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Self-Efficacy and
Success: Narratives of
Adults with Disabilities
Erez C. Miller · Efrat Kass

Self-Efficacy and Success: Narratives of Adults
with Disabilities
Erez C. Miller • Efrat Kass
Self-Efficacy and
Success: Narratives
of Adults with
Disabilities
Erez C. Miller Efrat Kass
Achva Academic College Mofet Institute
Arugot, Israel Tel Aviv, Israel
ISBN 978-3-031-14964-1 ISBN 978-3-031-14965-8 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14965-8
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
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Erez: To my loving and supporting wife, Ronit; to my parents, who
contributed so much to my education; and to my children, who are still
trying to figure out why I enjoy and learn so much from research and
writing.
Efrat: I dedicate this book to my beloved family: it is your love that moves
my world and gives me strength and happiness.
Preface
Despite being one of 11 siblings, losing his mother at the age of five
because of a car accident and his father at the age of 11 because of illness,
and having contracted polio at a young age, Arik Pinto grew to be a lead-
ing wheelchair basketball coach. The story of his life and career was pub-
lished over the years in many interviews in the Israeli press. In 2008, he
coached the Israeli wheelchair basketball team that secured the sixth place
at the 2008 Paralympic games in Beijing against all odds. Later, he served
as Chief Executive Officer of one of Israel’s major banks for four years.
Despite significant difficulties when walking, and using a wheelchair, Mr
Pinto does not view himself as a person with a disability and relentlessly
pursued his personal and professional dreams. He believes that only those
who dare win. Life stories like Mr Pinto’s were the starting point of our
study and this book.
From the day we are born, we face various tasks—some simple, others
more complicated. Often (either subconsciously or consciously), we ask
ourselves whether we are up to the task—be it a test at school, a football
match, or whether we will do well at the new job we are applying for.
People who developed over the years the knowledge, the experience, the
skills, the talents, and the emotional resources will have a higher sense of
self-efficacy and will cope better with the tasks and challenges they face.
However, some people had a different starting point that required them,
vii
viii Preface
because of various childhood disabilities, to cope with greater and some-

times more complex challenges if they wanted to experience success.
Meeting some of these people at different ages as part of our professional
experiences led us to the interest in conducting the research and write
this book.
Let each of us share with you our perspective on this issue.
Erez: In 1987, the movie Children of a Lesser God was screened in
Israel. I was fascinated and inspired by the relationship between the
teachers James Leeds and Sarah, the Deaf young woman. This film kept
resonating with me and I started taking Israeli Sign Language classes and
became gradually involved with the Deaf community in Tel Aviv. It was
then only natural that I enrolled in an undergraduate program for Deaf
education at Tel Aviv University, during which I was also certified as a
sign language interpreter. I was so captivated by Deaf culture that I con-
tinued my education for a master’s degree in Deaf education at Gallaudet
University in Washington, D.C. Then I made the transition from special
education to developmental and educational psychology at Boston
College for my Ph.D. and chose to focus on the development of children
and youth with disabilities and their families.
When I completed my Ph.D. programme at Boston College in 1998,
I was very enthusiastic about quantitative research. However, as I returned
to Israel and became a practising school psychologist of children and
youth with special needs, I started appreciating the importance and value
of personal, subjective narratives of the children and families that I have
met. It always intrigued me to learn what helped them overcome many
personal, familial, and societal challenges. Later on, I became gradually
interested in qualitative research, especially in narrative research. For the
last 22 years, I was fortunate to cooperate with two esteemed colleagues
on various research projects, both of whom taught with me at the
Department of Special Education at Achva Academic College: Prof.
Amos Fleischmann and Prof. Efrat Kass. Each of them, with their unique
style and approach to qualitative research and writing, taught me many
valuable lessons, and we presented at international conferences and pub-
lished our studies on coping of people with disabilities and their families,
as well as on self-efficacy and motivations to become a special education
Preface ix
teacher. It was through my close professional and personal friendship

