Electromagnetic Composites

Handbook: Models, Measurement, and

Characterization 2nd Edition Rick
Moore
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Rick Moore received his PhD in Physics in 1978 and has performed and coordinated
research, development, and engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology Research
Institute. His work is documented in approximately 150 articles, presentations, patents, and
reports. He has contributed to patents in photonic structures and fiber material treatments and
has authored or coauthored hundreds of peer reviewed publications and technical reports. He
retired after 35 years at the Georgia Tech Research Center where he was a Principal Research
Scientist, GTRI Research Fellow, and Co-Director of the Georgia Tech Center of Excellence
in Ultra-Wideband Technologies. He continues work part-time in the fields of
electromagnetic measurements and metamaterial design.
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 CONTENTS

Preface
Acknowledgments

Introduction

Outline
References

Chapter 1. Introduction to Wave Equations and Electromagnetic Constitutive

Parameters
1.1 Maxwell’s Equations and Field Sources
1.2 Permittivity and Charge
1.3 Permeability and Current
1.4 Wave Equations for Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Materials
1.5 Homogeneous Propagation in Linear Media
1.6 Conclusion
References

Chapter 2. Sources and Dispersion for Polarization and Permittivity ε(f)

2.1 Sources of Permittivity, Resistivity, and Conductivity in Materials
2.2 Modeling Material Complex Permittivity and Its Frequency Dependence
2.3 Small Damping, τ ⇒ 0
2.4 DC, Zero Frequency, and DC Scaled Permittivity
2.5 Combined Models for Permittivity
2.6 Coupling Permittivity and Permeability
2.7 Additional Bound Charge Contributions to Permittivity and Frequency Dispersion
2.8 Permittivity Variation with Temperature
References

Chapter 3. Sources and Dispersion of Magnetization and Permeability μ(f)

 3.1 Sources of Permeability
3.2 Frequency Dispersion in Magnetic Materials
3.3 Susceptibility Models for Data Analysis
3.4 An Overview of Micromagnetic Models
3.5 Kramers–Kronig (KK) Relationships
3.6 Temperature-Dependent Permeability
References

Chapter 4. Fundamental Observables for Material Measurement

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Scattering of Plane Waves from Homogeneous Planar Boundaries and Material Slabs
4.3 Single Planar Slab of Material
4.4 Scattering: Cascade Matrix Method for Multi-Boundary Material Analysis
4.5 Scattering from a Shunt Planar Impedance Sheet
4.6 Transmission and Reflection from Anisotropic Laminates
4.7 A Numerical Anisotropic Material Example
4.8 Conclusion
References

Chapter 5. Composites and Effective Medium Theories

5.1 Introduction
5.2 EMT Development Timeline
5.3 Limitations and Derivation of EMTs
5.4 Scattering Functions for Spheres
5.5 Scattering and EMT of Large–Aspect Ratio Particle Geometries
5.6 Layered Inclusions
5.7 Model Choices: Importance of Conduction and Particulate Interaction
References

Chapter 6. Conducting-Dielectric and Magneto-Dielectric Composites

6.1 Introduction
6.2 Percolation, Dimensionality, Depolarization, and Frequency Dispersion in
Semiconducting, Conducting-Dielectric Composites
6.3 Magnetic Effective Media
References
Chapter 7. Numerical Models of Composites
7.1 Method of Moment Modeling and Laminated Composites
7.2 Finite Difference Time Domain Simulations
7.3 Comments for Chapters 5 to 7
References

Chapter 8. Electromagnetic Measurement Systems Summary for RF–Millimeter

Wavelengths

8.1 An Introduction to Wideband Material Metrology

8.2 Error Correction, Calibration, and Causality
8.3 Historical: Von Hippel and the Slotted Line
8.4 Summary of Measurement Techniques
8.5 Nonresonant Techniques: General Transmission Line Measurement Guidelines and
Procedures
8.6 Cylindrical Waveguide
8.7 Coaxial Lines
8.8 Stripline Measurements
8.9 Focused Beam Free Space System
8.10 Focused Beam Technical Description
8.11 Calibration, Measurements, and Discussion
References

Chapter 9. Resonant Techniques for Material Characterization

9.1 Resonant Cavities

9.2 Overview of the TE10p Measurement Technique
9.3 Parallel Plate Stripline (TEM) Cavity
9.4 Closed Reflection Cavity
9.5 Open Cavity: Fabry–Perot Resonator
References

Chapter 10. Transmission Line, Free Space Focused Beam and TE10N Measurement
Details
10.1 Constitutive Parameter Solutions in Coaxial Transmission Line, Rectangular
Waveguide, and Free Space
10.2 Extreme Elevated Temperature Reflection Measurements
10.3 Free Space Focused Beam Characterization of Materials
 10.4 TE10N Transmission Cavity
References

Chapter 11. Micrometer and Nanoscale Composites

11.1 Applications and Impetus for Nano Magnetic Composites
11.2 Case Study 1: NiZn and MnZn Ferrites
11.3 Case Study 2: Nano Magnetic Composites
11.4 Case Study 3: Multiscale EMT (Nano to Macro) for Artificial Dielectrics
11.5 Conclusions
References

Chapter 12. Measured Data of Materials and Composites

12.1 Solid Ceramic versus Frequency

12.2 Solid Ceramic versus Temperature
12.3 Ceramic Fiber versus Temperature
12.4 Two-Phase Ferrite-Polymer Composites and Three-Phase Ferrite-Fe-Polymer
Composites
12.5 Composites Demonstrating Percolation
12.6 Solid Semiconductors versus Frequency
12.7 Honeycomb and Foams versus Frequency
12.8 Polymers versus Frequency
12.9 R-Cards versus Frequency
12.10 Micrometer and Nanometer Magnetite Magnetic Composites versus Frequency
12.11 Iron–Polymer Composites versus Frequency
12.12 Ceramic Polymer Fiber versus Frequency
12.13 Dense Ferrites versus Frequency
12.14 Fiber–Polymer Composites versus Frequency

Index
 PREFACE

Arthur Von Hippel’s book, Dielectric Materials and Application, was published in 1954. At
the time, the development of composites for electrical and electromagnetic technologies was
just beginning. Thus, dielectric and magnetic theory, models, measurement techniques, and
measured data that were presented by Von Hippel emphasized homogeneous isotropic
materials composed of a single molecular species or compound. The vast majority of those
materials were electrically insulating and nonmagnetic.
Semiconductor production was in developmental phase, but samples for waveguide
measurements (as used by Von Hippel) were not available and the importance of
semiconductors for everyday technology was not yet recognized. Shockley’s patent on the
transistor (#2569347) was just 6 years old. Ferrites were known; however, their application in
radio and microwave technology for phase shifters, filters, and isolators were just being
realized. They are now applied for suppression of radio frequency interference on computer
mother boards, integrated circuits, communication networks, and in electrically small
antennas. The use of fiber and laminate-based composites in electromagnetic technologies did
not begin until the 1970s.
The Electromagnetic Composites Handbook is designed as an engineering and scientific
handbook that extends the Von Hippel text to include data on additional nonconducting
dielectrics, semiconducting, conducting, and magnetic materials and composites composed of
two or more molecularly distinct compounds that are distributed in size scales from
nanometers to centimeter dimensions. The development of models that attempt to predict
composite constitutive parameters, using constitutive parameters of their constituents, is a
parallel effort. The models support predictions of and comparison to measured permittivity
and permeability. Permittivity, permeability, impedance, and conductivity data for solids and
composites are presented for frequencies from about 1 MHz to 1000 GHz.
Chapters of this book are devoted to the descriptions of electromagnetic constitutive
parameter sources, procedures and equipment to measure the parameters, propagation models
in composites, prediction of composite properties, and measured constitutive parameter data
for the electromagnetic spectrum of wavelengths larger than a few micrometers but mostly in
the meter to millimeter wavelengths. Each chapter concludes with a list of references for that
chapter. These are indicated in each chapter ’s text in brackets. MK units are primarily used
throughout this book; however, English or CG units may occasionally enter into discussion.
The analysis crosses scientific and technological boundaries and thus the scientific complex
operator, i, sometimes appears rather than the engineering j for the complex numbers. Note
that in the data tables a positive sign, +, is adopted for dielectric and magnetic loss. Modeling
and theory chapters discuss various composite models and then apply the most successful
analytical and numerical methodologies to typical electromagnetic design problems that often
use electromagnetic composites in their solution, again for wavelengths larger than a few
micrometers.
Reflection and transmission line measurements, such as those of Von Hippel, are the
framework from which composite material measurements began and those measurement
techniques are reviewed. The review is followed by a discussion of advances in the
measurement technology since 1980. For example, the microwave and millimeter wave
application of lens-based open cavities and free space measurements, common for infrared
and optical spectra, is one advance. The techniques include Fabry–Perot and etalon
derivatives. The adoption of the infrared and optical techniques for millimeter, centimeter,
and even meter wavelengths and the use of various multi-mode resonant cavity
configurations, was facilitated by the second major technology addition, i.e., the development
of the automatic network analyzer (ANA) and digital receivers–transmitters that had modest
power (hundreds of milliwatts), broad bandwidth frequency, synthesized sources, and matched
adapters. A third advance was microwave and millimeter antennas with bandwidths larger than
20:1. Advances in electromagnetic tools, instrumentation, and “borrowing” of lens-based
measurements now allow accurate measurement of isotropic or anisotropic constitutive
properties for single samples from a few hundred megahertz to above 100 GHz.
Some composites may contain constituents that are distributed in size scales of nanometer
to centimeter dimensions. The larger scales make the composite electrically inhomogeneous
at higher frequencies since inhomogeneity is determined by the ratio of the physical size of
the composite phases and the electromagnetic wavelength. Characterizing the large-scale
composites by effective permittivity and/or permeability is not sufficient. In cases where
physical scales of the composite components are small but their electrical scale approach
unity, diffuse and/or bistatic electromagnetic scatter modeling and measurements may be used
to expand understanding of electromagnetic observables (reflection, transmission, and
absorption) and calculated, effective magnetic permeability and electrical permittivity of
composites. Measurement techniques that apply to some electrically inhomogeneous
composites can also be used for isotropic, homogeneous materials. Numerical models will be
discussed that give insight into electromagnetic properties of inhomogeneous
electromagnetic composites and the problems that may be encountered in their utilization.
The advances discussed in this handbook are significant to both electromagnetic engineers
and theoreticians. ANA advances now allow continuous measurement and thus material
parameter data over 1000:1 or greater bandwidths. With such a dense database,
experimentalists and engineers can confidently design broadband meter, microwave, and
millimeter wave devices and material constructs. A physicist, chemist, or material scientist
benefits from the high data density in verification of electromagnetic composite material
theories over bandwidths that encompass multiple physical and electrical scales, material
dimensionalities, and material physics. Examples are multiphase magnetics, periodic
dielectrics exhibiting photonic bandgaps, and material constructs with negative index
behavior.
The book concludes by presenting dielectric and magnetic parametric fits to measured data
for almost 300 composites and/or composite components. Many gigabytes of data contributed
to the preparation of this book and a comprehensive presentation of complex permittivity and
permeability in tabular form were not possible due to space limitations; however, a digital
database is planned for the future. For now, the parametric fits of Chap. 12 supply frequency
and temperature dispersive data that are presented as analytic equations whose forms are
based upon solid-state physics. The frequency and/or temperature range used for each fit are
annotated with the equation parameters. Measurements range from 1 MHz to a few hundred
gigahertz. Data density was typically at 1 MHz intervals below 100 MHz, 10 MHz spacing
from 100 MHz to 1 GHz, and 100 MHz spacing above 1 GHz. The complex magnetic
permeability and permittivity are fit to a range of relaxation models. Measurement
frequencies are above characteristic solid-state Debye relaxation frequencies and below
terahertz to infrared molecular relaxations. Power laws in frequency coupled with a single
resonant model produce excellent parameterizations for permittivity data, especially those of
composites containing semiconducting components. Overall, the parametric fits aid in
spanning measurement frequency gaps and in interpretation of material physics.
Selected composite data are presented for measurements made before and during exposure
to environmental extremes of temperature. For example, ceramic and ceramic composites are
often used in high-temperature environments; thus data are shown from ambient to
temperatures in excess of 2200 K. Exponential functions (typical of semiconductors) are used
for temperature dependence of ceramics and ceramic fibers.
Select materials were chosen to overlap data of Von Hippel and other publications for
comparison. Some data are repeated for identical material compositions, but from different
suppliers, and thus illustrate unsurprising variability. Data on composites may be for
“identical” compositions but are included to illustrate variability in manufacturing and source.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This book has grown over the past 35 years and matured to its final form in the last 5 years.
Many colleagues at the Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI) contributed to the
development of the many GTRI measurement systems that are described or pictured in this
text. An attempt to list those who gave special contributions is below. The list is in rough
historical order:

Drs. Patrick Montgomery and Thomas B. Wells for transmission line analyses, inversion
algorithms, and design of Fabry-Perot systems;

Mr. Thomas Taylor, Paul Friedrich, and Mrs. Anita Pavadore for design, assembly, and making
work, high temperature cavities, transmission lines, and focused beam systems;

Drs. Lisa Lust, Paul Kemper, Alexa Harter, Greg Mohler, and Silvia Liong for efforts in
material characterization, percolation theory (dielectric and magnetic), effective media
modeling (both numerical and analytical), and nanomagnetics;

Dr. James Maloney and Mr. Brian Shirley for FDTD advancements;

Dr. John Schultz, Mr. Stephen Blalock, and Mr. Edward Hopkins for optimizing focused beam
measurement procedures and system design;

Dr. John Meadors and Mr. Norm Ellingson for support;

My son, Jason Mathew Moore, who assembled and processed measured data into useable
spreadsheets and produced many photographs of the Georgia Tech Research Institute-
Advanced Concepts Laboratory owned measurement fixtures;

Ms. Kathryn Gilbreath for her graphic arts contribution and Drs. Lon Pringle and Erik
Shipton for hours of proofing the document;

and

Dr. Eric Kuster for 30 years of effort in developing and refining numerical simulations to
predict material properties.

Finally, I must remember Mr. James Gallagher, the Georgia University System’s first Regents’
Researcher. Jim redirected me down a path of measurement in 1981.
INTRODUCTION

Over the last 50 years and since the Von Hippel’s text [1], multifunctional and frequency
dispersive electromagnetic composites have become intertwined in aerospace, computer,
sensor, communication, and structural engineering. Aerospace applications are exemplified in
the Space Shuttles, Northrop B2, and Boeing 787 aircraft [2–4]. Space shuttle tiles are
multifunctional examples that meet structure, impact, temperature stability, and thermal
conductivity specifications. However, the same tiles also covered and protected
communication and radar antennas and thereby operated as environmentally resistant,
temperature stable, radio frequency radomes. Composite laminates are routinely found as
circuit substrates. Energy-efficient windows for skyscrapers must be optically transparent and
are often infrared reflective. However, if cell phone and wireless access are required, the
same window must have transparency from hundreds of megahertz to tens of gigahertz.
Alternatively, window specifications may call for radio frequency isolation to limit wireless
access within the structure. In either case, the window can incorporate semiconducting film
and components to achieve the required frequency dispersions. Magnetic micrometer and
nanometer particulates are found in electromagnetic interference materials and are applied as
MRI enhancers and for the treatment for cancer. Composites are also used to construct lenses,
waveguide, photonic bandgap, and/or structures that produce an effective negative index of
the structure. These examples often incorporate semiconducting, artificial dielectric,
conducting, and magnetic components.
The electromagnetic models, measurement techniques, and measured data of this book are
chosen to aid development of multifunctional material designs. Models and measurement
apply to composites made with components of sizes from tens of nanometers to centimeters.
Goals of this text are to contribute to current and visionary electromagnetic composite
applications and supply an extension of the Von Hippel database for composites.

OUTLINE

Chapter 1 introduces the following chapters and establishes definitions, terminology,

Maxwell’s equations, electromagnetic propagation, and concepts of electromagnetic material
constitutive parameters. Physics and physical sources of electromagnetic permittivity,
permeability, and conductivity are discussed in Chaps. 2 and 3, respectively, for the
electromagnetic spectrum between approximately 1 MHz and a few terahertz. Concepts that
are discussed include the field polarization, interfacial contact between composite
constituents, electron spin, magnetic domains, sizes and shapes, periodicities of composition,
and free charge carrier density. All play parts in determining frequency dispersive
constitutive parameters in the above electromagnetic frequency range and therefore limit the
solid-state functional forms that are used in parametrically fitting measured data of Chap. 12.
Controlled constitutive parameter temperature dependence can be a significant advantage
in composites and therefore various sources and methods for reduction of temperature
variation are also discussed in Chaps. 2 and 3. Kramer–Kronig (K–K) relations are introduced
in Chap. 3 as a physics-based analysis to evaluate measurement accuracy and causality of
measured data. K–K analyses are made easier by the advances in measurement technology
arising from wideband, phase-locked electromagnetic sources and digital amplitude and
phase analyzers and receivers. However, K–K still has strongest application for
characterization at the infrared and optical spectral region. In those wave bands power
reflection and transmission amplitude are easily measured over many decades of frequency
but continuous frequency phase measurements are not easily obtained. With the advent of
network analyzer systems, digital receivers/sources, and free space characterization
techniques, 100:1 and even 1000:1 bandwidths of data can be obtained on single material
samples in the meter through millimeter wavelength regime. The multi-decade bandwidths
support K–K analysis at lower wave bands.
Chapter 4 is devoted to descriptions of propagation models that are used to calculate
electromagnetic observables (plane wave reflection and transmission coefficients) from
constitutive data and also used for the inverse function, i.e., calculating constitutive
parameters from measured reflection and transmission. The measurement techniques
described in this book acquire measured plane wave reflection and transmission voltage
amplitude and phase as their observables. Analyses of Chapter 4 relate that reflection and
transmission to frequency dispersive isotropic and/or anisotropic permittivity, permeability,
and conductivity of material layers that are contained within laminar structures. Layers may
have arbitrary thickness and may themselves be composites or mixtures. Electromagnetic
boundary value problems are initially used to develop propagation and reflection equations
under the assumption that the materials have electromagnetic components with characteristic
electromagnetic scale, much smaller than the interrogating electromagnetic wavelength.
Impacts of large-scale discrete components are addressed in later chapters under discussions
of numerical modeling.
Chapter 4 also presents propagation models in the context of scattering-cascade matrices
[5] and shows how to apply these to multilayer structures so long as internal material
laminates are electrically homogeneous. Both isotropic and anisotropic propagation models
are presented. Example calculations of reflection and transmission coefficients are shown for
planar electromagnetic waves, for waves incident from various angles, and for different
laminate constructions. The analysis is also described that demonstrates that reflection and
transmission measurements, at various angles and sample orientations, can be combined with
the geometric construction of the laminate to apply scattering matrices and infer the effective
constitutive parameters of a laminate or laminate layers. The chapter includes the discussion
of the impact of small variations in constitutive parameters on reflection and transmission.
The chapter concludes by presenting discussions, models, and calculated examples of
propagation in diagonal and fully anisotropic materials. Calculations are presented to
establish a baseline with which other models and future measurements can be compared.
Examples of composite applications and use of scattering matrices are found throughout the
book.
Chapters 5 to 7 address effective media theory (EMT) methodologies to predict composite
properties from those of their constituents. Models presented in these chapters can assist the
experimenter in analyses that bound expectations for measured electromagnetic properties.
Models also place limits on electromagnetic size scale for material components that are used
in composites and yet allow the composite to be characterized by using measured effective
homogeneous anisotropic permittivity and permeability that are used in scattering matrix
analysis. The chapters are ordered in hierarchical EMT complexity, electrical scale of the
composites, parameters to be modeled, and composite chemistry/composition. The coherent
potential approximation is used to derive and apply various electromagnetic scattering-based
EMT. This application of the coherent potential approximation has been used by many authors
but here it will be discussed in the context of two books: Wave Propagation and Scattering in
Random Media by Akira Ishimaru [6] and Introduction to Wave Scattering, Localization and
Mesoscopic Phenomena by Ping Sheng [7].
Chapter 5 supplies an introduction to effective media concepts and derives common forms
of EMTs by application of the coherent potential approximation. General limits are
established on dielectric composite composition, component size, and constitutive parameter
so that simple EMT can be applied. The emphasis is placed on spherical inclusions since they
can easily supply physical insight into particulate coating effects, higher order scattering, and
constitutive parameter complexity. The EMTs are applied to simple dielectric composites
composed of a matrix and single electrically small particulate which is at a low fractional
volume. Particulate shape and aspect ratio are incorporated to illustrate anisotropies that may
be encountered in arrayed or physically thin composites.
Chapter 6 begins with extension of effective media equations to semiconducting and
conducting particulates and high volume fraction compositions. The addition of
semiconductor or conducting particulates facilitates the synthesis of artificial dielectrics;
however, effective media models must be extended to include electrical percolation within the
composite. Correct description of the percolation requires details on particulate and
composite geometry. The importance of multiscale modeling (nanometer to centimeter) is
illustrated in Chap. 11 by considering micrometer size dielectric spheres that are coated with
nanoscale conducting films.
Percolation introduces constitutive parameter dependence on composite geometry and
dimensionality. In general the permittivities of these composites show a power law frequency
dispersion, and have anisotropy in thin layers and their constitutive parameters scale with
composite sample size. Additional physical observables may include anomalous power loss
that actually arises from diffuse scatter; local electric field strength concentration and
“plasmon” resonance. Examples of phenomenon will be discussed to establish foundations
for measurement system requirements and equipment for characterizing these composite
types.
Chapter 6 further extends analysis of artificial dielectrics to the study of artificial-
dielectric-magnetic materials. Though most EMTS appear to be easily mapped to
permeability, they are accurate only when low-volume fractions of multi-domain magnetic
particulates are dispersed in the composite. Examples are given of EMT applied for dense
composites containing magnetic components. Fundamentally, EMTs fail to account for
magnetic coupling between magnetic particles within a composite. Accurate models that
account for complex magnetic particulate coupling and combinations with artificial
dielectrics would appear to require numerical approaches rather than simple computations
using effective media equations.
Numerical methods in composite analysis are topics for Chap. 7. The method of moment
(MoM) and finite-difference time domain (FDTD) numerical techniques are reviewed.
Properties of artificial dielectrics near the percolation threshold and artificial dielectrics in
magnetic media are also discussed. Interactive models of magnetic and conducting
components can support negative index material concepts [8–10], photonic bandgap materials
[11], and other metamaterials [11–13] which are active areas of research in materials
engineering. Examples are given of numerical model applications to predict the
electromagnetic observables in dense composites and those that have large electrical scales.
The implications of the model’s predictions are that electromagnetic characterization of many
artificial and/or metamaterials may require equipment beyond those applied to measure
simple isotropic dielectrics or magnetics.
Chapter 8 begins discussion of measurement techniques and equipment configurations and
provides a summary of a 30-year evolution of equipment and measurement procedures for
electromagnetic material characterization. The ability to perform accurate 10:1, 100:1, and
even 1000:1 bandwidth electromagnetic measurements was significantly advanced by
development of various network analyzers by Hewlett-Packard (now Agilent) and Wiltron;
automated multi-port receiver and transmitter systems (e.g., Scientific Atlanta, now MI
Technologies of Norcross Georgia), and rapidly scanned frequency-synthesized sources (e.g.,
Agilent and Wiltron). The computer-controlled network analyzer ’s compact combination of
ultra low noise receiver and frequency-power stable source allowed the electrical engineer
and/or material scientist to rapidly adapt waveguides or other transmission line, resonant
cavity, or antenna systems to make characterizations of the isotropic or anisotropic materials.
Chapter 8 discussions focus on the measurement techniques using transmission line and
plane wave scattering analysis. Discussions include system designs and configurations,
discussion of error correction procedures, sample preparation, problems encountered with
high-dielectric or high-permeability materials and inversion algorithms that calculate
electromagnetic constitutive parameters from the measurement. Descriptions of reflection and
transmission measurements (waveguide, coaxial line, and free space) are presented that allow
characterization of homogeneous but inherently anisotropic materials (i.e., at the molecular
lattice scale) such as magnetic ferrites. Focused beam free space systems are summarized. The
focused beam systems were historically used in gas spectroscopy, plasma, and charged
particle beam characterization.
Chapter 9 continues the measurement system design but emphasizes resonant measurement
techniques and repeats many of the same system studies. Error corrections, perturbative and
exact cavity measurements, transmission line, and cavity combinations are discussed in the
context of network analyzer utilization.
Chapter 10 extends discussions of transmission line, free space, and cavity techniques and
applies them for material measurements in low- and high-temperature environments and for
anisotropic magnetic materials. Commercial environmental systems are discussed that allow
characterization over modest temperature ranges (e.g., 170 to 500 K) and lower frequencies
(<1 GHz); however, the customization of the measurement system for specific and higher
temperature ranges is often required.
Chapter 11 continues measurement discussions with emphasis on impacts of very small
size scales and illustrates how RF material characterization techniques can be applied in the
field of nano material composite engineering. Three test cases are presented to illustrate
micro and nano composite impacts. The cases address ferrites, nano magnetite and nano–
micro metal composites. Nano and micro sizes require additions to macroscopic
characterization. It is often difficult to isolate nano particulates for the measurement, e.g.,
nano grains of iron or carbon may spontaneously combust in air. However, these and other
developmental nano material particulates precipitate from solution or can be deposited and/or
trapped within polymer or ceramic matrices and substrates. The electromagnetic sensing of
these materials pose a small volume problem for the measurement; however, if measurements
are combined with selected effective medium theories, RF characterization can supply
fundamental properties of the nano particulates that are contained within the composite.
Detection and characterization of nano metallic particulates leverage optical absorption and
characteristic color change. However, many magnetic nanoparticles are nonconductors or
have greatly reduced conductivity. The detection or characterization of the nanoparticles in
small volumes requires the experimenter to return to resonant cavity measurements. Two
example measurements are described.
Chapter 12 concludes the text and contains the derived parametric fits to data of
approximately 300 commercial composite and laboratory-developed test materials. Data were
acquired using many techniques including circular and rectangular waveguide cavities,
waveguide, coaxial line, free space focused beam systems, stripline and Fabry–Perot
resonators. Selected material measurements are made at identical frequencies but using
different techniques. In other cases, measurements of multiple samples of the same material
are shown to illustrate expectations in material reproducibility, a problem with many
particulate composites.
The material types and data tables of Chap. 12 are grouped as follows: (1) polymers (those
used in composites), (2) polymer-fiber composites, (3) nonmagnetic solid ceramics, (4)
dielectric fibers, (5) ferrites, (6) semiconductors and films, (7) semiconductor–polymer
composites, (8) foams and honeycombs, (9) ferrite–polymer composites, (10) iron–polymer
composites, and (11) three-phase (Fe-ferrite-polymer) composites.
Measured frequency ranges vary for each material. Data on ferrites and magnetic
composites may extend from 1 MHz to 18 GHz. This range encompasses frequencies where
magnetic dispersions for these ferrites are most apparent. Chapter 11 includes microscopic
discussions for selected ferrites in the Chap. 12 database. Measurements of polymers and
fiber–polymer dielectric composites, foams, and honeycombs emphasize millimeter
wavelengths. Below about 20 GHz (about 1.5-cm wavelength) these composites are
electrically homogeneous and thus the lowest frequency measurement (e.g., X band) can
logically be extended for lower frequency design problems. If the material is a
semiconductor, a frequency scale of f –a may be required for the imaginary part of the
permittivity. At millimeter wavelengths inhomogeneity in composites is manifest. Diffuse
scatter may contribute to some anomalous frequency dispersions in the permittivity.
Complex permittivity for ceramics and ceramic fibers are presented as functions of
frequency and temperature. Ceramics and ceramic fibers are often used at elevated
temperatures. Their temperature sensitivity can be important for application in ceramic filters
and resonators. Since the ceramic grain sizes are a few micrometers or less, and the materials
bind any free electrons in oxides, nitrides, or borides, they have very large resistances. Thus,
frequency dispersion at ambient temperature is often not observed. For this reason, solid
ceramics such as fused quartz are considered to be dielectric “standards.” Measured data on
these high-density small grain materials sometimes do cover a large bandwidth. For example,
the fiber ceramic’s measurement frequencies are in the 2 to 18 GHz band. In select cases data
from a few gigahertz to 100 GHz are shown for some ceramic foams and layered ceramics
since they demonstrate some dispersion at frequencies above 40 GHz. However, this
dispersion is attributed to scattering of ceramic composite component sizes.
For fibers and ceramics, permittivity–temperature data were acquired by measuring at one
or at most a few frequencies in the 2 to 100 GHz band. During the measurement samples were
often immersed in the temperature environment for long periods. Solid ceramics were
maintained within an oven or environmental chamber while the temperature was raised or
lowered to a goal value and thus they were temperature-saturated between measurements.
Solid ceramics were exposed to temperatures as high as 2200 K or until the temperature
resulted in structural changes. Measurements at the highest temperatures were performed in
near vacuum and some samples lost 50 percent of their mass in vaporization. Fibers were
measured in a closed, inert gas-filled resonance cavity and removed from the cavity between
temperatures. Their exposure at each temperature (ambient to 1500 K) was 1 to 5 min.
The complex permittivity, impedance, transmission, and reflection coefficients are
presented for selected commercial semiconductors, semiconducting films, and
semiconducting composites. Measurement frequencies for semiconducting films are in the
200 MHz to 18 GHz range. These measurements are important since they illustrate the
differences that are observed in DC four-point probe resistance data (most often quoted by
manufacturers) and AC resistance that is derived from voltage transmission coefficients.
Measurements of solid semiconductors are most often for 2 to 12 GHz with selected
semiconductors including data measured above 100 GHz. Data for semiconducting
composites were acquired from about 200 MHz through 100 GHz. The wide frequency range
was chosen to demonstrate frequency dispersions that are exhibited by electrically percolating
systems. These data are particularly applicable for testing predictions of effective medium
theories.
Other groups of composite materials use two components. They are Fe or ferrite polymer
blends. There is also a select group of three-phase composites which use the ferrite, Fe, and
polymer. Composites are made with controlled volume fractions of magnetic particulates.
Measurements of different samples, made with “identical” volume fractions, are sometimes
supplied to illustrate the statistical variation that is inherent in composites. Additional data are
also presented for commercial Fe–polymer composites; Fe–polymer composites that use
differing size magnetic particulate and commercial Fe–Si particulates. Data from
approximately 10 MHz to 18 GHz were acquired and used to determine parameters of the
Lorentzian fit to permeability. The complex permittivity in Fe composites displayed
significant dielectric dispersion at the highest volume fractions. The dispersion is attributed to
a finite DC conductivity in the composite, presumably due to contacting Fe particulates. It is
noted that commercial Fe composites had permittivity and permeability very near to those
prepared in the laboratory so long as their specific gravity was close. The ferromagnetic data
sets are comprehensive in frequency and it is hoped that analysis of the data by other
researchers may lead to usable analytical effective medium equations that contain more
complete material physics. Please note that the following disclaimer applies for all measured
data of Chap. 12.

