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Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in
Clinical Laboratory Sciences
Recommendations 2016
Published on 31 August 2016 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782622451-FP001
Published on 31 August 2016 on http://pubs.rsc.org | doi:10.1039/9781782622451-FP001 View Online
View Online
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

Chemistry and Human Health Division (VII)
Subcommittee on Nomenclature for Properties and Units
International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine

Scientific Division (IX)
Committee on Nomenclature for Properties and Units
Compendium of Terminology and

Nomenclature of Properties in
Clinical Laboratory Sciences
Georges Férard
University of Strasbourg, France
Email: georges.ferard@noos.fr
René Dybkaer
Frederiksberg Hospital, Denmark
Email: rene.dybkaer@frh.regionh.dk
and
Xavier Fuentes-Arderiu
Clinical Laboratory Sciences C, Barcelona, Spain
Email: 2461xfa@gmail.com
Print ISBN: 978-1-78262-107-2

PDF eISBN: 978-1-78262-245-1
EPUB eISBN: 978-1-78262-909-2
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
r International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry 2017
All rights reserved
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criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 and the Copyright and
Related Rights Regulations 2003, this publication may not be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form
or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of The Royal Society of Chemistry or the copyright
owner, or in the case of reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the Copyright
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Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms
stated here should be sent to The Royal Society of Chemistry at the address printed on this page.
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Preface
Over the last 60 years, much effort has been made to introduce and apply in the clinical
laboratory sciences the concepts, designations, rules, and conventions on properties,
including quantities and units, recommended by international organizations such as
CGPM, ISO, IUPAC and IFCC.
From 1994, extensions and applications to several disciplines within the clinical
laboratory sciences have been made, by the IFCC/IUPAC Committee/Subcommittee on
Nomenclature for Properties and Units (C-SC-NPU).
In 1995, the first issue of the Silver Book was published to harmonize and facilitate access
to relevant documents. From this time, many recommendations and technical reports have
been prepared by the C-SC-NPU, but they are not readily available and some have been
updated and aligned with other documents.
IUPAC and IFCC have now decided that, after 20 years, it is time to issue a second edition
of the Silver Book with four objectives:
to update the recommendations and technical reports;

to enlarge the subject field by several disciplines applied in the clinical laboratory
sciences;
to develop concepts used to include properties having no quantity dimensions, that are
frequently submitted to examination in clinical laboratories; and
to explain when necessary the recommendations and illustrate them by examples
taken from laboratory practice.
Comments and suggestions are welcomed.

The authors wish to thank members of the Committee/Subcommittee on Nomenclature
for Properties and Units (IFCC and IUPAC): Ivan Bruunshuus (Alleroed); Pedro de Araujo
(Sao Paulo); Robert Flatman (Taringa, Chair); Urban Forsum (Linköping); Gilbert Hill
(Toronto); Antonin Jabor (Kladno); Jens Gledisch (Oslo); Helle Johannessen (Copenhagen);
Daniel Karlsson (Linköping); Wolf Külpmann (Hannover); Ulla Magdal-Petersen (Copen-
hagen); Clement McDonald (Indianapolis); Gunnar Nordin (Uppsala); Henrik Olesen
(Copenhagen); Françoise Pontet (Paris); Gunther Schadow (Indianapolis); and Kaoru
Yamauchi (Tokyo).
Georges Férard, René Dybkaer and Xavier Fuentes-Arderiu
Comments to:
Georges Férard: georges.ferard@noos.fr
Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in Clinical Laboratory Sciences:

Edited by Georges Férard, René Dybkaer and Xavier Fuentes-Arderiu
Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, www.rsc.org
v
Committees
This second edition of the Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in

Clinical Laboratory Sciences was discussed in an IFCC and IUPAC joint Working Group:
René Dybkaer (Frederiksberg); Georges Férard (Strasbourg, Chair); Françoise Pontet (Paris,
co-Chair); Xavier Fuentes-Arderiu (Barcelona); Dongchon Kang (Kyushu); Gilbert Hill
(Toronto); Clement McDonald (Indianapolis); and Anders J. Thor (Stockholm).
The Working Group wishes to thank members of the C-SC-NPU (IFCC and IUPAC): Ivan
Bruunshuus (Alleroed); Pedro de Araujo (Sao Paulo); Robert Flatman (Taringa, Chair);
Urban Forsum (Linköping); Gilbert Hill (Toronto); Antonin Jabor (Kladno); Jens Gledisch
(Oslo); Helle Johannessen (Copenhagen); Daniel Karlsson (Linköping); Wolf Külpmann
(Hannover); Ulla Magdal-Petersen (Copenhagen); Clement McDonald (Indianapolis);
Gunnar Nordin (Uppsala); Henrik Olesen (Copenhagen); Françoise Pontet (Paris); Gunther
Schadow (Indianapolis); and Kaoru Yamanouchi (Tokyo).
The first edition of the Compendium (1995) was authored by J. Christopher Rigg, Stanley
S. Brown, René Dybkaer, and Henrik Olesen.
Memberships of the Committees

International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
The membership of the Commission on Quantities and Units, subsequently Subcommittee
on Nomenclature for Properties and Units, during the period 1968 to 2013, when the
successive recommendations and technical reports on properties, quantities and units were
prepared was as follows:
Chairholders: 1968–1975 R. Dybkær (Denmark); 1976–1979 R. Zender (Switzerland);

1980–1989 H. P. Lehmann (United States); 1989–1995 H. Olesen (Denmark); 1996–1997 D.
Kenny (Ireland); 1998–2000 X. Fuentes-Arderiu (Spain); 2001–2005 H. Forsum (Sweden);
2006–2011 F. Pontet (France); and 2012– R. Flatman (Australia).
Titular members and consultants: 1968–1975 B. H. Armbrecht (United States); 1983–1991

D. R. Bangham (United Kingdom); 1983–1987 L. F. Bertello (Argentina); 2004– I. Bruunshuus
Petersen (Denmark); 1968–1977 and 2002– R. Dybkær (Denmark); 1983–1991 and 2008–
G. Férard (France); 2010– R. Flatman (Australia); 1998– U. Forsum (Sweden); 1992–1995 and
2007– X. Fuentes-Arderiu (Spain); 1971–1979 R. Herrmann (Germany); 1987–1995 and 2010–
J. G. Hill (Canada); 2005–2007 J. Ihalainen (Finland); 1998–2007 A. Jabor (Czech Republic);
1968–1973 K. Jørgensen (Denmark); 2006–2008 D. Karlsson (Sweden); 2008– D. Kang
(Japan); 1998–2007 D. Kenny (Ireland); 1985–1993 M. Lauritzen (Denmark); 1979–1989
H. P. Lehmann (United States); 2008– C. McDonald (United States); 1968–1975 P. Métais

vii
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viii Committees
(France); 2000– G. Nordin (Sweden); 1988–1995 and 2006–2007 H. Olesen (Denmark); 1975–
1979 C. Onkelinx (Belgium); 2006– U. M. Petersen (Denmark); 1973–1977 and 1986–1989 J. C.
Rigg (the Netherlands); 2008– G. Schadow (United States); 1994–2001 P. Soares de Araujo
(Brazil); 2002–2007 H. Storm (the Netherlands); 1977–1981 B. F. Visser (the Netherlands); and
1975–1979 R. Zender (Switzerland).
International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine

The membership of the Committee on Quantities and Units, subsequently Committee on
Nomenclature for Properties and Units during the period 1968 to 2013, when the successive
recommendations and technical on properties, quantities and units were prepared was as
follows:
Chairholders: 1968–1975 R. Dybkær (Denmark); 1976–1979 R. Zender (Switzerland);

1980–1989 H. P. Lehmann (United States); 1989–1995 H. Olesen (Denmark); 1996–1997
D. Kenny (Ireland); 1998–2000 X. Fuentes-Arderiu (Spain); 2001–2005 U. Forsum (Sweden);
2006–2011 F. Pontet (France); and 2012– R. Flatman (Australia).
Titular members and consultants: 1968–1975 B. H. Armbrecht (United States); 1983–

1991 D. R. Bangham (United Kingdom); 1983–1987 L. F. Bertello (Argentina); 2005–
I. Bruunshuus Petersen (Denmark); 1968–1977 and 1996–1998 and 2000– R. Dybkær
(Denmark); 1983–1991 G. Férard (France); 2010– R. Flatman (Australia); 2006– U. Forsum
(Sweden); 1992–1995 and 2006– X. Fuentes-Arderiu (Spain); 1971–1979 R. Herrmann
(Germany); 1988–1999 J. G. Hill (Canada); 2005–2007 J. Ihalainen (Finland); 1999–2004
A. Jabor (Czech Republic); 1968–1973 K. Jørgensen (Denmark); 2006–2008 D. Karlsson
(Sweden); 1985–1993 M. Lauritzen (Denmark); 1979–1989 H. P. Lehmann (United States);
1996–1999 C. McDonald (United States); 1968–1975 P. Métais (France); 2000–2005 G. Nordin
(Sweden); 1988–1995 H. Olesen (Denmark); 1975–1979 C. Onkelinx (Belgium); 2006–
U. M. Petersen (Denmark); 1973–1977 and 1986–1989 J. C. Rigg (the Netherlands); 1975–1979
O. Siggaard-Andersen (Denmark); 1996–2004 P. Soares de Araujo (Brazil); 1991–1994
P. Storring (United Kingdom); 1977–1981 B. F. Visser (the Netherlands); and 1975–1979
R. Zender (Switzerland).
The membership of Working Group on the Silver Book Revision during the period 2008 to
2015 was as follows:
Chairholders: G. Férard (France) and F. Pontet (y) (France)
Members and consultants: R. Dybkaer (Denmark); X. Fuentes-Arderiu (Spain); G. Hill