with Prof. Efrat Kass that I profoundly more understood the contribu-
tion of self-efficacy to people’s development and performance. It was only
natural for us to combine our interests and propose a study that will focus
on successful people with disabilities. Perhaps the saddest part of the
study was the understanding that we had reached saturation—that is, we
needed no more interviews, as the themes we revealed began repeating
themselves. Since we have completed the study, every time we come
across a news report about a successful athlete with disabilities or a social
or a business leader with disabilities, we continued to share with each
other that information, as these stories continue to intrigue and inspire us.
Efrat: We can say that this book is the conclusion of a two-year study
that we conducted together, but in fact it is a milestone in a long journey
spanning several decades that I went through in my professional aca-
demic and personal life.
I began my professional career as a special education high school
teacher. Already then, without knowing the term self-efficacy, I was con-
cerned with issues relating to this concept regarding my students and my
budding teaching experience. Then I studied for my graduate degree in
school counselling, which was the beginning of my academic career, spe-
cialising in teacher training. My doctoral dissertation, which was super-
vised by Prof. Itzhak Friedman who introduced me to the concept of
self-efficacy and was my academic mentor for many years, focused on the
question: What are the factors that strengthen or weaken teachers’
self-efficacy?
Thus, over the last three decades, I conducted many studies of different
populations such as teachers, educational clinical supervisors, and sol-
diers in army special forces. I also taught about it and invested many
hours in reading and reviewing articles and research proposals on this
issue. Perhaps it was not by chance that I married a man named Efi Kass
(pronounced just like efficacy without the ‘i’ at the end—ˈe-fi-kə-s), my
beloved husband. I presented papers on self-efficacy at international con-
ferences around the world and taught self-efficacy to many students in
undergraduate and graduate programmes in education over the years. In
fact, when I reflect upon it, I understand I was involved in issues relating
x Preface
to self-efficacy cognitively, emotionally, and practically all my life.

Questions such as the following are common: Can I, a nine-year-old girl,
work hard on my parents’ farm in the village where I grew up and at the
same time study properly at school? Can I, as an adult woman, study in
a doctoral programme with three young children and a full-time job?
And more recently, am I capable of coping with cancer? Can I combine
in my life both the academic world and the world of art that I love? At
every stage in my life, these existential efficacy-related questions accom-
panied me.
The content of these questions may change, of course, from one person
to another, but I believe every person comes across such a question sim-
ply because many times they face various novel challenges. We all need to
cope every day with various small and big questions about our efficacy to
perform certain tasks. Sometimes we can figure it out quickly, because
the task is fairly simple. At other times, we face more complex, demand-
ing issues such as becoming a parent or a manager or undertaking a com-
plex project. Then we can find it difficult to respond quickly what is our
sense of self-efficacy is regarding this task. So, sometimes people give up
when confronted with difficulties because they tell themselves that they
do not have the skills, or experience, or training, or education, or any
other resources that are required to perform successfully the task ahead.
Thus, when we thought of studying how people with various severe child-
hood disabilities became occupationally successful, and what strength-
ened their sense of self-efficacy, I was very excited about undertaking this
unique project. These people, who had to cope with such immense physi-
cal, social, and societal challenges, did not give up on themselves. It made
me wonder who helped them on their journey. Who were the surround-
ing people who supported them and strengthened their sense of efficacy
and helped them overcome barriers and obstacles? When were their per-
sonal features that strengthened their sense of efficacy and prevented
them from succumbing to their disability? We thought we could learn a
lot from them when we will learn how they view their life journey through
their narratives. Indeed, we were not disappointed. We have met inspir-
ing people, whose insights from their experiences can benefit other peo-
ple, both people with disabilities and body-abled people. We present
Preface xi
these insights in this book according to certain topics that arose from
their narratives through excerpts from the interviews. These insights are
accompanied by current academic knowledge about the following three
main interrelated issues: self-efficacy, occupation and employment of
people with disabilities, and success. We hope that you will be as excited
as us to ‘meet’ these amazing people through their narratives, will benefit
from the insights of our study that apply to most people, and will enrich
their professional knowledge about self-efficacy and how to reach success.
Arugot, Israel Erez C. Miller