A disclaimer for all parametric fits and plotted data applies. All data and parametric fits
represent measured results using a range of experimental facilities and techniques. The
data were obtained by the author and colleagues using samples prepared in the
laboratory or commercial materials, either purchased or supplied gratis. Data often are
from a few samples. Composite constructions are inherently statistical and thus
variations in properties may be observed. Therefore, data are not “guaranteed” by a
manufacturer or the author. Users of the products or laboratory compositions should
verify properties before their use. The material properties and data fits are to be guides
for engineering design or as input to material models or analysis.

Finally, in preparation of the book a broad survey of published commercial and

manufacturing electromagnetic and physical data on materials was performed. When
available, these data and references to the source are included with tabulation of measured
data parameters.

REFERENCES
1. A. Von Hippel, Dielectric Materials and Applications, ISBN 0-89006-805-4, Artech House, Boston Mass. 1954.
2. P. A. Cooper and P. F. Holloway, “The Shuttle Tile Story”, Astronautics and Aeronautics, pp. 24–26 (Jan. 1981).
3. F. Crobsy, Modern Bombers: An illustrated Guide to Bomber Aircraft from 1945 to the Second Gulf War, ISBN-13,
9781844762293, Anness Publishing (Sept. 2006).
4. Boeing Company Web site, www.boeing.com (2010).
5. R. E. Collin, Foundations of Microwave Engineering, 2nd ed., Wiley, Hoboken NJ, ISBN 10 0780360311 (2000).
6. A. Ishimaru, Wave Propagation and Scattering in Random Media, IEEE ISBN 0-7803-4717-X, IEEE and Oxford Press
(1997).
7. P. Sheng, Introduction to Wave Scattering, Localization and Mesoscopic Phenomena, 2nd ed., ISBN 10-3-540-29155-5,
Springer (2005).
8. V. G. Veselago, Sov. Phys. USP., 10:509 (1968).
9. J. B. Pendry, Phys. Rev. Lett., 85:3966 (2000).
10. D. R. Smith, W. J. Padilla, D. C. Vier, S. C. Nemat-Nasser, and S. Schultz, Phys. Rev. Lett., 84:4184 (2000).
11. A. Adibi, A. Scherer, Shawn-Yu Lin, eds., “Photonic Bandgap Materials and Devices,” Proc. SPIE. Int. Soc. Opt. Eng., San
Jose, CA. Vol. 4655 (Jan. 23–25, 2002).
12. C. Caloz and T. Itoh, Electromagnetic Metamaterials: Transmission Line Theory and Microwave Applications: The
Engineering Approach, ISBN 10-0-471-66985-7, Wiley, New York (2006).
13. G. Oliveri, D. Werner, and A. Massa, “Reconfigurable Electromagnetics Through Metamaterials—A Review,” Proc. IEEE,
103(7) (July 2015).
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO WAVE EQUATIONS
AND ELECTROMAGNETIC
CONSTITUTIVE PARAMETERS

Over the last 50 years electromagnetic composites have become intertwined in aerospace,
computer, sensor, communication, and structural engineering. It has been noted in the
introduction of this book that composites must be multifunctional and meet structural,
electrical, and/or magnetic requirements. Shuttle tiles and carbon composites have been given
as examples. In the past 10 years extensive research and engineering in metamaterials and
structured composites, assembled from semiconducting, artificial dielectric, conducting and
magnetic components, have stressed electromagnetic models and measurement techniques.
The electromagnetic models, measurement techniques, and measured data contained in this
book are applicable to such multiphase materials. Models and measurements are appropriate
for composites with characteristic size scales at tens of nanometers and above, where
quantum-based models are not required. The goal of this text is to significantly contribute to
improvements for current and visionary composite technology.
Chapter 1 begins with an introduction to Maxwell’s equations and some basic definitions
and parameters of electromagnetics (EM). An electromagnetic wave equation is introduced
for wave propagation through inhomogeneous media. Assumptions are introduced that
specialize to isotropic homogeneous media. In the homogeneous equations the electrical
permittivity, permeability, and conductivity are parameters. As the wave equations are
derived, definitions, terminology, and electromagnetic material properties (e.g.,
polarizability) are introduced and are captured in tables for later reference. Analysis of the
general inhomogeneous equation is deferred until Chap. 5 and plane wave solutions to the
homogeneous equations are presented. The derivation establishes relationships between wave
vector, frequency, wavelength, wave group velocity, and material constitutive parameters.
Permittivity, permeability, and conductivity are introduced in Chap. 1 as parameters that relate
electrical and magnetic polarizabilities to electric and magnetic fields. Detailed investigation
of their source is deferred until Chap. 2.