(Canada); D. Kang (Japan); C. McDonald (United States); and A. Thor (y) (Sweden).
List of Abbreviations Used for
Institutions and Committees
BCR Bureau Communautaire de Référence (of European Communities)

BIML International Bureau of Legal Metrology/Bureau International de
Métrologie Légale
BIPM International Bureau of Weights and Measures/Bureau International
des Poids et Mesures
CCQM Consultative Committee for Amount of Substance – Metrology in
Chemistry and Biology (formerly Consultative Committee for Amount
of Substance)/Comité Consultatif pour la Quantité de Matière –
Métrologie en Chimie et Biologie (of CIPM)
CCTF Consultative Committee for Time and Frequency (of CIPM)
CCU Consultative Committee for Units/Comité Consultatif d’Unités
(of CIPM)
CEC Commission of the European Communities
CEN European Committee for Standardization/Comité Européen de
Normalisation
CGPM General Conference on Weights and Measures/Conférence Générale
des Poids et Mesures
CIAAW Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (of IUPAC)
(formerly CAWIA)
CIPM International Committee for Weights and Measures/Comité
International des Poids et Mesures
CITAC Cooperation on International Traceability in Analytical Chemistry
CLSI Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (formerly NCCLS)
CODATA Committee on Data for Science and Technology
EA European co-operation for Accreditation
ECBS Expert Committee on Biological Standardization (of WHO)
ECCLS European Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards
EFCC European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine
EMBO European Molecular Biology Organization
EURAMET European Association of National Metrology Institutes (formerly
EUROMET)
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ICRU International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements
ICSB International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology
ICSH International Council for Standardization in Haematology (formerly
International Committee for Standardization in Haematology)

ix
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x List of Abbreviations Used for Institutions and Committees
ICSU International Council for Science (formerly International Council of

Scientific Unions)
ICTNS International Committee on Terminology, Nomenclature and
Symbols (of IUPAC)
ICVGAN International Committee on Veterinary Gross Anatomical
Nomenclature
IDCNS Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols (of IUPAC)
(superseded by ICTNS)
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission/Commission
électrotechnique internationale
IFCC International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory
Medicine
ILAC International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation
IOC International Olympic Committee
IRMM Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements/Institut des
Matériaux et Mesures de Référence
ISA International Society of Andrology
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ISO/TC12 ISO Technical Committee on Quantities, Symbols, and Conversion
Factors
ISTH International Society on Thrombosis and Haematology
IUB International Union of Biochemistry (superseded by IUBMB)
IUBMB International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
(formerly IUB)
IUIS International Union of Immunological Societies
IUMS International Union of Microbiological Societies
IUNS International Union of Nutritional Sciences
IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
IUPAP International Union of Pure and Applied Physics
IUPS International Union of Physiological Sciences
JCGM Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology
JCGM/WG1 Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, Working Group 1 on the
GUM (Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement)
JCGM/WG2 Joint Committee for Guides in Metrology, Working Group 2 on the
VIM (International vocabulary of metrology – Basic and general
concepts and associated terms)
JCTLM Joint Committee for Traceability in Laboratory Medicine
NCCLS National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards (superseded by
CLSI)
NIST US National Institute of Science and Technology
OIML International Organization of Legal Metrology/Organisation
Internationale de Métrologie Légale
REMCO Committee on Reference Materials (of ISO)
WASP World Association of (Anatomic and Clinical) Pathological Societies
WHO World Health Organization/Organisation mondiale de la Santé
List of Symbols, Terms and SI units
for Kinds-of-quantity
A given symbol is sometimes used for different kinds-of-quantity. Different symbols are
sometimes used for a given kind-of-quantity. Synonyms for a kind-of-quantity are included
unless they are deprecated. Many kinds-of-quantity can be expressed in other coherent SI
units than those listed below in column 3.
Symbol(s) of
kind-of- Symbol(s) for SI base unit
quantity Term(s) for kind(s)-of-quantity or coherent derived SI unit
a relative chemical activity 1
ab relative molal activity 1
ac relative substance-concentrational activity 1
ax relative substance-fractional activity 1
a, a, ~
a acceleration, linear acceleration m s2
arot centrifugal acceleration m s2
al, a, K lineic decadic absorbance, linear decadic m1
absorption coefficient
a massic area m2 kg1
a, DT thermal diffusivity, thermal diffusion m2 s1
coefficient
a1, f1 massic Helmholtz energy, massic Helmholtz J kg1 ¼ m2 s2
free energy, massic Helmholtz function
a absorbed dose content Bq kg1 ¼ kg1 s1
A decadic absorbance 1
A, S area m2
A, F Helmholtz energy, Helmholtz free energy, J ¼ kg m2 s2
Helmholtz function
A activity referred to a radionuclide, absorbed Bq ¼ s1
dose
A molar Gibbs energy, affinity J mol1 ¼ kg m2 mol1 s2
A(Dl) integral of molar area Napierian absorbance m3 mol1
over wavelength
Am molar area m2 mol1
Am molar absorbed dose Bq mol1 ¼ s1 mol1

xi
View Online
xii Symbols
Symbol(s) of
b, y breadth m
b, m molality mol kg1
~ m
b, ~ active molality mol kg1
bE, kE, eE catalytic-activity concentration, catalytic kat m3 ¼ mol m3 s1
concentration
B napierian absorbance of radiation 1
B magnetic induction, magnetic flux density kg s2 A1
c, v, u, w length rate vector, velocity m s1

c length rate of electromagnetic radiation, m s1
speed of propagation of electromagnetic
radiation
c substance concentration, amount-of- mol m3
substance concentration, amount
concentration, molar concentration
c massic kelvic enthalpy, massic heat capacity J kg1 K1 ¼ m2 s2 K1
c~ active substance concentration mol m3
c^ osmolarity, osmotic concentration mol m3
C number concentration m3
C clearance m3 s1
C capacitance, electrical capacitance, electric F ¼ kg1 m2 s4 A2
capacitance
C kelvic enthalpy, heat capacity J K1 ¼ kg m2 s2 K1
Cm molar kelvic enthalpy, molar heat capacity J K1 mol1 ¼
kg m2 s2 K1 mol1
d relative volumic mass, relative mass density 1

d, r distance travelled or migrated m
d, D diameter of circle m
d, d, z depth m
Di(l), D(l) attenuance, extinction factor 1
D, d diameter of circle m
D massic energy of ionizing radiation absorbed, Gy ¼ m2 s2
massic absorbed dose
D diffusion coefficient m2 s1
D1 resistance to diffusion s m2
DT, a thermal diffusivity, thermal diffusion m2 s1
coefficient
D_ massic energy rate of ionizing radiation, Gy s1 ¼ m2 s3
massic absorbed dose
e massic energy J kg1 ¼ m2 s2

e electrical charge constant, elementary charge C¼A s
eE, bE, kE catalytic-activity concentration, catalytic kat m3 ¼ mol m3 s1
concentration
E, Emf electromotive force V ¼ kg m2 s3 A1
E, E electric field strength V m1 ¼ kg m A1 s3
E, Q energy, amount-of-energy J ¼ kg m2 s2
Ee areic energy rate of radiation, irradiance W m2 ¼ kg s3
Ek, Ekin, T kinetic energy J ¼ kg m2 s2
Em molar activation energy J mol1 ¼ kg m2 mol1 s2
Epot, V, F potential energy J ¼ kg m2 s2
View Online
Symbols xiii
Symbol(s) of
f activity factor, activity coefficient 1
f osmotic factor, osmotic coefficient 1
f, v, FN, N_ number rate s1
f, a massic Helmholtz energy, massic Helmholtz J kg1 ¼ m2 s2
free energy, massic Helmholtz function
f, p~ active partial pressure, fugacity Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
f, v number rate of regular event, frequency Hz ¼ s1