Tel Aviv, Israel Efrat Kass
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the research authority of Mofet Institute in Tel

Aviv, Israel, for its support in funding of this study.
We are grateful to all the brave and inspiring people who participated
in our study and shared their life stories with us.
xiii
About the Book
This book was conceived after exciting research that we conducted. We

were curious to learn what helped develop the self-efficacy of people with
severe childhood disabilities who attained occupation success. Our study
was based on in-depth interviews with men and women who coped from
an early age with a disability, such as blindness, physical disability (cere-
bral palsy or polio), autism, severe learning disabilities, attention-deficit
hyperactivity disorder, and deafness. Because their narratives were so
inspiring, and the insights revealed from the data were more important
than this particular study, we decided to expand our writing and create
this book. Thus, this book focuses on several main issues: sense of self-
efficacy, success and occupational success in particular, and people with a
severe childhood disability.
The book comprises of four parts. Except for the first part and Chap. 12
in the fourth part, which are theoretically oriented, all other chapters com-
bine academic knowledge based on recent studies and statistical informa-
tion gathered around the world and examples from our participants’
narratives. Some chapters present more complete aspects of the interview-
ees’ life stories, though naturally we did not include an entire interview
due to their length. In addition, in several chapters throughout the book,
we included practical recommendations for teachers, service providers,
and employers who work with pupils and adults with disabilities—how to
strengthen their sense of efficacy and help them attain success.
xv
xvi About the Book
The first part of the book presents the key terms and concepts and
examines them from several theoretical perspectives. Each chapter was
written as a funnel, from the general to the specific topic of this book,
that is, focusing on people with disabilities.
The first chapter is dedicated to the notion of success. What is success
and how do different researchers define it? And what do we know from
research about success among people with disabilities, since attaining
success obviously requires a different way of coping and overcoming bar-
riers than nondisabled people?
The second chapter focuses on the concept of sense of self-efficacy and
then discusses specifically occupational self-efficacy, stemming from
Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. This concept represents a very
comprehensive and well-studied theory, and discussing it at length is
beyond the scope of this book. Thus, we begin with a definition of self-
efficacy and then examine the difference between it and similar concepts.
Next, we focused on how self-efficacy is expressed among pupils with
disabilities. At the end of the chapter, we examined how sense of self-
efficacy is manifested in the occupation of people with disabilities. A
more comprehensive discussion on employment of people with disabili-
ties is detailed in later chapters.
The second part, which focuses on school years, combines both theory
and illustrations from the interviews. In this part, you can read about the
experiences of these people from kindergarten, elementary school, and
high school. Chapter 3 focuses on the formal education system and pres-
ents our findings on the factors that supported these people as pupils and
what were the accommodations that helped them to be meaningfully
included at school. We discuss the efficacy-enhancing messages that edu-
cational figures delivered to these pupils with disabilities and, finally, who
were those people in the formal education systems who fought for them
as agents of change.
The fourth chapter focuses on figures and support factors outside the
formal education systems, such as volunteers and professionals in the
community who taught and supported the development and functioning
of the interviewees in elementary and high school.
The fifth chapter examines the contribution of parents of children with
disabilities to the enhancement of self-efficacy: the influence of the
About the Book xvii
parents on the academic aspirations of their children, their dedication,