1.1 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS AND FIELD SOURCES

James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) successfully assimilated 18th and 19th century empirical
observations and speculations concerning light, magnetism, electric current, charge, and
voltage. His best known products were four equations [one form found in Eqs. (1.1) to (1.4)]
that relate time-varying electric and magnetic fields to their time-varying sources of electric
charge. These equations are found in almost every book on electromagnetics and are the basis
for propagation and scattering models and identification of techniques to measure
electromagnetic properties in homogeneous and composite materials. An appropriate
combination of Eqs. (1.1) to (1.4) yields second-order partial differential equations in space
and time coordinates of the fields that predict the propagation of the electrical and magnetic
fields in space and/or materials. Electric field, , and magnetic induction field, , are the
field parameters and these form orthogonal vector components of the total field that moves
through space and time just as the electromagnetic wave in isotropic medium. The vector
product of the electric and magnetic fields defines the Poynting vector whose magnitude is the
power density carried in the electromagnetic wave. The Poynting vector describes power
density of the wave that moves in the direction of electromagnetic energy propagation and is
parallel to the direction of propagation, identified by the vector . That wave propagates at a
velocity V = c = 2.99792 × 10 m/s when the fields are in vacuum. The wave has wavelength λ
and frequency f. In the volume of propagation the product of wavelength and frequency is
equal to the wave velocity V = λf. Maxwell’s equations are as follows:

Familiarity of the reader with vector calculus is assumed in the writing of these equations.
In the above ∇× represents the curl operation and ∇⋅ the divergence operation. The curl of the
electric field vector is related to the time derivative of magnetic induction . In turn, the
curl of magnetic induction is related to current density . The divergence of electric field is
related to the total charge ρt, where these electrical charges are taken classically as point
sources. However, the divergence of magnetic induction is zero. Divergence being 0 is
indicative of the fact that a point source of magnetic field (e.g., magnetic monopole first
proposed by Dirac in 1931 [1]) has never been found. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 summarize many of
the most important vector relationships and vector operations. Other operators and operator
relationships will be introduced as needed.
TABLE 1.1 Important Vector Relationships

TABLE 1.2 Vector Relationships in Various Coordinate Systems

 Equations (1.1) to (1.4) are combined with equations relating induction to magnetic field
, ; electric field to electric displacement, , and electric field related to
current , to produce wave equations for or . Wave equation
derivations can be found in any standard text on EM such as J. D. Jackson’s Classical
Electromagnetics or M. Born and E. Wolf’s Principles of Optics [2, 3]. Forms of the
derivation are outlined in the next section. However, prior to the derivation we first
summarize the physics associated with the constitutive parameters ε, μ, and σ of the material in
which the electromagnetic field must propagate. Constitutive parameters are electric
permittivity, magnetic permeability, and electrical conductivity, respectively. The parameters
are characteristic of the material in which and exist and reflect the material’s response to
external electric and magnetic fields. In general, they are complex numbers whose values are
functions of electromagnetic frequency. In later chapters the parameters are also shown to be
a function of material size and dimensionality.

1.2 PERMITTIVITY AND CHARGE

The fundamental source of permittivity is electric charge, physical separation of positive and
negative charge, and/or differential charge density. Electric fields are produced by isolated
charges [as reflected in Maxwell’s electric source Eq. (1.3)]. Similarly, assemblies of positive
and negative charge which are offset by some distance produce “dipolar” and “multipolar”
fields. Physically the real part of permittivity reflects the ability of a material to support
separation of the positive and negative charges. Together, ± charges comprise all electrically
neutral materials. Separated charges produce electric dipoles and multipoles. The dipole has a
vector electric moment with magnitude equal to the product of charge and charge separation
distance . It has units of coulomb-meter with the direction defined from negative to
positive charge. A dipole is illustrated in Fig. 1.1.

FIGURE 1.1 Illustration of a dipole formed by two charges, each of magnitude q, separated by distance d.

Dipole moments are distributed throughout a material where electrons and nuclei are the
source of their formation. In some cases dipole moments may represent ferroelectric
behavior but most of the time they are induced by an externally applied electric field. When an
external electromagnetic field is present, the charges move in response to the field and
generate an additional electric field internal to a material. The field induced in the material is
described by the polarization vector . It is the vector sum of all dipole contributions. The
direction of polarization is determined by the vector sum of individual dipole moments. The
total internal field is the sum of any external electric field and polarization field. That sum is
the electric displacement , where ε0 is the permittivity of a vacuum, often
referred to as permittivity of free space. The book considers linear media, thus polarization is
proportional to external electric field, , and is equal to electric susceptibility, χ, and free
space permittivity multiplied by electric field, . A direct relationship between
displacement field and electric field is achieved with

Permittivity, ε, is related to susceptibility, permittivity of free space, and the unit-less

relative permittivity, εr, by ε = ε0(1 + χe) = ε0εr. Though it is not explicitly shown, remember
that relative permittivity is a complex number with real εre and imaginary parts εimag and in
general each is a function of electromagnetic frequency. The ratio of imaginary to real part is
the electrical loss tangent tan δe. Relationships are summarized below:
 Examples of frequency dispersive complex permittivity and permeability are shown in
later sections.

1.3 PERMEABILITY AND CURRENT

Electric fields can be produced by fixed isolated charges or charge assemblies but magnetic
fields are produced by charge in motion, i.e., current. The existence of magnetic charges or
monopoles remains a theoretical issue; experiment has not found one. Thus, the source
equation for , Eq. (1.4), is identically zero. Equation (1.2) shows the relationship between
magnetic induction, , and current, , where the constant of proportionality is the
permeability of free space, μ0 = 4π × 10–7 H/m. Various sources of current will naturally
relate permeability and electrical conductivity.
Moving charge, i.e., current, appears in many forms. A macroscopic source can exist if a
material has finite electrical conductivity σ. If an electric field or voltage is applied between
separated points (A,B) in the material, any charges not bound by nuclei or molecules will
move between A,B and produce a current . The current produces a magnetic field with the
direction defined by the Lenz’s law [4] and right-hand rule. The field magnitude is
proportional to the current, and the direction is illustrated in the upper sketch of Fig. 1.2. The
free current is equal to with electrical conductivity σ, a proportionality constant.

FIGURE 1.2 Illustration of two sources of magnetic field: linear current and magnetic dipole. The magnetic dipole is m = iA
with the direction as shown.

Microscopic sources of magnetic field are classically associated with bound subatomic
particles that are in orbital motion (e.g., electrons about a nucleus) or are “spinning”
(electrons and neutrons) about an axis at subatomic, atomic, and molecular scales. An internal
magnetic field is produced by both spinning and orbiting charges. Some materials (e.g.,
nickel, cobalt, iron, and metallic oxides) have molecular and crystalline electronic
configurations that yield net alignment of electron spin or electron orbital momentum
vectors. The product of current–charge–angular velocity and area circumscribed by the
moving charge produces a magnetic dipole moment with units of coulomb-meter 2/second or
amp-meter 2. For reference there are 6.241 × 1018 electron charges in one coulomb and thus
there are many legions of charges contributing to magnetic moment. This type of moment
source for magnetic induction is conceptualized in the lower sketch of Fig. 1.2. The moment
magnitude is proportional to the product of current and circumscribed area, m = iA. The
moment direction is perpendicular to the area and determined by the right-hand rule. The
moment and the accompanying magnetic field of are parallel. The magnitude of is
proportional to the current magnitude.
The vector sum of all sources of electronic orbital and spin moment produces a net
magnetization in materials if a statistically significant number of spins and/or orbital
moments have vector alignment. Like electric polarization, magnetization couples to
externally applied fields to produce an additional magnetic field within a material.
Another source of current could be present if any electric dipoles in the material changed
their separation, orientation, or position as a function of time. This would produce a time
variation in polarization, . However, this contribution, relative to other sources, is
small.
, , and are related through equations analogous to those relating electric field,
displacement, and polarization:

In this set of equations, μr is the relative permeability and is unit-less like εr. Relative
permeability is a complex number μr = μre + jμimag with real, μre, and imaginary, μimag, parts.
Real and imaginary parts vary with the wavelength or frequency. Like permittivity, a magnetic
loss tangent tan δm is also defined. These relations are summarized by

If there are internal geometrical variations in magnetization, an additional current is

produced and is equal to . We can now sum all current sources to give

This equation for Jm; equations relating to ; total charge density, ρt (the sum of bound
and free charge densities, ρb, ρf or ρt = ρb + ρf); and the divergence of polarization (
) all are applied in Eq. (1.10) through Eq. (1.13) to give a form of Maxwell’s equations that are
“independent” of material parameters.
 In this book, the study of composites is limited to electrically neutral materials and thus the
first equation has free charge density of zero. In general, therefore, the permittivity and
permeability are functions of electromagnetic frequency, ε(f) = ε0εr(f) and μ(f) = μ0μr(f).

TABLE 1.3 Fundamental and Derived SI Quantities (M = mass, L = leng th, T = time)
 Frequency dependence is implicit in further use of the parameters and is often expressed in
terms of radial frequency, ω = 2πf. Equations (1.10) to (1.13) can be used to develop wave
equations in isotropic or anisotropic, homogeneous or inhomogeneous (i.e., composites), and
linear or nonlinear materials. Table 1.3 is included to summarize field and parametric
definitions, parameter values, units, and interrelationships that are often used.

1.4 WAVE EQUATIONS FOR HOMOGENEOUS AND

INHOMOGENEOUS MATERIALS
Derivation of a wave equation for electric field begins by differentiating each side of Eq. (1.3)
with respect to time. Equation (1.12) is divided by μ and the curl operation is applied to each
side of the equation. Then, following Chap. 1 of Ref. [3], it is initially assumed that
permeability and permittivity can be functions of coordinates. Vector properties are implied.
This prescription results in two equations:

Equation (1.14) is substituted in Eq. (1.15) for the time derivation of , and vector
identities 2 and 4 of Table 1.1 are applied in order. The sum of the operations yields a vector
wave equation for :

The identity (ln(A)), Eq. (1.10), and vector identity 7 of Table 1.1 are

applied to produce

The cross product, time derivative, and vector identities are also applied to obtain an
equation for . However, due to the assumed inhomogeneity of permittivity and permeability
a complete decoupling of and is not possible.

Further investigation of inhomogeneous material wave equations relies on Eq. (1.17) since
fields may always be obtained by applying differential forms.
If permittivity, permeability, and conductivity are assumed homogeneous, familiar,
separable forms of the wave equations for , are obtained.

1.5 HOMOGENEOUS PROPAGATION IN LINEAR MEDIA

Inhomogeneous wave equations will be reinvestigated in Chap. 5. For now, discussions are
limited to propagation in homogenous isotropic materials. Study of the homogeneous
materials establishes a baseline for comparing inhomogeneous propagation and analysis of
composites as “effective” homogeneous materials. The idea that a mixture is homogeneous at
some size scale allows one to assign values for constitutive parameters.
Composites may be random or periodic geometrical assemblies of chemically dissimilar
materials, or combinations of both. Composite component morphologies may be identical
(mixtures of spheres) or different (fibers mixed into a polymer matrix). Geometrical shaping
and periodic geometry can be applied to introduce strong frequency dispersion while using
otherwise minimally frequency-dispersive materials (e.g., photonic band-gap materials).
Composites also include single chemistry materials that are imperfect, e.g., they contain voids
such as foams or honeycomb.
Analysis assigns “effective” homogeneous constitutive parameters to composites as a first
step in assessing a composite’s applicability to an electromagnetic system. Application
examples are radomes, antennas, waveguides, circuits, filters, aerospace structures, and
circuit boards. Good examples are fiber and/or fabric reinforced polymers.
The effective parameter description may not fully reflect a material’s underlying physics.
Some “negative index” materials fall in this umbrella since their behavior depends on
geometries that can be appreciable fractions of an electromagnetic wavelength. Even in
marginally homogeneous materials (when the composition, physical dimensions, and
geometrical configuration for composite constituents are known) exact numerical solutions
to Maxwell’s equations and/or measurements that use equipment originally configured for
homogeneous materials can be applied to assess the impact of ignoring inhomogeneity in an
electromagnetic application [5].
The goals of this book are identification of measurement techniques, equipment, and
procedures and/or prediction of effective parameters of composites. In the following
chapters, measurements and/or predictions of parametric dependence on wavelength and
physical environment (e.g., temperature, pressure, and moisture) are discussed. Because
chapters should facilitate the identification of composites for engineering applications, this
book has the educational goal of identifying material models and measurements that supply
insight into the material physics and chemistry of composites.
Figure 1.3 illustrates the geometry that will be applied in analyzing electromagnetic
composite performance. The figure is basic to many material electromagnetic applications
and/or materials measurement. For now it is assumed that the medium through which
propagation occurs does not contain free charges and that material polarizability and
magnetization are linear. Solutions of the wave equations can then be a plane-wave with a
single propagation vector .
Solutions are time and spatial-harmonic electromagnetic field vectors characterized by the
frequency f or radial frequency ω. Spatial harmonics are characterized by a wavelength λ and
wave vector with the magnitude 2π/λ. Solutions to the homogeneous differential wave
equations are separable into a product solution of spatial and time dependence,
, where solutions have the same time-harmonic fields described by the
exponential ejωt.
The separable assumption, when combined with relationships between and
, allows another form for Maxwell’s equations in isotropic charge-free media.