f, V electric potential V ¼ kg m2 s3 A1
frot number rate of rotation, rotational frequency Hz ¼ s1
fx, gx substance-fractional activity factor, rational 1
activity coefficient
Fv, V_ , Fv volume rate, volume flow rate, volume rate of m3 s1
flow
F Faraday constant C mol1 ¼ A s mol1
F heat flow rate W ¼ kg m2 s3
F, A Helmholtz energy, Helmholtz free energy, J ¼ kg m2 s2
Helmholtz function
Fm, m_ , Fm, Jm mass rate, mean mass rate, mass flow rate, kg s1
mass rate of flow, mass transfer rate, mass
velocity
F, F, ~
F force N ¼ kg m s2
Fg, Fg, ~
Fg force due to gravity N ¼ kg m s2
Fn, Fn, n_ substance rate, substance flow rate mol s1
Frot, Frot centrifugal force N ¼ kg m s2
F0 counterforce N ¼ kg m s2
g activity factor 1
g, g, ~
g acceleration due to gravity, acceleration by m s2
gravity, acceleration of free fall
g massic Gibbs energy, massic Gibbs free energy J kg1 ¼ m2 s2
gradx c, rc substance concentration gradient mol m4
grad C, rC number concentration gradient m4
grad p, rp volumic mass gradient kg m4
grad pH, rpH pH gradient m1
grad T, rT temperature gradient K m1
grad c, rcm massic energy gradient m s2
G Gibbs energy, Gibbs free energy, J ¼ kg m2 s2
Gibbs function
G gravitational constant N m2 kg2 ¼ m3 kg1 s2
G electrical conductance, electric conductance S ¼ kg1 m2 s3 A2
G kelvic heat rate, thermal conductance, thermal W K1 ¼ kg m2 s3 K1
conductivity, thermal conduction coefficient
G Gibbs energy of activation J mol1 ¼ kg m2 mol1 s2
h, z height m
hv entitic energy of photons J ¼ kg m2 s2
h coefficient of heat transfer W m2 K1 ¼ kg s3 K1
h massic enthalpy, specific enthalpy J kg1 ¼ m2 s2
h, h
Planck constant J s ¼ kg m2 s1
H effective massic energy of ionizing radiation m2 s2
H enthalpy J ¼ kg m2 s2
View Online
xiv Symbols
Symbol(s) of
~
H, H, H magnetic field strength A m1
Hv, H areic light, luminous exposure, light exposure lx s ¼ lm m2 s
I mass of food or nutrient ingested, intake of kg
food or nutrient
I, I impulse N s ¼ kg m s1
I, i electrical current, electricity rate, electric A

current
I, J moment of inertia, dynamic moment of kg m2
inertia
I, J areic energy rate of a unidirectional sound kg s3
wave, sound intensity
I, M insulation coefficient, insulance, K m2 W1 ¼ K s3 kg1
coefficient of thermal insulation
Ib, Im ionic strength (molality basis), molal ionic mol kg1
strength, mean ionic molality
Ic ionic strength (substance concentration mol m3
basis), concentrational ionic strength
Ie, I steradic energy rate of radiation, radiant W ¼ kg m2 s3
intensity
Iv, I luminous intensity, steradic light rate cd m2
j, J areic electrical current, areic electricity rate, A m2

electric current density
J, I moment of inertia, dynamic moment of kg m2
inertia
J, I areic energy rate of a unidirectional sound kg s3
wave, sound intensity
J, L, ~
L angular momentum, momentum of kg m2 s1
momentum
Jm, Fm, m_ , Fm mass rate, mean mass rate, mass flow rate, kg s1
mass rate of flow, mass transfer rate,
mass velocity
Jn, jn areic substance rate, substance flux density mol m2 s1
Jx, J flux of a quantity X (varies)
Jv, jv areic volume rate m s1
k coverage factor 1
k, t time coefficient s
k rate coefficient, rate coefficient for chemical s1
reaction
k lineic electrical conductance, electrical S m1 ¼ s3 A2 kg1 m3
conductivity
k, l thermal conductivity W m1 K1 ¼ kg m s3 K1
kB, k entitic kelvic energy constant, Boltzmann J K1 ¼ kg m2 s2 K1
constant, molecular gas constant,
entitic gas constant
kelim rate coefficient for elimination, s1
elimination rate coefficient
K, al, a lineic decadic absorbance, linear decadic m1
K cubic pressure coefficient Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
View Online
Symbols xv
Symbol(s) of
Kp equilibrium coefficient (based on partial Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
pressure) of chemical reaction, baric
equilibrium product
K, a kelvic areic heat rate, heat transfer W m2 K1 ¼ kg s3 K1
coefficient, coefficient of heat transfer
K luminous efficacy cd m2 kg1 s3
Kb, Km molal equilibrium coefficient, equilibrium mol kg1

constant (molality basis), molal equilibrium
product
KM Michaelis–Menten coefficient, Michaelis– mol m3
Menten constant, Michaelis constant
Kc substance-concentrational equilibrium mol m3
coefficient of reaction, concentrational
equilibrium product
Kfus,c substance-concentrational freezing-point m3 K mol1
coefficient, concentrational freezing point
depression constant
Kfus,b molal freezing-point coefficient, molal kg K mol1
freezing point depression constant
l, L length, distance, length traversed m
l, k thermal conductivity W m1 K1 ¼ kg m s3 K1
L self-inductance H ¼ kg m2 s2 A2
L, NA Avogadro constant mol1
Le,l, Ll differential quotient of steradic areic energy kg m1 s3
rate to wavelength
Lp hydraulic permeability m Pa1 s1 ¼ s m2 kg1
L, ~
L, J angular momentum, momentum of momentum kg m2 s1
m mass, atomic mass, molecular mass, entitic kg

mass of entities, entitic mass of atoms,
atomic mass
m, b molality mol kg1
mA, rA areic mass kg m2
ml, rl lineic mass kg m1
mr mass ratio 1
ms standard mass kg
m(l) lineic attenuance to radiation m1
m_ , Fm, Fm, Jm mass rate, mean mass rate, mass flow rate, kg s1
mass velocity
M mass, mass of individual, mass of particle, kg
rest mass
Mr relative molar mass 1
M, Me areic energy rate of radiation emitted, kg s3
radiant exitance, brightness, irradiance,
radiant emittance
M molar mass kg mol1
M, I insulation coefficient, insulance, thermal K m2 W1 ¼ K s3 kg1
insulance, coefficient of thermal insulation
Mv illuminance, areic light rate cd sr m2
~
M, M, M moment of force J ¼ kg m2 s2
View Online
xvi Symbols
Symbol(s) of
n number of entities, absolute frequency 1
n, z charge number of a cell reaction, 1
partial order of reaction
n relative lineic time for radiation, 1
refractive index
n relative amount-of-substance 1
n partial order of reaction 1

n volumic number m3
n dynamic viscosity, coefficient of internal Pa s ¼ kg m1 s1
friction
n amount-of-substance, molar amount mol
nA areic substance mol m2
n_ , Fn, Fn substance rate, substance flow rate mol s1
N number of entities, absolute frequency 1
N number content kg1
NA, L Avogadro constant mol1
NA areic number m2
Nr number ratio 1
N_ , v, FN, f number rate s1
p, P number fraction expected, probability 1

p, p momentum N s ¼ kg m s1
p pressure, absolute pressure, partial pressure, Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
tension of gas, gas tension
~ f
p, active pressure, fugacity Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
p electric resistivity o m ¼ kg m3 a2 s3
ps static pressure Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
r, g mass concentration kg m3
pH pH, hydrogen ion exponent 1
pH(I) isoelectric point 1
P, p number fraction expected, probability 1
P, Fe energy rate, power W ¼ kg m2 s3
P(Dl), Fe(Dl) energy rate of radiation, radiant flux, W ¼ kg m2 s3
radiant power, radiant energy flux
Pv, Fe,v, Fv differential quotient of energy rate to W Hz1 ¼ kg m3 s3
frequency
q massic electrical charge C kg1 ¼ A s kg1

q, Q amount-of-heat, quantity of heat J ¼ kg m2 s2
Q, E energy, amount-of-energy J ¼ kg m2 s2
Q electrical charge, electric charge, C¼A s
quantity of electricity, electrical amount,
amount-of-electricity
Q, q amount-of-heat, quantity of heat J ¼ kg m2 s2
Q, W radiant energy J ¼ kg m2 s2
Q, Qv amount-of-light, luminous amount, lm s
quantity of light
Qe energy of radiation, radiant energy J ¼ kg m2 s2
Qe,m molar energy of photons J mol1 ¼ kg m2 mol1 s2
r, d distance travelled or migrated m
r, R radius of circle, centrifugal radius of circle m
View Online
Symbols xvii
Symbol(s) of
r rate of concentration change mol m3 s1
rB/C substance ratio of component B to 1
component C, mole ratio, amount-of-
substance ratio
R electric resistance O ¼ kg m2 s3 A2
R, r reflectance 1
R thermal resistance K W1 ¼ K s3 kg1 m2

