou gaies. Vous nous faites
une querelle de mots, voilà tout. Selon Capraja, chaque instrument a
sa mission, et s’adresse à certaines idées comme chaque couleur
répond en nous à certains sentiments. En contemplant des
arabesques d’or sur un fond bleu, avez-vous les mêmes pensées
qu’excitent en vous des arabesques rouges sur un fond noir ou vert?
Dans l’une comme dans l’autre peinture, il n’y a point de figures,
point de sentiments exprimés, c’est l’art pur, et néanmoins nulle âme
ne restera froide en les regardant. Le hautbois n’a-t-il pas sur tous
les esprits le pouvoir d’éveiller des images champêtres, ainsi que
presque tous les instruments à vent. Les cuivres n’ont-ils pas je ne
sais quoi de guerrier, ne développent-ils pas en nous des sensations
animées et quelque peu furieuses. Les cordes, dont la substance est
prise aux créations organisées, ne s’attaquent-elles pas aux fibres
les plus délicates de notre organisation, ne vont-elles pas au fond de
notre cœur? Quand je vous ai parlé des sombres couleurs, du froid
des notes employées dans l’introduction de Mosè, n’étais-je pas
autant dans le vrai que vos critiques en nous parlant de la couleur de
tel ou tel écrivain. Ne reconnaissez-vous pas le style nerveux, le
style pâle, le style animé, le style coloré. L’Art peint avec des mots,
avec des sons, avec des couleurs, avec des lignes, avec des
formes; si ses moyens sont divers, les effets sont les mêmes. Un
architecte italien vous donnera la sensation qu’excite en nous
l’introduction de Mosè, en nous promenant dans des allées sombres,
hautes, touffues, humides, et nous faisant arriver subitement en face
d’une vallée pleine d’eau, de fleurs, de fabriques, et inondée de
soleil. Dans leurs efforts grandioses, les arts ne sont que
l’expression des grands spectacles de la nature. Je ne suis pas
assez savante pour entrer dans la philosophie de la musique; allez
questionner Capraja, vous serez surpris de ce qu’il vous dira. Selon
lui, chaque instrument ayant pour ses expressions la durée, le
souffle ou la main de l’homme, est supérieur comme langage à la
couleur qui est fixe, et au mot qui a des bornes. La langue musicale
est infinie, elle contient tout, elle peut tout exprimer. Savez-vous
maintenant en quoi consiste la supériorité de l’œuvre que vous avez
entendue? Je vais vous l’expliquer en peu de mots. Il y a deux
musiques: une petite, mesquine, de second ordre, partout semblable
à elle-même, qui repose sur une centaine de phrases que chaque
musicien s’approprie, et qui constitue un bavardage plus ou moins
agréable avec lequel vivent la plupart des compositeurs; on écoute
leurs chants, leurs prétendues mélodies, on a plus ou moins de
plaisir, mais il n’en reste absolument rien dans la mémoire. Cent ans
se passent, ils sont oubliés. Les peuples, depuis l’antiquité jusqu’à
nos jours, ont gardé, comme un précieux trésor, certains chants qui
résument leurs mœurs et leurs habitudes, je dirai presque leur
histoire. Écoutez un de ces chants nationaux (et le chant grégorien a
recueilli l’héritage des peuples antérieurs en ce genre), vous tombez
en des rêveries profondes, il se déroule dans votre âme des choses
inouïes, immenses, malgré la simplicité de ces rudiments, de ces
ruines musicales. Eh! bien, il y a par siècle un ou deux hommes de
génie, pas davantage, les Homères de la musique, à qui Dieu donne
le pouvoir de devancer les temps, et qui formulent ces mélodies
pleines de faits accomplis, grosses de poëmes immenses. Songez-y
bien, rappelez-vous cette pensée, elle sera féconde, redite par vous:
c’est la mélodie et non l’harmonie qui a le pouvoir de traverser les
âges. La musique de cet oratorio contient un monde de ces choses
grandes et sacrées. Une œuvre qui débute par cette introduction et
qui finit par cette prière est immortelle, immortelle comme l’O filii et
filiæ de Pâques, comme le Dies iræ de la Mort, comme tous les
chants qui survivent en tous les pays à des splendeurs, à des joies,
à des prospérités perdues.