The time-harmonic electric field of Fig. 1.3 is represented as a complex vector phasor

and , where the vector character of the electric field

is shown as a column vector with the single electric field component oriented in the direction
of the unit vector, . The vector wavenumber is , and in the figure
only Kz is shown. The position vector is measured from the coordinate system origin and is
. The direct substitution of the vector form for the electric field into the
field equation establishes global relations between electric and magnetic fields:

FIGURE 1.3 Electromagnetic propagation geometry in a media with permittivity, ε; magnetic permeability, μ; and electrical
conductivity, σ.

The parameter is referred to as a material’s intrinsic impedance.

However, as composites are studied one recognizes that impedance is not intrinsic but
extrinsic. Intrinsic parameters are those that do not vary with the material form: size, shape, or
quantity of the material. In composites (and homogeneous materials at the nanoscale)
permittivity, permeability, and thus impedance can change with the form that is taken by the
composite. Frequency and wavelength are related by . Another useful
relationship between electric and magnetic field magnitudes is . These
relationships allow to quickly calculate relative magnitudes of electric and magnetic field
strengths along with the wavelength in a material.
Figure 1.4 shows Plane Wave Scattering (PWS) at an interface and typical , ,
directions and orientations for plane waves of two polarizations (parallel left, perpendicular
right) that are scattering from an interface between two media. Notice that magnetic and
electric vectors remain orthogonal to each other as they pass from one media to another,
from R1 to R2. The vector product, × = , is in the direction of the propagation vector, .
The has a unit energy flux through a surface bounding a volume. The instantaneous value in
free space is
and in a media different from free space

Specializing to a plane wave propagating parallel to one axis, i.e., , of Fig. 1.4 gives an

electric field, , and simple relationships between wave vector magnitude,

frequency, and constitutive parameters. Substitution of into the homogeneous wave equation
yields an equation relating the magnitude of , radial frequency, and material parameters.

FIGURE 1.4 Illustrations of , , directions and orientations for plane waves of two polarizations (parallel left,
perpendicular right) scattering from an interface.

Recalling that light speed in vacuum is c = (ε0μ0)–1/2 and that c = fλ0, Eq. (1.30) can be
reformulated in terms of relative permittivity, permeability, free space wavelength, λ0, and
wave number, K0 = 2π/λ0, as
 It has been previously noted that εr and μr may have real and imaginary parts. In data
processing algorithms of this book, frequency variation of conductivity is derived from
frequency dispersion of the imaginary part of the permittivity-rotational frequency product. If
the material DC conductivity is very large (i.e., like that of a good conductor, copper with σ =
5.8 × 107 S/m) the imaginary part of the propagation constant is also large and conductivity is
nearly constant throughout the RF, microwave, and millimeter wave spectra. Frequency
dispersive conductivity will be considered in some composite models of nano particulates in
Chaps. 7 and 11.
Since the magnitude of an electromagnetic field is proportional to e–jKr, any propagating
field in a conducting material is exponentially attenuated in a distance δ ≈ (2/(2πfσμ))1/2. This
distance is known as the material skin-depth. Note that it decreases with inverse frequency,
conductivity, and permeability to the half of the power. Therefore, low frequencies will
penetrate further into nonmagnetic conducting materials. This simple observation has
important implications in the treatment of electromagnetic interference (EMI), e.g., using
materials to suppress interference in circuits, communication systems, and computers. For
instance, to achieve electromagnetic isolation at very high and ultra high frequencies the
materials engineer may need to use conducting film materials that are also magnetic.

1.6 CONCLUSION
Chapter 1 is designed to supply an introduction and/or reminder of common principles and
terminology that are in most solutions of scattering by electromagnetic waves. The principles
and constructs of Chap. 1 will be used as the basis of most measurement procedures that will
be discussed in Chaps. 8 to 11. Chapter 2 topics are chosen to build on Chap. 1 foundations.
Maxwell’s equations will be solved in various media. The development of physical sources
for permittivity and permeability and frequency dispersion of both parameters will be of
special interest. The frequency dispersion models will serve as analytic functions to which
measured data of Chap. 12 will be fit.

REFERENCES
1. P. A. M. Dirac, “Quantized Singularities in the Electromagnetic Field,” Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A. 60:133 (1931).
2. J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, 2nd ed., Sec. 7.10, ISBN 0-471-43132-X, Wiley, New York (1975).
3. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 6th ed., ISBN 0-08-026482-4, Pergamon Press, Oxford, England (1980).
4. W. Panofsky and M. Phillips, Classical Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd ed., Sec. 22-10, ISBN 0201057026, Addison-
Wesley (1955).
5. P. Sheng, Introduction to Wave Scattering, Localization and Mesoscopic Phenomena, 2nd ed., ISBN 10-3-540-29155-5,
Springer (2005).
CHAPTER 2
SOURCES AND DISPERSION FOR
POLARIZATION AND PERMITTIVITY
ε(f)

Chapters 2 and 3 delve into the physical sources that lead to frequency dispersive models of
permittivity and permeability. The emphasis is placed on the electromagnetic spectrum
between approximately 1 MHz and a few terahertz. The physical sources of isotropic and
homogeneous electromagnetic permittivity include electronic, atomic or molecular, structure
and material crystal structure. When considering macroscopic composites, one must also add
contributions from interfacial contact between composite constituent particles; electron and
magnetic domain coupling between constituents; sizes and shapes of composite constituent;
and periodic versus randomly distributed compositions and free charge carrier movement
between and through composite constituents. The physics of constituent contact and electronic
coupling are significant in determining frequency dispersive constitutive parameters of
composites in millimeter, microwave, and radio frequency range. These sources are
qualitatively discussed in Chaps. 2 and 3, but detailed discussions are provided when mixture
theories are presented in Chaps. 5 to 7.
A brief introduction to permittivity, resistance, and conductivity has been supplied in Chap.
1. In this chapter the physics of the dielectric constitutive parameter and sources is revisited
and equations that relate sources of permittivity and material frequency dispersion are
derived. Those equations are the basis for fitting measured permittivity data in Chap. 12. By
fitting measured data to parametric models, values of fundamental parameters are identified.
Those parameters (relaxation, resonant frequency, and conductivity) determine the
macroscopic dispersive permittivity and may be used to extend parameter predictions beyond
the original measured data range.
A discussion of physical sources of permittivity would be incomplete without discussion
of the impact of temperature and other environmental parameters on electrical permittivity.
Chapter 2 concludes with a discussion of temperature impacts. Example measurements are
shown and parametric temperature functionalities are derived. As with frequency dispersion,
the temperature functions are fit to measured data in Chap. 12. Material data which are shown
indicate that some composite compositions have capability to limit variations in composite
constitutive parameters due to temperature.
2.1 SOURCES OF PERMITTIVITY, RESISTIVITY, AND
CONDUCTIVITY IN MATERIALS
In nature’s dielectric materials (polymers, liquids, or oxidized inorganic materials such as
ceramics) permittivity values differ from free space and are derived from free (i.e., can
move) or bound charge (which can oscillate about a fixed position). Regions of higher and
lower charge density that are separated by distance add to permittivity. The physical
separation of different charge densities is common and the first source to be discussed is
electronic polarizability in atoms and or molecules.
Electronic polarizability in atoms and molecules is founded in the electromagnetic field’s
quantum mechanical excitation of electrons and charged quasi-particles. Both may oscillate
between discrete quantum states of different energy. However, in this book classical physics
models of electronic polarization are used. They provide physical insight and are sufficient to
use in parametric fits of Chap. 12.
Classical models replace quantized electron energy excitation with dimensional
reconfiguration of charge. Charge reposition produces a net dipole moment. A small change
in the model also accounts for atomic polarizability from charges that are localized on
different atoms and/or different localized charge densities that are separated and can oscillate
along molecular chains, i.e., polarons. The cooperative response of free charges in/on
semiconducting or conducting materials contributes to permittivity since electromagnetic
fields induce charge motion and local charge density variations, plasmons, at a material
interface.
In all of these, positive and/or negative charges are offset from some equilibrium
configuration by an external electric field. If the external electromagnetic field has periodic
time dependence with some frequency f, the induced polarization would be oscillatory at
approximately the frequency of the electromagnetic field. However, the polarization
oscillation in a material will have a phase offset from the field, and the magnitude of phase
offset is a measure of the material index, .
The classical physics oscillation model of polarization applies Newton’s first and second
laws. The charge is offset when the external field exerts a force on each charge carrier,
. A positive charge +q is moved along the direction of the electric field while a
negative charge –q is moved in the opposite direction. Opposite charges separate until
equilibrium positions are reached. The equilibrium occurs when positive and negative
charges are separated by some distance d, which reduces the total vector forces to zero. That
equilibrium separation of positive and negative charges produces a dipole of moment p = qd.
When all such dipole moments are summed, they generate a polarization field that is
reflected in the macroscopic permittivity. Time-varying fields produce a time-varying
polarization as the field changes direction and magnitude.
The model is illustrated in Fig. 2.1. The figure on the left represents an atom, with positive
charged nucleus, that is uniformly surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons
(represented by the gray particles). Macroscopically the net charge always sums to zero.
However when an external electric field is applied, the electron density may be slightly offset
from the nucleus and forms an asymmetric charge distribution that yields a net positive and
negative charge, ±q, with centers stabilized at separation, d. The stabilization is achieved when
the competing external force, q , and mutual attraction of positive and negative charge,
α(q2/d2), are equal. Here, α is a constant of proportionality. If that constant is assumed to be
the classical (4πε0)–1, one finds that d is about 1 Å for a net 1 electronic charge. That product
of distance and charge is a small number; however when summed over an Avogadro number
of sources, 6.02214129(27) × 1023 mol–1, an appreciable polarization field can be produced.
When deriving equations that predict permittivity, we shall take Fig. 2.1 as a conceptual model
for calculations. That model will be applied to charges bound to nuclei or charges which are
subject to a restoring force that counters the externally applied field. A damping force will be
added that converts the charge motion to heat.

FIGURE 2.1 The figure represents some atom with positive nucleus surrounded by a uniform electron density (left) and an
offset electron density (right) induced by the external electric field.