R molar kelvic energy constant, J K1 mol1
molar gas constant ¼ kg m2 s2 K1 mol1
s, S relative amount-of-substance 1
s length of path travelled m
s sedimentation coefficient s
s massic entropy J kg1 K1 ¼ m2 s2 K1
S area m2
S entropy J K1 ¼ kg m2 s2 K1
t internal transmittance 1
t, T transmittance 1
t time, time duration, time elapsed, s
time of centrifugation
t, y Celsius temperature 1C ¼ K
t1/2, T1/2, T0.5 half-life, half-value time, half-time, s
half-disappearance time
tr relative time 1
T entitic time s
T, F thermodynamic temperature, Kelvin K
temperature, absolute temperature
T, Ek, Ekin kinetic energy J ¼ kg m2 s2
T1/2, t1/2, T0.5 half-life, half-value time, half-time s
T_ temperature rate K s1
u, v, w, c length rate vector, velocity m s1
u, v speed m s1
u massic thermodynamic energy, massic J kg1 ¼ m2 s2
internal energy
uc combined standard measurement varies
uncertainty
U expanded measurement uncertainty varies
U thermodynamic energy, internal energy J ¼ kg m2 s2
Um molar thermodynamic energy, J mol1 ¼ kg m2 mol1 s2
molar internal energy
U, DV electric potential difference V ¼ kg m2 s3 A1
v degree of freedom 1
v length rate, speed, rate of migration, m s1
rate of travel, velocity of migration,
sedimentation velocity
v, u, w, c length rate vector, rate of travel, velocity m s1
v massic volume, partial massic volume m3 kg1
v volume content m3 kg1
v, FN, f, N_ number rate s1
v, f number rate of regular event, frequency Hz ¼ s1
View Online
xviii Symbols
Symbol(s) of
v substance concentration rate of reaction mol m3 s1
(based on amount concentration),
rate of reaction
v substance content rate mol kg1 s1
V volume m3
V, j electric potential V ¼ kg m2 s3 A1
V_ , Fv, Fv volume rate, volume flow rate, m3 s1

mean volume rate, volume rate of flow
V_ , jv areic volume rate m s1
Vm molar volume, partial molar volume m3 mol1
Vr volume ratio 1
w mass fraction 1
w, u, v, c length rate vector, velocity m s1
w volumic energy J m3 ¼ kg m1 s2
we volumic energy rate kg m1 s3
w, W work J ¼ kg m2 s2
x, y amount-of-substance fraction, substance 1
fraction, mole fraction
x rate of conversion mol s1
X massic electrical charge induced by ionizing C kg1 ¼ A s kg1
radiation, exposure
y, b breadth m
y, x amount-of-substance fraction, substance 1
fraction, mole fraction
z charge number 1
z, h height m
z electrokinetic potential V ¼ kg m2 s3 A1
–z, d, d depth m
zf catalytic activity fraction 1
zE catalytic activity, enzyme activity, mol s1
enzym(at)ic activity, catalytic amount
z_ E catalytic-activity rate kat s1
Z impedance, complex impedance O ¼ kg m2 s3 A2
Zm mechanical impedance N s m1 ¼ kg s1
Zm,E molar catalytic activity of enzyme kat mol1
a absorptance, internal absorptance 1
a expansion coefficient 1
a number fraction of molecules dissociated, 1
degree of dissociation, dissociation fraction
a rate coefficient for elimination, elimination s1
rate constant
a angular acceleration s2
a, c electrical polarizability C m2 V1 ¼ A2 s4 kg1
a, K kelvic areic heat rate, heat transfer W m2 K1 ¼ kg s3 K1
coefficient, coefficient of heat transfer
ab molal solubility coefficient mol kg1 Pa1
¼ mol m s2 kg2
ac substance-concentrational solubility mol s2 kg1 m2
coefficient
View Online
Symbols xix
Symbol(s) of
al lineic napierian absorbance, linear m1
napierian absorption coefficient,
linear napierian absorptivity
al, a, K lineic decadic absorbance, linear decadic m1
al linear expansion coefficient m K1
ap relative pressure coefficient, pressure K1 ¼ C1

coefficient
ap massic area rotance, massic optical m2 kg1
rotatory power
as specific napierian attenuation coefficient, 1
specific napierian extinction coefficient
aV cubic expansion coefficient m3 K1
ax substance-fractional solubility coefficient, Pa1 ¼ m s2 kg1
rational solubility coefficient
am molar area m2 mol1
b kelvic pressure Pa K1 ¼ kg m1 s2 K1
b differential quotient of stoichiometric mol m3
substance concentration of hydrogen
ion to pH, volumic buffer capacity
g activity factor, activity coefficient, substance- 1
concentrational activity factor substance-
concentrational activity coefficient
g, a electrical polarizability C m2 V1 ¼ A2 s4 kg1
g, r volumic mass, partial volumic mass kg m3
g, s areic energy of interface, surface tension J m2 ¼ kg s2
g, s, k lineic electrical conductance, electrical S m1 ¼ A2 s4 kg1 m1
conductivity, electrolytic conductivity
gb, gm molal activity factor, molal activity 1
coefficient
gx, fx substance-fractional activity factor, rational 1
activity coefficient
d number fraction, particle fraction, entity 1
fraction
d, d, z depth m
d, l rate coefficient s1
ddis number fraction of people, prevalence 1
dinf number fraction of people infected, 1
prevalence of a given infection,
proportion of people infected
e molar area decadic absorbance, molar linear m2 mol1
decadic absorption coefficient, molar
decadic absorption coefficient, molar
decadic absorptivity
z electrokinetic potential, zeta potential V ¼ kg m2 s3 A1
Z dynamic viscosity, coefficient of internal Pa s ¼ kg m1 s1
friction
y, t Celsius temperature 1C ¼ K
View Online
xx Symbols
Symbol(s) of
k attenuation coefficient 1
k molar area naperian absorbance, molar m2 mol1
linear naperian coefficient, molar naperian
absorption coefficient, molar naperian
absorptivity
k conductivity S m1 ¼ A2 s4 kg1 m1
k, l lineic kelvic heat rate, thermal conductivity, W m1 K1

thermal conduction coefficient ¼ kg m s3 K1
k, g, s lineic electrical conductance, electrical S m1 ¼ A2 s4 kg1 m1
kE, bE, eE catalytic-activity concentration, catalytic kat m3 ¼ mol m3 s1
concentration
l chemical activity, absolute chemical activity 1
l wavelength m
l decay coefficient for radioactivity, s1
disintegration coefficient
l, Lm molar area electrical conductance, molar S m2 mol1
electrical conductivity, molar conductivity,
ionic conductivity
l, s, k lineic electrical conductance, electrical S m1 ¼ A2 s4 kg1 m1
l, k lineic kelvic heat rate, thermal conductivity, W m1 K1 ¼ kg s3 K1
thermal conduction coefficient
m, ml linear napieran attenuation coefficient m1
m electrophoretic mobility, electrical mobility, A s2 kg1 ¼ m2 s1 V1
electrolytic mobility
m chemical potential, absolute chemical J mol1 ¼ kg m2 mol1 s2
potential, electrochemical potential,
absolute electrochemical potential
v stoichiometric number 1
v kinematic viscosity m2 s1
v volume content, massic volume, partial m3 kg1
massic volume
v, f number rate of regular event, frequency Hz ¼ s1
v substance content mol kg1
x linear displacement m
P, c osmotic pressure, osmotic volumic Pa ¼ m s2 kg1
energy
r, R reflectance 1
r radius of curvature of arc m
r, g mass concentration, volumic mass, kg m3
partial volumic mass
r _ mass concentration rate kg m3 s1
rr relative mass concentration 1
s lineic number, repetency, lineic number m1
of waves, wavenumber
s normal stress Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
View Online
Symbols xxi
Symbol(s) of
s, g, k lineic electrical conductance, electrical S m1 ¼ A2 s4 kg1 m1
s, g areic energy of interface, surface tension N m1 ¼ kg s2
t shear stress Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
t, k time coefficient s
j, W volume fraction 1
j, F quantum yield, photochemical yield 1
F osmotic coefficient, osmotic factor 1
F areic heat rate, areic heat flow rate J m2 s1
j, V electric potential V ¼ kg m2 s3 A1
jb, jm molal osmotic factor, molal osmotic 1
coefficient
jc substance-concentrational osmotic factor, 1
concentrational osmotic coefficient
jm areic mass rate kg m2 s1
jn, Jn areic substance rate, substance flux density mol m2 s1
FN, f, v, N_ number rate s1
jV, JV, V_ areic volume rate m s1
jx substance-fractional osmotic coefficient, 1
substance-fractional osmotic factor
F heat rate, heat flow rate W ¼ kg m2 s3
F, T thermodynamic temperature, Kelvin K
temperature, absolute temperature
Fe, P energy rate, power W ¼ kg m2 s3
Fe(Dl), P(Dl) energy rate of radiation, radiant flux, W ¼ kg m2 s3
radiant power, radiant energy flux
Fe,l, Pl differential quotient of energy rate to W m1
wavelength
Fe,~v, P v~ differential quotient of energy rate to W m1
wavenumber, spectral concentration of
radiant power in terms of wavenumber,
spectral radiant power in terms of
wavenumber
Fm magnetic flux Wb ¼ kg m2 s2 A1
Fm, m_ , Fm, Jm mass rate, mean mass rate, mass flow rate, kg s1
mass velocity
Fn, Fn, n_ substance rate, substance rate of reaction, mol s1
substance flow rate
Fv, Fv, V_ volume rate, volume flow rate, volume rate m3 s1
of flow, mean volume rate
Fv, F light rate, luminous flux lx
FV, JV areic volume rate m s1
UN,F number rate of photons s1
c areic energy, energy fluence J m2 ¼ kg s2
C, P osmotic pressure, osmotic volumic energy Pa ¼ kg m1 s2
o angle rate, angular velocity, circular s1, rad s1
frequency, pulsatance, angular frequency
Structure of Numbered Entries
in Sections 8 and 9
For kinds-of-quantity
h2i systematic term(s)
h3i synonym(s)
h4i abbreviation
h5i preferred symbol(s)
h6i definition in words
h7i definition by equation
h8i deprecated term(s) or symbol(s)
h9i note(s)
h10i example(s) of dedicated kinds-of-quantity
bold characters: recommended terms
For Units
h12i term(s) for coherent SI unit(s)
h16i definition(s) of base SI unit(s)
h19i note(s) on use and usage of unit(s)
Synonymy
Bold type for preferred term(s)
and acceptable synonym(s)
italic type for other term(s)
Recommendations
Shall is used for official recommendations
(IUPAC, IFCC, ISO, CGPM)
Should is used for preferences
y for discouraged symbols or abbreviations
Kinds-of-quantity are listed in sections 8 and 9
Kinds-of-property without dimensions of the ISQ
are listed in section 10