and their efficacy-enhancing messages.
One of the major challenges reflected in many of the narratives we col-
lected was coping with social relations and loneliness. Thus, the sixth
chapter focuses on three aspects of this issue: loneliness and its impact on
development, loneliness among people with disabilities who are often
marginalised socially, and the importance of social support.
The seventh chapter discusses the academic challenges and effective
inclusive practices for the types of pupils with disabilities included in our
study. In this chapter, we discuss the needs and accommodations that
pupils with different types of disabilities require, as they have very differ-
ent needs. Then we discuss the implications and consequences of misdi-
agnosis or an accurate but delayed diagnosis. On a more optimistic note,
we then present current and future trends in inclusive education for
pupils with disabilities. Still, it is important to note that since we inter-
viewed adults with disabilities, most of them did not benefit from many
advancements in inclusive educational policies and practices. The chapter
concludes with some practical recommendations for educational teams
who work with pupils with disabilities.
The eighth chapter focuses on the individual traits and competencies,
in particular the importance of a sense of self-efficacy: how challenges
experienced in childhood helped develop and strengthen their sense of
self-efficacy. Then we present some personal traits or skills, such as perse-
verance and self-advocacy, that contributed to the success of the people
we interviewed. This chapter concludes by describing some unique tal-
ents or characteristics the participants shared with us that strengthened
their sense of self-efficacy and their ability to achieve success.
Higher education is the focus of the third part of the book. The ninth
chapter discusses the challenges that our participants faced in college and
the supports they received. The challenges they reported included the
transition from high school to college and how their sense of self-efficacy
helped them. Although we started writing the book before the breakout
of COVID-19 and schools’ lockdowns, we thought that online learning
holds promise for students with disabilities (which later became relevant
over time). Finally, we examined the role of faculty and administrators in
supporting and accommodating students with disabilities.
xviii About the Book
The fourth and final part of the book includes two chapters and focuses
on the employment of people with disabilities. In Chap. 10 we present
the challenges that people with disabilities face when the endeavour is to
gain meaningful and respectful employment and how they cope with
these challenges. Then we discuss factors that support effective and
respectful inclusion in the labour force.
Chapter 11 examines the course of developing a successful career
among people with disabilities. We discuss the following topics: What are
the factors that enable and support a successful career? What are some
models and training programmes around the world that enable people
with disabilities to gain employment? What are the recommendations
that will increase their inclusion in the labour force? Next, we discuss
how employers can be educated about the contributions of people with
disabilities to their organisations and about accommodations in the
workplace that can increase the recruitment and retainment of people
with disabilities. Finally, we discuss the benefits and challenges of entre-
preneurship for people with disabilities.
The Covid-19 pandemic had a tremendous impact on various aspects
of life for people around the globe. In Chap. 12, we discuss one aspect of
the impact of the pandemic that has been affecting all aspects of life
around the world. While we conducted our research prior to COVID-19,
recent studies indicate how the pandemic affected the employment of
people with disabilities, using information and examples from different
places around the world. This chapter also proposes recommendations
for employers to mitigate the transition to working from home for people
with disabilities in certain office jobs.
The final chapter of this book, Chap. 13, is based on our experience in
conducting our study with people with disabilities. In this chapter, we
discuss several ethical issues and dilemmas that interest researchers who
design a study with people with disabilities.
At the end of the book, you can find an index of various terms, as well
as the list of references and sources cited. Then, in Appendix A, we dis-
cuss the methodology used in our study. Finally, in Appendix B, we pre-
sented a brief description of some of the ethical dilemmas we coped with
when conducting the study upon which this book was based.
Contents
Part I Introduction to Success, Self-efficacy and People with