As indicated above, there are a large number of permittivity sources that arise from forced
geometrical separations of charge. For example, long-chain molecules may allow charge
redistribution along their length l. Conduction may be electrically terminated by a
nonconducting complex that isolates molecule from molecule. Materials made from such
molecules will have dipole moment proportional to l. A macroscopic equivalent of the long-
chain molecular source is a thin electrically conducting fiber that might be mixed into a
nonconducting matrix. Unless fibers are in contact, there is a net charge shift toward fiber
ends. The same classical harmonic oscillator model will apply to fiber, molecule, material
imperfections, cooperative charges in semiconductors or conductors, and/or atomic
polarization.
Other micro-macroscopic geometrical means are available to produce charge separation.
The interfacial polarizability arises from spatially limiting conduction of charge carriers. It is
an important source of permittivity in materials composed of small grains. The “grain”
boundaries can be natural, may have a dielectric coating on otherwise conducting particles, or
can arise from material imperfections denoted by interfaces between small grains or
crystallites of a solid. Chapter 10 presents an example where permittivity control is achieved
by modifying chemical composition at ferrite grain boundaries. When an electric field is
applied, opposing charges appear at interfaces (much like those of a macroscopic capacitor).
These will contribute to net polarization fields and thus permittivity.
The permittivity due to moving charges is evidenced in semiconductors and conductors.
These material types can contain bound charges, just like that discussed previously, but they
also have large concentrations (106 to 1023 cm–3) [1] of “free” charge carriers, electrons, that
move through the fixed positive background of nuclei and molecules that often form the
material lattice. Of course, the total charge (electron + background) remains zero but the free
charges, such as electrons with small mass, me, can accelerate and move through the atomic
lattice background while maintaining the average charge density of zero.
The acceleration of an electron by an external electric field (a = eE/me) does not produce
unbounded velocity. The electrons scatter from material defects, crystal structure, and other
electrons. The scattering is reflected as a resistance to free movement and is a root of
material’s resistivity, ρ, the inverse of electrical conductivity, ρ = σ–1. Between collisions,
electrons can achieve speeds near 108 cm/sec in good conductors such as copper. However
when collisions are taken into account, negative charges can move in the opposite direction of
the electric field at a limiting, average drift velocity, Vd, which can be very small, on the order
of 106 Å /sec. On the atomic scale, this represents hundreds of thousands of lattice sites per
second. Since charges respond only within a frequency cycle of an electromagnetic wave, the
distance they travel is limited, i.e., f (–1)Vd. Therefore, polarizability and permittivity (which
are proportional to charge offset distance) approach unity at very high electromagnetic
frequencies.
The following section presents a simple mathematical model, consolidated from many
sources [2–5]. By appropriately choosing the model’s boundary condition, it can be applied to
most of the permittivity sources that have been mentioned. The universality of this harmonic
oscillator model and its parameters is important to the last section of this chapter. In Chap. 12
tables of parameters are listed. They were derived by fitting model parameters to measured
complex permittivity over frequency ranges >1000:1 in the RF, microwave, and millimeter
spectra. Figure 2.2 shows an example fit to measured data. Rapid “ripples” are typical of
measurement errors due to background scattering, imperfect miss matches, coaxial line gaps,
and imperfect calibrations. Parametric fits smooth the data to reveal true and causal
dispersion.
FIGURE 2.2 Measured and harmonic oscillator model parameter fit for a frequency dispersive complex permittivity
example.

2.2 MODELING MATERIAL COMPLEX PERMITTIVITY

AND ITS FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE
Models of permittivity and frequency dispersion are introduced in the classical, force equals
mass times acceleration, non-quantum mechanical context. The reader is referred to
additional texts for the correct quantized models and mathematics. More complete
explanations are found in Electronic Properties of Materials by R. E. Hummel, Introduction to
Solid State Physics and Quantum Theory of Solids by C. Kittel, and Optical Coherence and
Quantum Optics by L. Mandela and E. Wolf [1, 3–5].
By its definition, electromagnetic polarization is a volumetric parameter. Thus, it is
proportional to microscopic dipole moment(s), magnitude(s), and the sum over number
densities of each dipole moment source type that is to be found in a material. The sketch
model of induced polarization in materials (Fig. 2.1) has the external electric field distorting
the electron cloud around a nucleus or molecule to produce geometric asymmetry of local
charge density. The equilibrium distance between the effective charge concentrations will
depend on (1) the force that is exerted by the external electric field, (2) restoring force(s) that
attempt to equilibrate the separated opposite charge volumes to produce zero net charge, (3)
any dissipative forces that contribute resistance to charge redistribution (i.e., lattice, defects,
Another random document with
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 Rood-bang verflakkerde de zwartige walm door de
dampende diepte, de brandende luchten en de
kleurwond’re lichtsferen.—

Zoo, als één adem van dierlijksten gloei, als één wolk
boven ’t kermisland drijvend, koortste de ziedende
passie van de zingende meiden en kerels òp, schroei
van hun zinnen, brand van hun lijven.

En ontembaar spoten ze hoog uit, den nacht in, hun

satansgetier, hun moordende driften, in den helschen
fonkel van ’n heelemaal-zich-geven; doorsnikt van
rauwe uitzinnigheid. En samenbrandend mèt de
lichtkoorts en ’t vuur boven de Haven, sloeg hun
zwoel-hevig begeeren door den ontzettenden nacht. In
omneveling zonk uit, de sfeer van avondgoudlicht,
verkraterd rond de krochten, zengend den
demonischen hemelbrand van nachtkarneval.

Doodstil lag de polderwei in den spokenden nacht,

èven maar buiten de kermishaven.

Laat in den nacht hokte de roode walm-adem van

duizenden lampetten op zuurkarren, paling en
oliekoektentjes.

De regen had de keien beglimmerd en in pracht-

vloeiige schijnsels sloegen de fakkels en pitten hun
gloed tegen de straat óp. Onder de hossende beenen
nu vloeiden goudgeel vuur en paarse zeeën, fel en
golven uitspoelend, wijd om.—

Als droop van façaden, lijstwerk en spiegels, van

daken [355]en spullen, ruiten en palen, een
kleurengloed àf, zoo vlamde en helvloeide ’t licht plots
op de natte keien.—

Aquarellige gloed glimmerde rond in vurige plassen

paars en goud. Plots boorde felle doof van rossige
stalletjes donk’re gaten in ’t kermisland. Heele
straatbrokken duisterden, en keienvuur verdween.

Van alle kanten zwaaiden stemmenstoeten weg in ’t

donker, de laantjes om tuinderijen in, en polderweg
òp.

Onder de stalletjeslui ging snelle pak; gekraak van

beoliede doeken om duistere karbrokken.—Soms, met
’n glans van voorbijhossende toortsendragers nog
òverschroeid, rossigden zwoegkoppen tusschen
geraamtewrakjes en zeilen òp in den nacht.

Klagelijker en kermender steunden de orgelstrotten,

verzwakkend in gerucht. Heele stellen reden weg ’t
grasveld òp, waar de kermiskarren eindeloos triestten
in polderstilte.

Half drie en nog zat Dientje Hassel te bibberen achter

haar oliedoek met gloeislaap in d’oogen.

Ant was ’r komen halen, al kon ze van ellende en

zwakte nauwelijks op ’r beenen staan. Ze snauwde
dat Dien maar ’n gulden meer had gehaald dan
Zaterdagavond. Dat had ze heelemaal niet verwacht,
gromde ze.—

Rillig verbibberde Dientje wat tegen, met slaapduizel

in de oogen, de ooren vol schetter en dreun nog, ’t
 kopje gerammeid van voorbijduivelende herrie.—

Zelf had ze maar één oliekoek gehapt, omdat ze niet

meer durfde nemen voor Ant. En wee, verrild, stapte
ze achter de stomme moeder de Baanwijk òver, naar ’t
Duin.—

Plots zwegen al de orgels, doofden de

voetstanglichten van kramen en spellen. Overal
duisterde dieper de nacht.

Dronken gerucht van verren enkeling viel nog ontzet

tusschen de nachtstilte. Dreunklank was verzwolgen
en kermisgloei weggedonkerd tot valen opstand van
tent-duisteringen, en grillige òpstaande nachtdingen.
—

Van de stille Wierelandsche straatjes rauwden soms

nog òp, krijsch van vechtenden in ’t donker,
moordachtige angstgillen [356]van vrouwen uit laantjes
om Duinwijk. En heel van vèr, onder de geschondene
meiden in de woest-offerende vrijage, vergalmde:

—Aauw.. wat ’n ska-ande!

Ontzet, veràf, verreutelde de dronken strottenkrijsch

van kerels, als ’n groot geschrei door den rood-
geschroeiden nacht. [357]
[Inhoud]
 ACHTSTE HOOFDSTUK.

Ouë Gerrit had angstigen worstel met de kerels om

hun op den dag aan ’t werk te houden.—Geradbraakt
stonden ze op ’t land, landerig en slaperig met roode
doorwaterde oogen, te gapen, te vloeken en te
schelden. Telkens dreigden ze den boel er bij neer te
smakken als de Ouë en Guurt d’r niet nog handig
tusschen indrongen. Toch voelde Ouë Gerrit niet
zooveel wrevel meer als eerst. Nog twee dagen blééf
de kermis; dat wist ie. Laàt ze hossen, laàt ze zuipen.
Hij had nou toch volop zijn genot. ’t Was ommers, op
de akkers overal ’t zelfde gehang en geklieter. De
meiden konden nergens, puur niet op d’r pooten staan
van dans en joligheid. En niet één kerel die d’r frisch
bij stond. Alleen de droogpruimers plukten, tuinders
die d’r hachie niet op de kermis gewaagd hadden. In ’t
jonge goed zat lol, pit.—

Maar hij had toch ook zalig genoten.…

Zondag van ’s avonds acht, tot twaalf, had ie d’r

rondgekuierd.. Dertien dingen meegepikt.… hoho! da
waa’s d’r puur ’n salighait weust.… koorts in s’n bloed
had ie voelt..

Z’n oogen hadden gegulzigd, en z’n handen gegrepen

naar al ’t moois. Vijfmaal onder rèn en hòs en
oppropping van stoeten kon ie z’n slag slaan, en
achtmaal was ’t gelukt telkens op andere manier.
Twee prachtige dompertjes van zilver ’t eerst.… Zoo
glànzend had ie ze gegapt, vlak voor den neus van de
spullejuffer. Even van ’m àf zag hij ’n wilde stoet, en
met z’n rug bleef ie gekeerd naar de kraam. Bons!
daar stootten en bonkerden ze ’m omver.… Hij.. ouë
kerel.… met z’n angstig gebluft lachie op z’n
kinderkop,.. doend, nèt of ie zich [358]waggelend
vastgreep.… verschrikt:.… Toen, heel-stiekem, vlug
de greèp, de zoet-zalige verrukkingsgreep, mèt bang-
zwaar, toch heerlijk besef dat ie plots gevat kon
worden. Maar dan daarnà, altijd ’t gelukken!
Godskristus! vlak voor d’r neus bijna, toen ie ’t beet
had.… Dan, al dat avondlicht om ’m heen,.… die
schelle pracht, die bonte gloeiing van alles, maakte ’m
razend gek, duizelig van grijpwoede, heb-woede. En
rondom z’n vol-zalig hoofd, rondom zijn eigen juich
binnen in,—de flambouwen, ’t zanggeraas, de orgels,
die ’m deden trippelen van plezier, alsof ie nog ’n
snuiter was. Hij had danslust in z’n beenen gevoeld,
en zachte stijgende dronkenschap van zoet-heet
steelgenot. Dat ie daar nou maar grijpen ging, wàt ie
wou. Eerst loeren, of ’t kon, veilig, veilig. En als ’t dan
zoo mogelijk veilig leek, dàn beet! Dat genot, daar te
loopen tusschen ’t vuur en nooit niet gepakt! De kerel
die ’m eens gesnapt had, leek nergens te zien, en
luchtiger was ie door den ontzettenden woel van al
vreemde boeren en buitenlui heengestapt.—’n
Bekende groette ie vriendelijk, met lachje. Wat jonge
meiden en kerels, die ’m ontmoetten, dolden met
’m,.… wat zoo’n ouë rot op de kermis doen moest.—
Weer anderen beklaagden ’m, dat ie geen wijf had, ’n
gek mormel, dat niet praten, niet staan kon. En in ’t
besef, dat ie beklaagd werd, voelde ie zich nòg
lekkerder, veiliger, rustiger in gap en greep. Dan dacht
ie, dat hij met z’n genot, met z’n brand-van-héél-ander
begeeren van binnen, toch ook heel anders tusschen
de speelgoedkramen, tenten en spullen liep dan al die
andere kermisgangers. Dat voelde ie diep, maakte ’m
razend van angstige blijheid, dat hij, van àl dat
prachtige … prachtige,.… dat hij daarvan stukken en
brokken hebben moèst, moèst. Hij had niet geweten
waar te beginnen, zoo veel, in duizeling en gretigheid
zag ie tegelijk..

’n Paar tuinders spraken ’m aan; maar hij had zich met

’n snauw van hen afgemaakt. Hij wou alléén zijn,
heelemaal alléén. Daarom had ie vrouw Hassel ook
thuis gelaten. Voor ie gegaan was had ie Guurt
gezeid, dat zij nou maar eens ’n paar uur bij moeder
moest blijven, maar Guurt wou niet, had hem kunnen
slaan van nijd.… [359]

—Ik sien joù ànkomme! Nainet foader! daa’s glad- en

al mis, blaif jai d’r bai je waif! denkkie daa’k main
jonge laife soo slaite wil?.. niks gedaan! En ze was
weggerend voor hij nog iets terug had kunnen zeggen.