xxiii
Contents
Section 1 History of Recommendations on Properties in Clinical Laboratory

Sciences 1
References 5
Section 2 Definitions of Some Disciplines Applied in the Clinical Laboratory 7

2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Vocabulary of Disciplines 8
2.3 Relations between Disciplines 12
References 12
Section 3 Conventions and Instructions for Use 13
3.1 Typographical Conventions 13
3.2 Indication of Synonyms and Choice between them 13
3.3 Definitions 14
3.4 Indication of Recommendations and of Advice 14
3.5 Order of Entries in Sections 8 and 9 14
3.6 Order of Information about Kinds-of-quantity
in Entries in Sections 8 and 9 15
3.7 Preference between Symbols for a Kind-of-quantity 15
3.8 Lists of Information about Units 15
3.9 Inconsistencies and Points for Debate Remain 16
References 16
Section 4 Fundamental Concepts in Communication of Clinical Laboratory
Information 17
4.1 Communication of Information 17
4.2 System 18
4.3 Component and Entity 19
4.4 Process 23
References 27
Section 5 Principles and Practice of Kinds-of-quantity and Units 31

5.1 Kinds-of-quantity 31
5.2 Dimension of a Kind-of-quantity 33

xxv
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xxvi Contents
5.3 Kinds-of-quantity of Dimension One 33

5.4 Nomenclature of Kinds-of-quantity 35
5.5 Symbols for Kinds-of-quantity 39
5.6 Mathematical Operations with Quantities 40
5.7 Symbols and Terms for Units 41
5.8 Coherent Derived Units of the International System of Units 42
5.9 Multiples and Submultiples of Units 43
5.10 Units Outside the International System 44
5.11 Writing of Numbers and Expression of Numerical Values 45
5.12 Symbolizing Mathematical Operations 45

References 46
Section 6 Requesting, Generating and Transmitting Clinical Laboratory

Information 48
6.1 General Considerations 48
6.2 Process of Requesting and Reporting 48
6.3 Clinical Laboratory Report 49
6.4 Parts of the Systematic Name for an Examined Property 50
6.5 Systems Investigated in Clinical Laboratory Sciences 51
6.6 Component 52
6.7 Kind-of-property 54
6.8 Time 55
6.9 Numerical Value and Measurement Unit 56
6.10 Measurement Uncertainty 56
6.11 Measurement Standard, Reference Material and Calibrator 58
6.12 Systems for Coding Properties in Clinical Laboratories 59
References 59
Section 7 Choice and Use of Kinds-of-property for Different

Examination Purposes 62
7.1 Expression of Composition: Amount-of-substance; Substance
Concentration; Molality 62
7.2 Thermodynamic Kinds-of-quantity: Free Components and
Chemical Activity 65
7.3 Optical Spectroscopy 66
7.4 Centrifugation 70
7.5 Electrophoresis 71
7.6 Enzymology 71
References 73
Section 8 Kinds-of-quantity of Dimension One; SI Unit 1 75

8.1 Base Kinds-of-quantity of Dimension One 76
8.2 Number Fraction and Number Ratio 77
8.3 Volume Fraction, Volume Ratio and Volume Rate Ratio 79
8.4 Mass Fraction, Mass Ratio and Relative Derivatives of Mass 80
8.5 Relative Time and Relative Derivatives of Time 82
8.6 Energy Fraction 82
8.7 Substance Fraction, Substance Ratio, Relative Amount-of-
substance and Relative Substance Concentration 83
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Contents xxvii
8.8 Catalytic-activity Fraction 85

8.9 Logarithmic Kinds-of-quantity 85
8.10 Exponentially Defined Kinds-of-quantity 88
References 90
Section 9 Kinds-of-quantity of Dimension Other than One 91

9.1 Dimension L 91
9.2 Dimension L 1 93
L2
9.3 Dimension 95
9.5 Dimension L3 97
9.8 Dimension M 99
9.9 Dimension M 1 102
9.10 Dimension L 1M 102
9.11 Dimension L2 M 102
9.13 Dimension L2 M 1 103
9.15 Dimension L3 M 1 105
9.17 Dimension T 107
9.18 Dimension T 1 109
9.19 Dimension L 1T 113
9.20 Dimension LT 1 113
9.21 Dimension L 2T 1 115
9.22 Dimension L 2T 115
9.23 Dimension L2 T 1 115
9.24 Dimension L3T 1 116
9.25 Dimension M 1T 1 117
9.26 Dimension MT 1 117
9.27 Dimension LMT 1 119
9.28 Dimension L 1MT 1 119
9.29 Dimension L2M 1T 120
9.31 Dimension L2MT 1 120
9.33 Dimension T 2 122
9.34 Dimension LT 2 122
9.38 Dimension MT 2 125
9.40 Dimension LM 1T2 126
9.43 Dimension L3M 1T 2 132
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xxviii Contents
3
9.45 Dimension MT 133
9.50 Dimension TI 137
9.51 Dimension M 1TI 137
9.52 Dimension I 138
9.53 Dimension L 1I 138
9.54 Dimension L 2I 139

9.55 Dimension M 1 T2 I 139
9.56 Dimension MT 2I 1 139
9.57 Dimension L2MT 2I 1 139
9.58 Dimension LMT 3I 1 140
9.61 Dimension L 2M 1T3I2 141
9.65 Dimension M 1T4I2 142
9.67 Dimension Y 143
9.68 Dimension Y 1 144
9.69 Dimension L 1Y 145
9.70 Dimension T 1Y 145
9.71 Dimension L2T 2Y 1 145
9.72 Dimension L 1MT 2Y 1 146
9.73 Dimension L2MT 2Y 1 146
9.74 Dimension M 1 T3 Y 147
9.75 Dimension MT 3Y 1 147
9.76 Dimension LMT 3Y 1 147
9.77 Dimension L 2 M 1 T3 Y 148
9.78 Dimension L2MT 3Y 1 148
9.79 Dimension TJ 148
9.80 Dimension L 2TJ 149
9.81 Dimension J 149
9.82 Dimension L 2 M 1 T3 J 149
9.83 Dimension N 150
9.84 Dimension N 1 152
9.85 Dimension LN 1 152
9.86 Dimension L2N 1 152
9.87 Dimension L 2N 153
9.89 Dimension L3 N 1 157
9.91 Dimension M 1N 157
9.92 Dimension MN 1 159
9.93 Dimension T 1N 1 160
9.94 Dimension T 1N 160
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Contents xxix
2 1
9.95 Dimension L T N 161
9.96 Dimension L 3TN 162
9.97 Dimension L 3T 1N 162
9.98 Dimension M 1T 1N 163
9.99 Dimension T 2N 164
9.100 Dimension L 3T 2N 164
9.101 Dimension M 1T 2N 164
9.102 Dimension L 2 M 1 T2 N 164
9.103 Dimension L2MT 2N 1 165
9.104 Dimension LM 2T2N 166

9.105 Dimension TIN 1 166
9.106 Dimension M 1T3I2N 1 166
9.107 Dimension L3YN 1 167
9.108 Dimension MYN 1 167
9.109 Dimension L2MT 2Y 1N 1
167
References 168
Section 10 Kinds-of-property without Dimensions of the ISQ 169