Deux larmes que la duchesse essuya en sortant de sa loge
disaient assez qu’elle songeait à la Venise qui n’était plus; aussi
Vendramin lui baisa-t-il la main.
La représentation finissait par un concert des malédictions les
plus originales, par les sifflets prodigués à Genovese, et par un
accès de folie en faveur de la Tinti. Depuis longtemps les Vénitiens
n’avaient eu de théâtre plus animé, leur vie était enfin réchauffée par
cet antagonisme qui n’a jamais failli en Italie, où la moindre ville a
toujours vécu par les intérêts opposés de deux factions: les Gibelins
et les Guelfes partout, les Capulets et les Montaigu à Vérone, les
Geremeï et les Lomelli à Bologne, les Fieschi et les Doria à Gênes,
les patriciens et le peuple, le sénat et les tribuns de la république
romaine, les Pazzi et les Medici à Florence, les Sforza et les Visconti
à Milan, les Orsini et les Colonna à Rome; enfin partout et en tous
lieux le même mouvement. Dans les rues, il y avait déjà des
Genovesiens et des Tintistes. Le prince reconduisit la duchesse, que
l’amour d’Osiride avait plus qu’attristée; elle croyait pour elle-même
à quelque catastrophe semblable, et ne pouvait que presser Émilio
sur son cœur, comme pour le garder près d’elle.
—Songe à ta promesse, lui dit Vendramin, je t’attends sur la
place.
Vendramin prit le bras du Français, et lui proposa de se
promener sur la place Saint-Marc en attendant le prince.
—Je serai bien heureux s’il ne revient pas, dit-il.
Cette parole fut le point de départ d’une conversation entre le
Français et Vendramin, qui vit en ce moment un avantage à
consulter un médecin, et qui lui raconta la singulière position dans
laquelle était Émilio. Le Français fit ce qu’en toute occasion font les
Français, il se mit à rire. Vendramin, qui trouvait la chose
énormément sérieuse, se fâcha; mais il s’apaisa quand l’élève de
Magendie, de Flourens, de Cuvier, de Dupuytren, de Broussais, lui
dit qu’il croyait pouvoir guérir le prince de son bonheur excessif, et
dissiper la céleste poésie dans laquelle il environnait la duchesse
comme d’un nuage.
—Heureux malheur, dit-il. Les anciens, qui n’étaient pas aussi
niais que le ferait supposer leur ciel de cristal et leurs idées en
physique, ont voulu peindre dans leur fable d’Ixion cette puissance
qui annule le corps et rend l’esprit souverain de toutes choses.
Vendramin et le médecin virent venir Genovese, accompagné du
fantasque Capraja. Le mélomane désirait vivement savoir la
véritable cause du fiasco. Le ténor, mis sur cette question, bavardait
comme ces hommes qui se grisent par la force des idées que leur
suggère une passion.
—Oui, signor, je l’aime, je l’adore avec une fureur dont je ne me
croyais plus capable après m’être lassé des femmes. Les femmes
nuisent trop à l’art pour qu’on puisse mener ensemble les plaisirs et
le travail. La Clara croit que je suis jaloux de ses succès et que j’ai
voulu empêcher son triomphe à Venise; mais je l’applaudissais dans
la coulisse et criais: Diva! plus fort que toute la salle.
—Mais, dit Cataneo en survenant, ceci n’explique pas comment
de chanteur divin tu es devenu le plus exécrable de tous ceux qui
font passer de l’air par leur gosier, sans l’empreindre de cette suavité
enchanteresse qui nous ravit.
—Moi, dit le virtuose, moi devenu mauvais chanteur, moi qui
égale les plus grands maîtres!
En ce moment, le médecin français, Vendramin, Capraja,
Cataneo et Genovese avaient marché jusqu’à la Piazzeta. Il était
minuit. Le golfe brillant que dessinent les églises de Saint-Georges
et de Saint-Paul au bout de la Giudecca, et le commencement du
canal Grande, si glorieusement ouvert par la dogana, et par l’église
dédiée à la Maria della Salute, ce magnifique golfe était paisible. La
lune éclairait les vaisseaux devant la rive des Esclavons. L’eau de

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