Disabilities 1
1 S
uccess 3
1.1 What Is Success? 3
1.2 Success Among People with Disabilities 4
References 5
2 Self-Efficacy
as a Source of Success 9
2.1 What Is Self-Efficacy? 9
2.2 Differentiating Between Self-Efficacy and Related
Concepts 11
2.3 Sense of Self-Efficacy of Students with Disabilities in
the Educational System 14
2.4 Occupational Self-Efficacy 14
Occupational Self-Efficacy Among People with
Disabilities 15
References 17
xix
xx Contents
Part II The School Years 21
3 F
ormal Education 23
3.1 Educational Figures: Willingness to Fight for Pupils’
Rights and Dedication for Their Success 23
3.2 Efficacy-Enhancing Messages 26
3.3 Supports and Accommodations 28
References 30
4 Support
from Professionals Outside the Educational
System 33
References 35
5 Parents’
Contribution: Parental Effects, Parents’
Dedication, Efficacy-Enhancing Messages 37
5.1 Parents’ Effects on Their Children’s Academic
Aspirations 37
5.2 Parents’ Dedication 39
5.3 Parents’ Efficacy-Enhancing Messages 41
References 44
6 Coping
with Social Challenges and Loneliness 47
6.1 The Importance of Social Support 51
References 61
7 Academic
Challenges of Pupils with Disabilities
and Effective Inclusive Practices 63
7.1 Pupils with Physical Disabilities 64
7.2 Pupils with Autistic Spectrum Disorder 69
7.3 Pupils with Learning Disabilities 77
7.4 Pupils with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) 83
7.5 Pupils with Blindness or Low Vision 89
Environmental Factors 105
Internal and Personality Factors 106
Contents xxi
7.6 The Consequences of Misdiagnosis and Delayed

Diagnosis108
7.7 Current and Future Trends in Inclusive Education 119
7.8 Recommendations for Practitioners 122
References124
8 Inner
Strengths: The Importance of Self-Efficacy,
Character Strengths, and Unique Traits133
8.1 The Importance of Self-Efficacy 134
Familial Challenges as Building Character and
Self-Efficacy 135
8.2 Self-Determination 141
8.3 Self-Advocacy 146
8.4 Perseverance 153
8.5 Unique Skills 154
References158
Part III Higher Education Years 161
9 C
hallenges and Supports163
9.1 Transitioning from High School to College 163
9.2 What Can Help College Students with Disabilities
Succeed?164
9.3 Distance Learning and Students with Disabilities 169
9.4 The Role of Faculty and Administrators in Supporting
Students with Disabilities in Postsecondary Education 173
References174
Part IV Career and Employment of People with Disabilities 177
10 Challenges
that People with Disabilities Face Regarding
Employment and Career Development and Venues to
Overcome Them179
10.1 Barriers to Employment Among People
with Disabilities 180
xxii Contents
10.2 Internal Factors That Support Employment Among

People with Disabilities 185
References189
11 Developing
a Successful Career Among People with
Disabilities191
11.1 Factors Contributing to the Development of a
Successful Career by People with Disabilities 192
Training and Support Programmes 192
Recommendations to Enhance the Employability of
Educating Employers About the Importance and
Benefits of Employing People with Disabilities 198
Accommodations in the Workplace 200
11.2 Benefits and Challenges of Entrepreneurship for
References206
12 Employment
Challenges and Solutions for People with
Disabilities During COVID-19 Pandemic211
References215
13 Some
Ethical Dilemmas When Conducting Interviews
with People with Disabilities217
References219
A
fterword221
Appendix 1: Designing and Implementing the Study225

Appendix 2: Some Ethical Dilemmas When Conducting
Interviews with People with Disabilities231
I ndex235
About the Authors
Erez C. Miller, Ph.D., is a senior lecturer at Achva Academic College,