10.1 Nominal Kinds-of-property 169
10.2 Arbitrary Kinds-of-quantity 170
10.2.1 Ordinal Kinds-of-quantity 170
10.2.2 Differential Arbitrary Kinds-of-quantity 170
10.2.3 Rational Arbitrary Kinds-of-quantity with WHO
International Units 170
10.2.4 Other Arbitrary Kinds-of-quantity 170
10.3 Arbitrary Biological Activities 171
References 171
Index of Tables and Figures 172

Tables 172
Figures 173
Subject Index 174

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The references in the legend to the descent from Mahuta to the
Rovuma, and to a journey across the highlands into the Mbekuru
valley, undoubtedly indicate the previous history of the tribe, the
travels of the ancestral pair typifying the migrations of their
descendants. The descent to the neighbouring Rovuma valley, with
its extraordinary fertility and great abundance of game, is intelligible
at a glance—but the crossing of the Lukuledi depression, the ascent
to the Rondo Plateau and the descent to the Mbemkuru, also lie
within the bounds of probability, for all these districts have exactly
the same character as the extreme south. Now, however, comes a
point of especial interest for our bacteriological age. The primitive
Makonde did not enjoy their lives in the marshy river-valleys.
Disease raged among them, and many died. It was only after they
had returned to their original home near Mahuta, that the health
conditions of these people improved. We are very apt to think of the
African as a stupid person whose ignorance of nature is only equalled
by his fear of it, and who looks on all mishaps as caused by evil
spirits and malignant natural powers. It is much more correct to
assume in this case that the people very early learnt to distinguish
districts infested with malaria from those where it is absent.
This knowledge is crystallized in the
ancestral warning against settling in the
valleys and near the great waters, the
dwelling-places of disease and death. At the
same time, for security against the hostile
Mavia south of the Rovuma, it was enacted
that every settlement must be not less than a
certain distance from the southern edge of the
plateau. Such in fact is their mode of life at the
present day. It is not such a bad one, and
certainly they are both safer and more
comfortable than the Makua, the recent
intruders from the south, who have made USUAL METHOD OF
good their footing on the western edge of the CLOSING HUT-DOOR
plateau, extending over a fairly wide belt of
country. Neither Makua nor Makonde show in their dwellings
anything of the size and comeliness of the Yao houses in the plain,
especially at Masasi, Chingulungulu and Zuza’s. Jumbe Chauro, a
Makonde hamlet not far from Newala, on the road to Mahuta, is the
most important settlement of the tribe I have yet seen, and has fairly
spacious huts. But how slovenly is their construction compared with
the palatial residences of the elephant-hunters living in the plain.
The roofs are still more untidy than in the general run of huts during
the dry season, the walls show here and there the scanty beginnings
or the lamentable remains of the mud plastering, and the interior is a
veritable dog-kennel; dirt, dust and disorder everywhere. A few huts
only show any attempt at division into rooms, and this consists
merely of very roughly-made bamboo partitions. In one point alone
have I noticed any indication of progress—in the method of fastening
the door. Houses all over the south are secured in a simple but
ingenious manner. The door consists of a set of stout pieces of wood
or bamboo, tied with bark-string to two cross-pieces, and moving in
two grooves round one of the door-posts, so as to open inwards. If
the owner wishes to leave home, he takes two logs as thick as a man’s
upper arm and about a yard long. One of these is placed obliquely
against the middle of the door from the inside, so as to form an angle
of from 60° to 75° with the ground. He then places the second piece
horizontally across the first, pressing it downward with all his might.
It is kept in place by two strong posts planted in the ground a few
inches inside the door. This fastening is absolutely safe, but of course
cannot be applied to both doors at once, otherwise how could the
owner leave or enter his house? I have not yet succeeded in finding
out how the back door is fastened.
MAKONDE LOCK AND KEY AT JUMBE CHAURO

This is the general way of closing a house. The Makonde at Jumbe
Chauro, however, have a much more complicated, solid and original
one. Here, too, the door is as already described, except that there is
only one post on the inside, standing by itself about six inches from
one side of the doorway. Opposite this post is a hole in the wall just
large enough to admit a man’s arm. The door is closed inside by a
large wooden bolt passing through a hole in this post and pressing
with its free end against the door. The other end has three holes into
which fit three pegs running in vertical grooves inside the post. The
door is opened with a wooden key about a foot long, somewhat
curved and sloped off at the butt; the other end has three pegs
corresponding to the holes, in the bolt, so that, when it is thrust
through the hole in the wall and inserted into the rectangular
opening in the post, the pegs can be lifted and the bolt drawn out.[50]
MODE OF INSERTING THE KEY
With no small pride first one householder and then a second

showed me on the spot the action of this greatest invention of the
Makonde Highlands. To both with an admiring exclamation of
“Vizuri sana!” (“Very fine!”). I expressed the wish to take back these
marvels with me to Ulaya, to show the Wazungu what clever fellows
the Makonde are. Scarcely five minutes after my return to camp at
Newala, the two men came up sweating under the weight of two
heavy logs which they laid down at my feet, handing over at the same
time the keys of the fallen fortress. Arguing, logically enough, that if
the key was wanted, the lock would be wanted with it, they had taken
their axes and chopped down the posts—as it never occurred to them
to dig them out of the ground and so bring them intact. Thus I have
two badly damaged specimens, and the owners, instead of praise,
come in for a blowing-up.
The Makua huts in the environs of Newala are especially
miserable; their more than slovenly construction reminds one of the
temporary erections of the Makua at Hatia’s, though the people here
have not been concerned in a war. It must therefore be due to
congenital idleness, or else to the absence of a powerful chief. Even
the baraza at Mlipa’s, a short hour’s walk south-east of Newala,
shares in this general neglect. While public buildings in this country
are usually looked after more or less carefully, this is in evident
danger of being blown over by the first strong easterly gale. The only
attractive object in this whole district is the grave of the late chief
Mlipa. I visited it in the morning, while the sun was still trying with
partial success to break through the rolling mists, and the circular
grove of tall euphorbias, which, with a broken pot, is all that marks
the old king’s resting-place, impressed one with a touch of pathos.
Even my very materially-minded carriers seemed to feel something
of the sort, for instead of their usual ribald songs, they chanted
solemnly, as we marched on through the dense green of the Makonde
bush:—
“We shall arrive with the great master; we stand in a row and have
no fear about getting our food and our money from the Serkali (the
Government). We are not afraid; we are going along with the great
master, the lion; we are going down to the coast and back.”
With regard to the characteristic features of the various tribes here
on the western edge of the plateau, I can arrive at no other
conclusion than the one already come to in the plain, viz., that it is
impossible for anyone but a trained anthropologist to assign any
given individual at once to his proper tribe. In fact, I think that even
an anthropological specialist, after the most careful examination,
might find it a difficult task to decide. The whole congeries of peoples
collected in the region bounded on the west by the great Central
African rift, Tanganyika and Nyasa, and on the east by the Indian
Ocean, are closely related to each other—some of their languages are
only distinguished from one another as dialects of the same speech,
and no doubt all the tribes present the same shape of skull and
structure of skeleton. Thus, surely, there can be no very striking
differences in outward appearance.
Even did such exist, I should have no time
to concern myself with them, for day after day,
I have to see or hear, as the case may be—in
any case to grasp and record—an
extraordinary number of ethnographic
phenomena. I am almost disposed to think it
fortunate that some departments of inquiry, at
least, are barred by external circumstances.
Chief among these is the subject of iron-
working. We are apt to think of Africa as a
country where iron ore is everywhere, so to
speak, to be picked up by the roadside, and
where it would be quite surprising if the
inhabitants had not learnt to smelt the
material ready to their hand. In fact, the
knowledge of this art ranges all over the
continent, from the Kabyles in the north to the
Kafirs in the south. Here between the Rovuma
and the Lukuledi the conditions are not so
favourable. According to the statements of the
Makonde, neither ironstone nor any other
form of iron ore is known to them. They have
not therefore advanced to the art of smelting
the metal, but have hitherto bought all their
THE ANCESTRESS OF
THE MAKONDE
iron implements from neighbouring tribes.
Even in the plain the inhabitants are not much
better off. Only one man now living is said to
understand the art of smelting iron. This old fundi lives close to
Huwe, that isolated, steep-sided block of granite which rises out of
the green solitude between Masasi and Chingulungulu, and whose
jagged and splintered top meets the traveller’s eye everywhere. While
still at Masasi I wished to see this man at work, but was told that,
frightened by the rising, he had retired across the Rovuma, though
he would soon return. All subsequent inquiries as to whether the
fundi had come back met with the genuine African answer, “Bado”
(“Not yet”).
BRAZIER
Some consolation was afforded me by a brassfounder, whom I