Maar hij woù, woù toch ook.

—Nou waif, nou goan ikke d’r tug effe uit! had ie
gezegd tot vrouw Hassel. Vrouw Hassel, op d’r stoel
ingezonken, bang, vol van ’t kermisgewoel om ’r heen,
waarvan ze niets begreep, had ’m aangestaard. Pal
voor hun avondraampje bleef ’n orgel staan,
beschetterde ’t huisje in dreun van klanken;

„Behuts dicht Got..” met bombarie van trillerige fluit en

hoorn, in sentimenteelen beefgalm van trombone. En
 plots, zóó dwars door ’t orgelgezanik, was vrouw
Hassel uit ’r donker raamhoekje, in snikken
uitgebarsten.—

—Hoho! loopt de waterlaiding nie, had ie

geschreeuwd, of jai d’r wel of d’r nie grient.. roàkt main
kouwe paipe nie.. ik goan,.. Ik goàn d’r! van dit en van
dâ.. ikke mot de kerremis nog ’rais kaike veur ikke de
fier plankies kraig!

—Ker-re-mis? Ker-re-mis?.. snik-stemde zot-suf vrouw

Hassel.

—Jào kèr-rè-mis! kèr-rè-mis! bauwde de Ouë ’r

woedend na;—kaik mins! Nou blaif jai d’r pàl in je
hoekie hee?.. Allejesis.… waif.. je stinkt weer aa’s ’n
mesthoop!.… Nou dan!.… jai f’roert d’r vast gain vin.…
enne je hep d’r ’t hart nie om vuur an te roake! Nou is
d’r puur gain godlaifendige siel in huus! En.. jai blaift
hier.. huhu! in ’t donker.. f’rstoan? want jai bint d’r vast
nie te f’rtrouwe mi licht!.…

—Jai blaift.. jai blaift, stotterde ze na, uit ’r hoekje.. in

zachten snikhuil, één woord nog vasthoudend, zonder
’t zelf te beseffen.—’n Rimpeltje van blijheid was op ’r
oud wijvemasker gegroefd, toen ze ’t orgel nog maar
heel zwak van ver hoorde janken.

—Jai blaift ’n komp d’r nie van je ploats.… hoho!.. ’n

messtuut!.. waa’n stank!.…

—Nie..! nie! van …

—Vàn je ploats! had ie nagebulderd.— [360]

—Ploas.. ploas! teemde ze na, dadelijk, dadelijk weer
vergetend. Woedend werd ouë Gerrit altijd om dat
nabauwen, den laatsten tijd, omdat ie ’r weer
wantrouwelijk, ’n slechtigheidje, ’n
schijnonnoozelheidje achter zocht. Want heèlemaal
vertrouwen, wat z’n spullen in den kelder aanging,
deed ie ’r toch nog niet. En eindelijk na nog ’r
toegesnauwd te hebben, onder ’t uitmaken van de
lamp, dat ze zich niet verroeren zou, en maffen kòn,
zoo veel ze wou, was ie heengegaan.—

Tegen twaalf uur, bij z’n thuiskomst, zat z’n wijf nog
roerloos in den hoek, ingeslonken op ’r stoel, voor ’t
raampje te suf-staren, opschrikkend even toen ze ouë
Gerrit’s scherpe stem hoorde.—Toch had ze geen
vraag gedaan: of ie wegging of terugkwam. Ze kòn
ook niet, omdat ze niets begreep.—

Ze had ’r gezeten, in ’t stikkeduister, vier uur

moederziel alleen, zonder die alleenheid te beseffen.
—In doffen mijmer om niks, ’t hoofd volgeloeid van
gillende oorsuizingen had ze gehuild, schokkerig,
snikkend; dan plots weer stil, bang, haar bangheid niet
beseffend, alleen voelend als ’n onbestemde angst in
d’r lijf.—Ze had ’t pikzwart om ’r heen gezien, pikzwart,
en plots was ’r soms ’n lampiongloei achter haar
raampje, onder lawaai en krijsch voorbijgeschoten.
Dan schrok ze hevig, beefde ze, niet begrijpend wat ’r
gebeuren ging. Zoo was ze vier uur alleen gebleven,
in ’t stik-warme avondkrotje, met ’n aschstinkende
stoof onder ’r beenen uitgegloeid,—tòt de Ouë
inkwam, opgewonden, met razernij van voldanen
hartstocht in z’n oogen.—
 Hij had ’t wel gedacht, dat ze niet aan de lamp zou
raken, omdat ze ’m niet wist te vinden. En toch, nòg
vertrouwde ie ’r niet! Maar dien avond blééf ie in
gloeiende razernij.—

Vlak voor d’r neus stalde ie z’n gestolen rommel uit,

en als ’n bezetene, lachte, huilde, vloekte ie van
genot. Z’n spullen zoende, zoende ie, vóór haar
oogen.

Vrouw Hassel zat weer te kijk-suffen, begroezeld in ’t

lamp-schuwe licht. D’r vervuild bruin japonnetje reepte
op de borst open, en ’n vuil brok hemd slobberde ’r uit.
Haar gedrochtelijke rimpelkop, vergroefd, stond groen-
grauw, en ’r groezel haar flodderde uit d’r morsige
scheef-gezakte steekmuts. Het geteisterde
[361]doorgroefd voorhoofd bewoog nerveus, en ’r
brauwen zenuwden in trilangst.—De Ouë, in ’t
verstilde kamerke jubelde vóór d’r uit, zonder dat ze
besefte wat er gebeurde.—

—Twee prachtige nikkelen dompers, ’n heel stel

koperen vruchtevorkjes, op rood-satijn, er in gegleufd;
twee kleurige kandelabers, ’n nikkelen wekkertje, ’n
rooie doos met spullen d’r in, zonder dat ie wist waar
ze toe dienden; maar ’t had ’r prâchtig staan glimmen,
met aldegoàr gouden slootjes.

’t Roode satijn streelde ie duizend, duizend maal. De

snoezige vorkies prikte ie in de lucht, als ’n dol
speelsch kind. Die had ie met overweldigenden greep,
aarzelenden angst bemeesterd, bij ’n bloedig
vechtpartijtje.—’n Dronken kerel, had z’n mes
getrokken en met genadelooze armzwaaien, woest
 om zich heen gehakt, al maar krijschend dat Jaap de
klapbessen-dief was, en niet hij; nièt hij. Drie lui had ie
al gewond. ’t Was ’n dol geschreeuw geweest, gegil
van ontstelde meiden, toen plots ’n artillerist, den vent
’n mep op z’n pooten verkocht, dat ’t mes uit z’n
klauwen viel. Maar d’r bleef dolle opstuivende
amokangst onder de kermisgangers, grillige paniek,
drom van opstandjes van al soorten menschen, rillend
voor ’t staal; menschen die elkaar in egoïstischen
angststuip knellend verdrongen. Vlak bij ’n groote
verkoopkraam hadden ze den dronken woesteling
neergekieperd, met z’n roggel-kop tegen de keien.—

De agenten met artillerist, zelf half-dronken, boeiden

’m toen de woesteling was begonnen te trappen, en te
razen voor tien dollen te gelijk.—

Op dàt oogenblik was de Ouë, de groote kraam

ingehold, van achter met ’n klinkdeurtje openend. En
pal op de vorkies met hun rood satijn had ie
áángegrepen. ’t Was ’n dolle waag, dat wist ie, maakte
’m zwaarlam van bang-hevig genot. Op ’t moment dat
ie instapte, voelde ie zich stikken. Z’n adem bleef wèg;
hij keek naar niets. En in ziedenden waanzin toch,
stàr, deed ie wat ie moèst doen. Hij wist wel, klaar, dat
ieder ’m kon zien gappen; de juffer, de helpstertjes
allemaal.—Maar ’t kon ’m niet schelen. Eenmaal bij de
glimvorkies, koortsgloeiden z’n handen, jeukte ’n
brand in z’n polsen, en snel, halfstikkend, [362]lam van
aandoening en goddelijk bang genot, pulkten z’n
vingers al tusschen doozen en pakken, rukte ie de
vorkjes naar zich toe. ’t Was gedaan voor ie ’t wist.
Even, heel even wachtte ie op ’n greep in z’n nek,
bons op z’n kop, ’n trap in z’n zij, ’n slag, ’n schreeuw
van: houd ’m! houd ’m.. Maar niks kwam d’r op ’m af!
—

De juffer in ontstelden angst bleef kijken naar den

bloedigen worstel van dronken woesteling, de
helpertjes ook, de menschen er om heen óók. En
niemand zag hem ’t achterdeurtje uitwaggelen,
geslagen van emotie en geluk, het étui zalig tegen z’n
bonzende keel gedrukt.—

Zoo had ie gemoerd, dertien keer, al voorzichtiger en

listiger na den eersten duizelenden gevaar-zwaren
uitval. Maar één ding,—’n rond spiegeltje met
blommetjes beschilderd, bengelend aan ’n vuurrood
lint, en dat ’r van de kraam àf zoo prachtig geschitterd
had,—viel ’m tegen, vond ie noù niet zoo mooi meer.
Het was beslagen, dof-groenig en leelijk tusschen al ’t
andere prachtige in.—Maar de flakonnetjes met
reukwerk, en d’r geslepen randjes en zilveren
spuitdopjes, vond ie fijn, snoezig, kòn ie niet genoeg
beglunderen.—Op z’n tafel had ie den heelen boel
uitgestald. Z’n wijf en z’n duif keek ie om beurten aan.
—Hij besmakte z’n lippen in stikkend-stille pret.—

Vrouw Hassel kwijlde, beklodderde ’r angstmond vol

speeksel dat klefferig afdroop bij de hoeken op ’r kin.
Ze verlikte ’t, traag de slappe tong draaiend om d’r
grauwe lippen.—

Ouë Gerrit keek ’r telkens aan, voelde zich dol-

opgewonden, en in dronken genotspassie, zong ie
valsch-dof mee den kermis-deun.
 —Oaauw- waa’t ’n ska-ande.…

geniepig lachend, dan plots uitschaterend ’n wilden

stroom van woeste verrukking. Hij voelde wel dat ie ’n
beetje gek deed, maar ’t wàs niet zoo.… ’t Most ’r uit,
z’n lol, z’n heerlijke joelende lol. Hij kon d’r van
grienen.—

Plots ging ie dansen als ’n bezetene, de glimmende

en fonkelende spullen in z’n knuisten gekneld, tot ie
hijgend van inspanning [363]ophield, neersmakte op ’n
stoel.—Toch weer dadelijk veerde ie wég.

Vrouw Hassel, òmzuurd in ’n walgstank van bevuiling,

die door ’t avondkamertje rotte als lag ’r ’n beerput
opengegraven, schrok en trilde bij elke beweging van
den Ouë, haàr kant uit. Maar hij rook en zag niets;
zoende z’n spullen met de oogen, grinnikte om wat ie
zoo pienter weer had klaargespeeld. En bij elk stuk
dat ie opnam, kreeg ie weer precies voor zich, hoè hij
’t bemeesterd had, waàr, en tusschen welk geknel.—

’n Groote duitsche pijp had ie al honderdmaal in z’n

mond gestopt en honderdmaal ’t mondstuk met z’n
vingers weer zacht en voorzichtig afgedroogd.—Doller
woelde jubel in ’m op, juist nu alles uitgemoord leek
van stilheid in z’n huis. Guurt bleef wèg, de kerels
bleven wèg, den heelen nacht.