specialising in special education, school psychology, and narrative
research. Formerly a sign language interpreter for the Deaf in Israel, he
graduated from Gallaudet University in Washington, D.C., with a mas-
ter’s degree in education for the deaf and from Boston College with
Ph.D. in educational and developmental psychology. Miller teaches at
the departments of special education (undergraduate and graduate stud-
ies) and at the department of psychology. His research focuses on coping
processes of individuals with disabilities at various ages and their families.
Miller presented his work in conferences around the world and published
several articles in leading journals. He is married, a father of two children,
and loves off-road cycling and cooking for friends and family.
Efrat Kass, Associate Professor, started her educational career as a spe-
cial education teacher at a high school and then as an elementary school
education counsellor. For the past 30 years, she has trained students for
teaching in undergraduate and graduate programmes. During the last 10
years, she is a member of the Intercollegiate Research Committee of
Mofet Institute in Tel Aviv. In that capacity, she evaluates research pro-
posals from all academic teacher training colleges in Israel and writes
reviews about them. Her Ph.D. from the Hebrew University in Jerusalem
xxiii
xxiv About the Authors
focused on teacher’s self-efficacy, and during the last three decades she
taught about and investigated the issue of self-efficacy in many
populations.Her specialisations are the development of self-efficacy in
schools, teacher training, and bibliotherapy. She has published three
books and many articles and has presented her scientific work in many
conferences around the world. She is married, a mother, a grandmother,
and an artist.
Introduction
The viewpoint which we chose for our book can demonstrate the impor-
tance of individual self-efficacy beliefs regarding performance and occu-
pational success among people with disabilities.
Using the simile of a siphon, and approaching this issue from a more
general perspective to a more specific one, this introduction lays out the
main concepts and theories discussed in this book. Thus, it will help the
readers understand the underpinning issues that led us to the focus of this
book. The first part of the introduction will examine the role and impor-
tance of self-efficacy and occupational self-efficacy in general.
In the second part of the introduction, we will discuss the transition
from the medical model of disability to a model of social inclusion and
human rights. This significant change enabled people with disabilities to
gain higher education, enter the labour market, and live their lives in a
much more meaningful and valuable way.
The premise of this book is based on the theory that developed around
the concept of a sense of self-efficacy. This theory stems from Bandura’s
social cognitive theory and was the basis of numerous studies around the
world that investigated various life domains, especially in education. In
many respects, this theory gives us, as humans, both hope and encourage-
ment. It also provides us with well-defined tools for ways to improve our
lives, fulfil our goals, and attain success. A sense of self-efficacy is the
xxv
xxvi Introduction
belief people have about their ability to organise and perform the behav-
iours necessary to achieve the results they desire in future situations
(Bandura, 1997). Regarding people with disabilities, there are many
studies on this issue (e.g., Russak et al., 2017; Tihic et al., 2021).
Nevertheless, there is relatively little research on self-efficacy of occupa-
tionally successful people with disabilities (Lyons & Bandura, 2019).
Sense of Self-Efficacy as a Mediating Factor in

Successful Employment
The personal belief that one can perform a job-related task or role prop-
erly in future situations is occupational self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997).
Perera and colleagues (2018) added to this definition the notion that self-
efficacy also pertains to performing the task effectively. Thus, people with
a high sense of self-efficacy are more likely to effectively complete the task
they are expected to perform. In many respects, self-efficacy serves as a
personal drive to perform better and improve the individual’s learning
and skills and is one of the key factors in occupational success.
Furthermore, some studies suggest that a high sense-of self-efficacy will
affect factors such as organisational citizenship behaviour and employee
satisfaction (e.g., Kim et al., 2019). Thus, occupational self-efficacy refers
to employees’ belief of their capability to not only perform their desired
goals but also execute the organisation’s goals effectively. A sense of
belonging to the organisation and work engagement combined with self-
efficacy was found to increase the employees’ personal initiatives, which
in turn increased the employees’ performance (Lisbona et al., 2018). In
addition, self-efficacy, specifically creative self-efficacy, has a mediating
role in the association between employee creativity and the organisation’s
climate of innovation (Jaiswal & Dhar, 2015).
The self-efficacy of people with disabilities may be hampered due to
various societal and institutional factors, including discrimination, lower
expectations, difficulty acquiring the necessary educational and training
resources compared to their nondisabled peers, and so on.
However, according to Lyons and Bandura (2019), there is little atten-
tion to the importance of supervisors’ and managers’ role in supporting
Introduction xxvii
the development of employees’ self-efficacy through direct advice.