came across in the bush near Akundonde’s. This man is the favourite
of women, and therefore no doubt of the gods; he welds the glittering
brass rods purchased at the coast into those massive, heavy rings
which, on the wrists and ankles of the local fair ones, continually give
me fresh food for admiration. Like every decent master-craftsman he
had all his tools with him, consisting of a pair of bellows, three
crucibles and a hammer—nothing more, apparently. He was quite
willing to show his skill, and in a twinkling had fixed his bellows on
the ground. They are simply two goat-skins, taken off whole, the four
legs being closed by knots, while the upper opening, intended to
admit the air, is kept stretched by two pieces of wood. At the lower
end of the skin a smaller opening is left into which a wooden tube is
stuck. The fundi has quickly borrowed a heap of wood-embers from
the nearest hut; he then fixes the free ends of the two tubes into an
earthen pipe, and clamps them to the ground by means of a bent
piece of wood. Now he fills one of his small clay crucibles, the dross
on which shows that they have been long in use, with the yellow
material, places it in the midst of the embers, which, at present are
only faintly glimmering, and begins his work. In quick alternation
the smith’s two hands move up and down with the open ends of the
bellows; as he raises his hand he holds the slit wide open, so as to let
the air enter the skin bag unhindered. In pressing it down he closes
the bag, and the air puffs through the bamboo tube and clay pipe into
the fire, which quickly burns up. The smith, however, does not keep
on with this work, but beckons to another man, who relieves him at
the bellows, while he takes some more tools out of a large skin pouch
carried on his back. I look on in wonder as, with a smooth round
stick about the thickness of a finger, he bores a few vertical holes into
the clean sand of the soil. This should not be difficult, yet the man
seems to be taking great pains over it. Then he fastens down to the
ground, with a couple of wooden clamps, a neat little trough made by
splitting a joint of bamboo in half, so that the ends are closed by the
two knots. At last the yellow metal has attained the right consistency,
and the fundi lifts the crucible from the fire by means of two sticks
split at the end to serve as tongs. A short swift turn to the left—a
tilting of the crucible—and the molten brass, hissing and giving forth
clouds of smoke, flows first into the bamboo mould and then into the
holes in the ground.
The technique of this backwoods craftsman may not be very far
advanced, but it cannot be denied that he knows how to obtain an
adequate result by the simplest means. The ladies of highest rank in
this country—that is to say, those who can afford it, wear two kinds
of these massive brass rings, one cylindrical, the other semicircular
in section. The latter are cast in the most ingenious way in the
bamboo mould, the former in the circular hole in the sand. It is quite
a simple matter for the fundi to fit these bars to the limbs of his fair
customers; with a few light strokes of his hammer he bends the
pliable brass round arm or ankle without further inconvenience to
the wearer.
SHAPING THE POT
SMOOTHING WITH MAIZE-COB
CUTTING THE EDGE

FINISHING THE BOTTOM
LAST SMOOTHING BEFORE

BURNING
FIRING THE BRUSH-PILE

LIGHTING THE FARTHER SIDE OF
THE PILE
TURNING THE RED-HOT VESSEL
NYASA WOMAN MAKING POTS AT MASASI

Pottery is an art which must always and everywhere excite the
interest of the student, just because it is so intimately connected with
the development of human culture, and because its relics are one of
the principal factors in the reconstruction of our own condition in
prehistoric times. I shall always remember with pleasure the two or
three afternoons at Masasi when Salim Matola’s mother, a slightly-
built, graceful, pleasant-looking woman, explained to me with
touching patience, by means of concrete illustrations, the ceramic art
of her people. The only implements for this primitive process were a
lump of clay in her left hand, and in the right a calabash containing
the following valuables: the fragment of a maize-cob stripped of all
its grains, a smooth, oval pebble, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, a
few chips of gourd-shell, a bamboo splinter about the length of one’s
hand, a small shell, and a bunch of some herb resembling spinach.
Nothing more. The woman scraped with the
shell a round, shallow hole in the soft, fine
sand of the soil, and, when an active young
girl had filled the calabash with water for her,
she began to knead the clay. As if by magic it
gradually assumed the shape of a rough but
already well-shaped vessel, which only wanted
a little touching up with the instruments
before mentioned. I looked out with the
MAKUA WOMAN closest attention for any indication of the use
MAKING A POT. of the potter’s wheel, in however rudimentary
SHOWS THE a form, but no—hapana (there is none). The
BEGINNINGS OF THE embryo pot stood firmly in its little
POTTER’S WHEEL
depression, and the woman walked round it in
a stooping posture, whether she was removing
small stones or similar foreign bodies with the maize-cob, smoothing
the inner or outer surface with the splinter of bamboo, or later, after
letting it dry for a day, pricking in the ornamentation with a pointed
bit of gourd-shell, or working out the bottom, or cutting the edge
with a sharp bamboo knife, or giving the last touches to the finished
vessel. This occupation of the women is infinitely toilsome, but it is
without doubt an accurate reproduction of the process in use among
our ancestors of the Neolithic and Bronze ages.
There is no doubt that the invention of pottery, an item in human
progress whose importance cannot be over-estimated, is due to
women. Rough, coarse and unfeeling, the men of the horde range
over the countryside. When the united cunning of the hunters has
succeeded in killing the game; not one of them thinks of carrying
home the spoil. A bright fire, kindled by a vigorous wielding of the
drill, is crackling beside them; the animal has been cleaned and cut
up secundum artem, and, after a slight singeing, will soon disappear
under their sharp teeth; no one all this time giving a single thought
to wife or child.
To what shifts, on the other hand, the primitive wife, and still more
the primitive mother, was put! Not even prehistoric stomachs could
endure an unvarying diet of raw food. Something or other suggested
the beneficial effect of hot water on the majority of approved but
indigestible dishes. Perhaps a neighbour had tried holding the hard
roots or tubers over the fire in a calabash filled with water—or maybe
an ostrich-egg-shell, or a hastily improvised vessel of bark. They
became much softer and more palatable than they had previously
been; but, unfortunately, the vessel could not stand the fire and got
charred on the outside. That can be remedied, thought our
ancestress, and plastered a layer of wet clay round a similar vessel.
This is an improvement; the cooking utensil remains uninjured, but
the heat of the fire has shrunk it, so that it is loose in its shell. The
next step is to detach it, so, with a firm grip and a jerk, shell and
kernel are separated, and pottery is invented. Perhaps, however, the
discovery which led to an intelligent use of the burnt-clay shell, was
made in a slightly different way. Ostrich-eggs and calabashes are not
to be found in every part of the world, but everywhere mankind has
arrived at the art of making baskets out of pliant materials, such as
bark, bast, strips of palm-leaf, supple twigs, etc. Our inventor has no
water-tight vessel provided by nature. “Never mind, let us line the
basket with clay.” This answers the purpose, but alas! the basket gets
burnt over the blazing fire, the woman watches the process of
cooking with increasing uneasiness, fearing a leak, but no leak
appears. The food, done to a turn, is eaten with peculiar relish; and
the cooking-vessel is examined, half in curiosity, half in satisfaction
at the result. The plastic clay is now hard as stone, and at the same
time looks exceedingly well, for the neat plaiting of the burnt basket
is traced all over it in a pretty pattern. Thus, simultaneously with
pottery, its ornamentation was invented.
Primitive woman has another claim to respect. It was the man,
roving abroad, who invented the art of producing fire at will, but the
woman, unable to imitate him in this, has been a Vestal from the
earliest times. Nothing gives so much trouble as the keeping alight of
the smouldering brand, and, above all, when all the men are absent
from the camp. Heavy rain-clouds gather, already the first large
drops are falling, the first gusts of the storm rage over the plain. The
little flame, a greater anxiety to the woman than her own children,
flickers unsteadily in the blast. What is to be done? A sudden thought
occurs to her, and in an instant she has constructed a primitive hut
out of strips of bark, to protect the flame against rain and wind.
This, or something very like it, was the way in which the principle
of the house was discovered; and even the most hardened misogynist
cannot fairly refuse a woman the credit of it. The protection of the
hearth-fire from the weather is the germ from which the human
dwelling was evolved. Men had little, if any share, in this forward
step, and that only at a late stage. Even at the present day, the
plastering of the housewall with clay and the manufacture of pottery
are exclusively the women’s business. These are two very significant
survivals. Our European kitchen-garden, too, is originally a woman’s
invention, and the hoe, the primitive instrument of agriculture, is,
characteristically enough, still used in this department. But the
noblest achievement which we owe to the other sex is unquestionably
the art of cookery. Roasting alone—the oldest process—is one for
which men took the hint (a very obvious one) from nature. It must
have been suggested by the scorched carcase of some animal
overtaken by the destructive forest-fires. But boiling—the process of
improving organic substances by the help of water heated to boiling-
point—is a much later discovery. It is so recent that it has not even
yet penetrated to all parts of the world. The Polynesians understand
how to steam food, that is, to cook it, neatly wrapped in leaves, in a
hole in the earth between hot stones, the air being excluded, and
(sometimes) a few drops of water sprinkled on the stones; but they
do not understand boiling.
To come back from this digression, we find that the slender Nyasa
woman has, after once more carefully examining the finished pot,
put it aside in the shade to dry. On the following day she sends me
word by her son, Salim Matola, who is always on hand, that she is
going to do the burning, and, on coming out of my house, I find her
already hard at work. She has spread on the ground a layer of very
dry sticks, about as thick as one’s thumb, has laid the pot (now of a
yellowish-grey colour) on them, and is piling brushwood round it.
My faithful Pesa mbili, the mnyampara, who has been standing by,
most obligingly, with a lighted stick, now hands it to her. Both of
them, blowing steadily, light the pile on the lee side, and, when the
flame begins to catch, on the weather side also. Soon the whole is in a
blaze, but the dry fuel is quickly consumed and the fire dies down, so
that we see the red-hot vessel rising from the ashes. The woman
turns it continually with a long stick, sometimes one way and
sometimes another, so that it may be evenly heated all over. In
twenty minutes she rolls it out of the ash-heap, takes up the bundle
of spinach, which has been lying for two days in a jar of water, and
sprinkles the red-hot clay with it. The places where the drops fall are
marked by black spots on the uniform reddish-brown surface. With a
sigh of relief, and with visible satisfaction, the woman rises to an
erect position; she is standing just in a line between me and the fire,
from which a cloud of smoke is just rising: I press the ball of my
camera, the shutter clicks—the apotheosis is achieved! Like a
priestess, representative of her inventive sex, the graceful woman
stands: at her feet the hearth-fire she has given us beside her the
invention she has devised for us, in the background the home she has
built for us.
At Newala, also, I have had the manufacture of pottery carried on
in my presence. Technically the process is better than that already
described, for here we find the beginnings of the potter’s wheel,
which does not seem to exist in the plains; at least I have seen
nothing of the sort. The artist, a frightfully stupid Makua woman, did
not make a depression in the ground to receive the pot she was about
to shape, but used instead a large potsherd. Otherwise, she went to
work in much the same way as Salim’s mother, except that she saved
herself the trouble of walking round and round her work by squatting
at her ease and letting the pot and potsherd rotate round her; this is
surely the first step towards a machine. But it does not follow that
the pot was improved by the process. It is true that it was beautifully
rounded and presented a very creditable appearance when finished,
but the numerous large and small vessels which I have seen, and, in
part, collected, in the “less advanced” districts, are no less so. We
moderns imagine that instruments of precision are necessary to
produce excellent results. Go to the prehistoric collections of our
museums and look at the pots, urns and bowls of our ancestors in the
dim ages of the past, and you will at once perceive your error.
MAKING LONGITUDINAL CUT IN
BARK
DRAWING THE BARK OFF THE LOG
REMOVING THE OUTER BARK