In z’n danspret had ie ’t niet overdekte duifje wakker

getrild in z’n korfje. Even soms, de rood-omschubde
oogjes loerden rond in ’t verlichte nachtkamertje. Heel
zacht verklonk gekoer uit ’t kropje, als geschrei onder
den vloer uitstijgend. Kamerke lag in stomme rust. ’t
Pronkschoorsteentje flonkerde in ’t late lamplicht, en ’t
rood lapje er vóór, bloedde donker èven aangeglansd.
—

Pookstel stond dof te koperen en staartklok tikte, heel

breed en heel loom, onder de lage balken.—

De Ouë, zoo zoet in den nachtsuizel onbeloerd, vrij en

ruim, zonder angst voor gekijk en gestommel uit de
slaapholletjes, voelde zich al zaliger. Straks nog had ie
’t tafeltje met al de portretjes omvergeloopen. Eerst
schrok ie; toen in één wist ie dat ’r niemand in huis
was, geen sterveling die ’m begluurde.

—.… En doàr há’ je nou s’n waif.… dá’ stinkende

mesthoop.… hoho! die heuldegoar kon sain d’r niks
skaile meer! Waa’t ’n morremel.…

In en uit z’n kelder liep ie, draaiend om z’n spullen, ze

tellend en overtellend zoo veel keer ie wou;
geruchtmakend dan hier, dan daar, ’t luik wijd open, en
z’n nachtlampje hoog. Een gloei van stikkend, bijna
wurgend genot schokstootte door z’n [364]keel en z’n
mokerend hoofd, waar ’t bloed door koortste. Z’n
vrouw wou ie wel slaan, uit overtollige kracht en
uitzinnige wreedheid. Hij wou ’r ranselen op ’r dooien
kop, ’r suffe smoel, zoo maar, in jubel. Pal op ’r
smerigen snuit, ’r stinkend lijf, dat ze d’r eindelijk ook
ééns wat van zeggen zou, hoe lekker hij d’r hier
stiekem zijn kermis hield. Z’n lippen smakten, z’n
handen jeukten, jeukten. Z’n oogen brandden gaten in
de lucht. Hij kèek niet, want hij was vlak òp de dingen,
hij was de dingen zèlf. Hij betastte ze met z’n oogen,
zoo sterk als met z’n vingers. Hij voelde ze met z’n
spraak, en hij tastte ze met z’n reuk! Van alle kanten in
z’n demonische zinsbegoocheling, proefde, rook en
vatte ie z’n spullen.

Woester kwam een wulpsch begeeren in ’m

opschroeien om ’t stomme suffe wijf te ranselen, te
knijpen, nou juist, nou in de stilte, ’r beuken tot murf,
dat ’r grauwe smoel ging spreken en zeggen hoe ze ’t
vond, zijn spullen.—

Plots hoonde z’n stem valsch naar d’r toe.

—Hoe vint je ’t waif.. hoho!

Z’n stem klonk wild en scherp in ’t nachtkamertje, en

z’n vrouw, half ingezakt, geslonken lip-puffend op ’r
stoel, antwoordde niet, ronkte blazend. Even daarna
schrok ze recht òp, met staar-doffe oogen die
knipperden tegen ’t groezelende lamplicht. De grauwe
lippen mummelden wat, en d’r gedrochtelijke
angstmond verkwijlde bang gedroom. Ze stamelde
met stem, doorhuiverd van prangenden angst:

—Ikke goan nie mee.… nainet!.…

Nu, in één werd ie bang Ouë Gerrit, voor d’r gestamel

en gestaar; voor d’r grauwen kop die in
zenuwbenauwing verrimpelde en vergroefde als ’n
ijlend mombakkes.—

Eerst had ie heel even gedacht dat ze op zou springen

en ’m zou bestelen als ie ’r daar al die prachtstukken
uit z’n kelder, zoo sarrend-gul liet zien. Hij had z’n
overmoedigen satanischen hoon tegen ’r opgesmakt
 met ’n scherpe vraag: hoè ze z’n spullen vond, en ze
was heel vreemd opgeschrikt. En ze had gekeken, uit
’r hoek, in ’t licht, zoo wild en verschrikkelijk als ze
nooit deed. Was ’t inbeelding van ’m? Nee, neenet! Hij
had [365]’t gevoeld als ’n slag uit ’t duister op z’n snuit
zonder dat ie de hand zag die ’m teisterde.—

Inééns voelde ie zich weer laf, kruiperig laf, klam in

doodsnood. Felle angst beklauterde weer z’n strot,
knelde zich vast om z’n krop, kneep en kneep, en z’n
handen gloeiden als hield ie ze boven ’n komfoor.—

Gauw droeg ie z’n spullen weer naar den kelder terug,

met ’t nachtlampje in z’n bevende hand. Wurgender
omklauwde ’m de angst in de starende stilte van ’t
huisje.

Van de straat verklonk nu en dan kermiskrijsch en

vage zang die ’m sidderen deed. Z’n gedachten
bangden dat ze ’m zouen komen halen.—Alsof ze
alles nageteld hadden op de kermis en gezien dat ze
dertien stuks misten, en dat God hem, hèm had
aangewezen.—

Laf, kleintjes en kruiperig schokte ie òp van elk

geruchtje en ’t duifje had ie kunnen doodslaan om z’n
lam gehuil, z’n dof gekoer.

Maar de stilte drukte op z’n keel. Telkens in ’t

stalduister, heel uit de groen-zwarte diepte, dacht ie
tronies te zien van de lui die hij bestolen had. ’t Was
gekkigheid, ’t kon niet, praatte ie zich zelf in, maar hij
was d’r toch puur van stuur door. En telkens weer
keek ie om, zag ie de schimmige gezichten loeren en
grijnzen, en hoorde ie ze zacht onderdrukt schateren
uit de staldiepte, en al maar kijken op z’n bibberende
angsthanden.

Kleiner, al kleiner in z’n hoon voelde ie zich worden.

Eerst had ie in overmoed z’n wijf willen ranselen.…
Nou, nou was ie blij dat ze niet meer naar ’m keek.
Langszamerhand durfde ie nergens meer heen zien,
om de klamme stilte in huis; stilte die ’m deed rillen en
huiveren van al stijgender angst. Soms trapte ie, in
doodsnood zelf tegen de tafelpooten, om de vale
drukkende zwijg te breken. Maar dan beefde ie weer
van ’t vertrillende gerucht, en gluurde naar z’n wijf of
zij ook hèm bekeek.

Hij zweette, klam, bibberend, bevangen in ’n

tergenden nood die ’m stikken deed. Met één sprong
holde ie naar z’n bedstee.. ’t Moest uit zijn … Maar ’t
duisterde weer zoo naar voor z’n [366]oogen.…
Allemaal zwarte dingen zag ie op zich afspringen;
slangetjes en kriebelige wormpjes!

In dollen angst holde ie naar z’n wijf. Nou moest zij ’m

beschermen. Zacht stootte hij haar op, wrong ’r de
stinkende rokken los, en strompelde haar naar de
bedstee. Hij hield ’t zoo niet langer uit. Stikken, gillen
zou ie van angst, gillend krijschen, door de heele
buurt, dat hij de dief was, hij de dief, van de bollen,
van àl de spullen, hij en niemand anders.—

Maar als z’n wijf nou maar in bed lag, zou hij, achter
d’r rug zich kunnen verschuilen, zoo heelemaal gedekt
door háár.—En sidderen kon ie van zich zelf als ie ’r
aan dacht, dat ie ’r straks nog had willen ranselen,
ranselen van lol en jubel, dat suffe stomme wijf, dat ie
nou noodig had.—

Vrouw Hassel was in ’r afgezakte rokkenrommel voor

’t bed gestrompeld, staar, suf, lippuffend. En Ouë
Gerrit kwam, vlak àchter d’r stinkenden donkeren rug
aansjokken in z’n onderbroek, dicht z’n oogen, z’n
ooren met de beefhanden gedekt.

Angst verstòmde z’n spraak; hij wou wàt zeggen,

maar ’r verheeschte klankloos gestamel. Eindelijk, na
uren van marteling viel hij in nachtmerrie-sluimer.—

Bang van z’n eigen eerste felheid en latere lafheid

tegelijk, stond ie den volgenden morgen, gebroken òp.
Dat satanisch uurtje doorspookte z’n brein nog lang.
Lamgeslagen, overal pijnlijk, doolde ie rond op ’t land,
stom hier en daar wat plukkend van z’n boonen.—

[Inhoud]

II.

Den dag vóór dat kermis uit Wiereland verzonk in ’n

hurrie van afbraak, vernevelde in nastank van baksel,
kwam ouë Gerrit bleek-grauw van woede op de
akkers, recht af op Dirk en Piet, tusschen de
moffenboonen.

—Wie, beefde in toornige stikking z’n stem, wie hew

d’r van jullie.. van main geld gapt?.. wie?.. hòho!!
Hij stikte bijna van drift. Dirk keek òp naar den Ouë, uit
[367]z’n knielhouding. Z’n kop en wit-blond haar, lichtte
in zonnigheid en z’n koe-oogen lodderden verbaasd.
—

—Mô je main?

—Wie hep d’r vaiftig pop stole! vaiftig pop! hoho!

vaiftig pop! ikke bin d’r daas van!.. ik sink!.. ik sink! gàif
t’rug! t’rug! main gèld! t’rug, of ikke bin d’r in ’n moànd
kepot! diefetuig!—Z’n gezicht stond nu gipsbleek; z’n
kaken sidderden, en z’n krommige rug bochelde
gewrongen in smartelijken buk, verouêlijkt, gebroken.
Er lag driftig geween in z’n schreeuwstem, en z’n
oogen huilden. Ze hadden ’t samen gedaan, Dirk en
Piet, om ’t wat ruimer te hebben, tot ’t laatst toe, voor
de meiden, en om niet kleiner te zijn dan de gullere
maar rijkere neefs.—Ze voelden hun schuld wel, maar
toch verwachtten ze niet veel praatjes van den Ouë.—

—Wâ mot dâ skraiwe! lief je je bek te houê? of da pakt

aêr skeef uit! dreigde Dirk, wai moste je loodpot
anspreke.. omdâ je nooit meer aa’s twee kwartjes
sakduut gaift!..

—Twee kwartjes?.. hoho! en wa jullie main d’r bestaile

van de Markt.. en je suip.. en je koartspul!

—Is da skraiwe, raasde Piet, is d’r puur of d’r moord

lait op de ruimte! nog ééne segsel.. enne wai smakke
de boel veur de waireld! Hai jai nooit nie ’n duitje
ganneft aas knoap hee? Stom, afgebluft bleef ie voor
zich uitstaren ouë Gerrit, stom over zulke gewetens.
Dat waren nou z’n eigen jongens.
 Hij huilde, snikte stil van woede en benauwing. En
vloeken, vloeken wou ie de kermis, die de kerels zoo
liederlijk achteròp zette in ’t werk. Want ze hurkten
voor dood tusschen de paadjes. En nou, met
hartbonzenden schrik had ie hun diefstal bemerkt.
Hoe moest ie dàt bijleggen? Z’n land, z’n pacht, z’n
hypotheek, z’n ouë schuld? Dat was nou net z’n geld
voor ’n gedeelte hooi waar ie al ’n maand telaat mee
was. Al dringender en brutaler had de notaris ’m
gemaand en gezegd dat ie niet langer wachten kòn op
z’n geld, omdat ie al zooveel achter was.—

En nou weer dàt hypotheekie van dokter Troost.. en

de rente van z’n eigen land, dat toch al lang niet meer
van hèm was, omdat ie z’n tweede hypotheek al met
de jaren opgevreten [368]had … Hij zou d’r vast dol
worden op die manier.—

De kerels begapten ’m; de boonen stonden laat, de

boonen die ’m alles moesten goed maken over dit
jaar.—En de kerels geradbraakt. Nou had ie ’r nog bij
gehoord dat de kerels iederen avond met de Grintjes
hadden gescharreld. Als Dirk bij Geert of Trijn nou
eens ’n kind had verwekt! Dan lag hij voor de wereld!
Dan ging ie trouwen, bleef hij d’r alleen met Piet, die
ook z’n meid fastoenneerde. En van Guurt hoorde ie
ook gekke dingen; dat ze zwanger sat van soo’n bleek
skreteriemannetje.. ’t Most maar gaan hoe ’t wou!

Want nou barstte z’n heele rommel uit mêkaar. Zijn

baaszijn; ’n stuk rechts van den grond voor die, ’n stuk
links voor die, àls ie z’n lap houen mocht,—en dan hij,
met ’t stankwijf in ’n hoek van ’t huis getrapt.