BEATING THE BARK
WORKING THE BARK-CLOTH AFTER BEATING, TO MAKE IT

SOFT
MANUFACTURE OF BARK-CLOTH AT NEWALA

To-day, nearly the whole population of German East Africa is
clothed in imported calico. This was not always the case; even now in
some parts of the north dressed skins are still the prevailing wear,
and in the north-western districts—east and north of Lake
Tanganyika—lies a zone where bark-cloth has not yet been
superseded. Probably not many generations have passed since such
bark fabrics and kilts of skins were the only clothing even in the
south. Even to-day, large quantities of this bright-red or drab
material are still to be found; but if we wish to see it, we must look in
the granaries and on the drying stages inside the native huts, where
it serves less ambitious uses as wrappings for those seeds and fruits
which require to be packed with special care. The salt produced at
Masasi, too, is packed for transport to a distance in large sheets of
bark-cloth. Wherever I found it in any degree possible, I studied the
process of making this cloth. The native requisitioned for the
purpose arrived, carrying a log between two and three yards long and
as thick as his thigh, and nothing else except a curiously-shaped
mallet and the usual long, sharp and pointed knife which all men and
boys wear in a belt at their backs without a sheath—horribile dictu!
[51]
Silently he squats down before me, and with two rapid cuts has
drawn a couple of circles round the log some two yards apart, and
slits the bark lengthwise between them with the point of his knife.
With evident care, he then scrapes off the outer rind all round the
log, so that in a quarter of an hour the inner red layer of the bark
shows up brightly-coloured between the two untouched ends. With
some trouble and much caution, he now loosens the bark at one end,
and opens the cylinder. He then stands up, takes hold of the free
edge with both hands, and turning it inside out, slowly but steadily
pulls it off in one piece. Now comes the troublesome work of
scraping all superfluous particles of outer bark from the outside of
the long, narrow piece of material, while the inner side is carefully
scrutinised for defective spots. At last it is ready for beating. Having
signalled to a friend, who immediately places a bowl of water beside
him, the artificer damps his sheet of bark all over, seizes his mallet,
lays one end of the stuff on the smoothest spot of the log, and
hammers away slowly but continuously. “Very simple!” I think to
myself. “Why, I could do that, too!”—but I am forced to change my
opinions a little later on; for the beating is quite an art, if the fabric is
not to be beaten to pieces. To prevent the breaking of the fibres, the
stuff is several times folded across, so as to interpose several
thicknesses between the mallet and the block. At last the required
state is reached, and the fundi seizes the sheet, still folded, by both
ends, and wrings it out, or calls an assistant to take one end while he
holds the other. The cloth produced in this way is not nearly so fine
and uniform in texture as the famous Uganda bark-cloth, but it is
quite soft, and, above all, cheap.
Now, too, I examine the mallet. My craftsman has been using the
simpler but better form of this implement, a conical block of some
hard wood, its base—the striking surface—being scored across and
across with more or less deeply-cut grooves, and the handle stuck
into a hole in the middle. The other and earlier form of mallet is
shaped in the same way, but the head is fastened by an ingenious
network of bark strips into the split bamboo serving as a handle. The
observation so often made, that ancient customs persist longest in
connection with religious ceremonies and in the life of children, here
finds confirmation. As we shall soon see, bark-cloth is still worn
during the unyago,[52] having been prepared with special solemn
ceremonies; and many a mother, if she has no other garment handy,
will still put her little one into a kilt of bark-cloth, which, after all,
looks better, besides being more in keeping with its African
surroundings, than the ridiculous bit of print from Ulaya.
MAKUA WOMEN

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Compendium of terminology and

nomenclature of properties in clinical

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 to update the recommendations and technical reports;

Comments and suggestions are welcomed.

Georges Férard, René Dybkaer and Xavier Fuentes-Arderiu

Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in Clinical Laboratory Sciences:

This second edition of the Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in

Memberships of the Committees

Chairholders: 1968–1975 R. Dybkær (Denmark); 1976–1979 R. Zender (Switzerland);

Titular members and consultants: 1968–1975 B. H. Armbrecht (United States); 1983–1991

Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in Clinical Laboratory Sciences:

International Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine

Chairholders: 1968–1975 R. Dybkær (Denmark); 1976–1979 R. Zender (Switzerland);

Titular members and consultants: 1968–1975 B. H. Armbrecht (United States); 1983–

Chairholders: G. Férard (France) and F. Pontet (y) (France)

Members and consultants: R. Dybkaer (Denmark); X. Fuentes-Arderiu (Spain); G. Hill

BCR Bureau Communautaire de Référence (of European Communities)

Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in Clinical Laboratory Sciences:

x List of Abbreviations Used for Institutions and Committees

ICSU International Council for Science (formerly International Council of

Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in Clinical Laboratory Sciences:

B magnetic induction, magnetic flux density kg s2 A1

c, v, u, w length rate vector, velocity m s1

d relative volumic mass, relative mass density 1

e massic energy J kg1 ¼ m2 s2

f, v number rate of regular event, frequency Hz ¼ s1

I, i electrical current, electricity rate, electric A

j, J areic electrical current, areic electricity rate, A m2

Kb, Km molal equilibrium coeﬃcient, equilibrium mol kg1

m mass, atomic mass, molecular mass, entitic kg

n partial order of reaction 1

p, P number fraction expected, probability 1

q massic electrical charge C kg1 ¼ A s kg1

R thermal resistance K W1 ¼ K s3 kg1 m2

V_ , Fv, Fv volume rate, volume flow rate, m3 s1

ap relative pressure coeﬃcient, pressure K1 ¼ C1

k, l lineic kelvic heat rate, thermal conductivity, W m1 K1

Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in Clinical Laboratory Sciences:

Section 1 History of Recommendations on Properties in Clinical Laboratory

Section 2 Definitions of Some Disciplines Applied in the Clinical Laboratory 7

Section 5 Principles and Practice of Kinds-of-quantity and Units 31

Compendium of Terminology and Nomenclature of Properties in Clinical Laboratory Sciences:

5.3 Kinds-of-quantity of Dimension One 33

5.12 Symbolizing Mathematical Operations 45

Section 6 Requesting, Generating and Transmitting Clinical Laboratory

Section 7 Choice and Use of Kinds-of-property for Diﬀerent

to update the recommendations and technical reports;