According to Jaiswal and Dhar (2015), when receiving a supportive inno-
vation climate, employees with high creative-self-efficacy were more
likely to demonstrate creative behaviour. We believe that the organisa-
tion’s climate, policies, and the direct support and advice from supervi-
sors are particularly important for the development of occupational
self-efficacy among employees with disabilities.
Na-Nan and Sanamthong (2019) argue that despite its importance,
the relationship between self-efficacy and employee job performance is
unclear. Based on their findings, they suggested that when designing and
implementing transfer training for effective employee job performance,
organisations should consider contributing factors such as self-efficacy,
perceived workplace support, motivation, and transfer of training.
This book reveals the internal and external factors that contributed to
the enhancement of sense of self-efficacy of people with disabilities who
gained occupational success in various domains.
The paradigmatic shift from the medical model to the social-humanistic
model of disability and to critical disability studies
Viewing disability as a medical condition that resides within the indi-
vidual and can be remedied or treated to some extent through interven-
tions is referred to as the medical model. This model has long been
criticised, due to its oversight of various internal and external factors that
affect individuals’ disability status, their development, functioning, and
ability to gain meaningful inclusion in society.
Current views of disability perceive it as a social construct. According
to the social-humanistic model, which later evolved into critical dis-
ability studies model, disability status occurs when the individual
functions below certain thresholds defined by institutions and societal
factors. Disabling barriers must be examined in light of processes and
structures of social discrimination and oppression. Thus, disability is a
consequence of the interplay between personal and environmental fac-
tors (Barnes, 2019).
Similarly, the World Health Organization defines disability as the
‘[d]isability results from the interaction between individuals with a health
condition, such as cerebral palsy, Down syndrome and depression, with
personal and environmental factors including negative attitudes,
xxviii Introduction
inaccessible transportation and public buildings, and limited social sup-

port’ (World Health Organization). The gradual shift from the medical
model to the social-humanistic model helped expand societal perspec-
tives and responsibilities regarding people with disabilities. Thus, there
are different theoretical perspectives of looking at the lives of people with
disabilities and the challenges they face. According to Shildrick (2019),
critical disability studies theory (CDS) requires us to rethink the use of
the terms ‘disabled’ and ‘nondisabled’, not only ethically but ontologi-
cally, at the core of our understanding of self and other. She contends that
people with disabilities are still targets of prevalent alienation, discrimi-
nation, and oppression. She also speaks of the risks of a binary perception
of disability and emphasises the diversity among people with disabilities.
In her words: ‘What qualifies as a disability in any case varies greatly
according to the socio-historical and geopolitical context, and even in a
single location the designation remains stubbornly multi-faceted and
resistant to definition in terms of both its boundaries and meanings’ (p. 3).
Taking a different perspective, Erickson and Macmillan (2018)
used the life-course model to suggest that young people with physical
disabilities may have prolonged school-to-work pathways. That is due
to insufficient life-course fundamental building blocks that lead to
modest educational attainment and slower transition to the labour
force. They also suggest that in an economy that emphasises cognitive
rather than physical capabilities, cognitive disability may create disad-
vantages that accumulate over the individual’s life course. Thus, in
their view, ‘disability stands out as a key factor structuring the life
course’ (p. 208).
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
policy (2018), international frameworks dedicated to the social develop-
ment of people with disabilities and their human rights are committed to
their inclusion. This is essential to ensure the principle of ‘leaving no one
behind’ of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and also makes
important contributions to economic development. As the International
Labour Organization estimates have shown, if the employment of per-
sons with disabilities, as a group, will be raised to the level of persons
Introduction xxix
without disabilities, then economies will benefit from between 3% and

7% increase in the gross domestic product. The 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development pays significant attention to persons with dis-
abilities, including in its Sustainable Development Goal 8 on inclusive
growth and decent work for all people, with or without disabilities. This
vision was developed before the COVID-19 pandemic, which has had
significant effects on all societies, economies, and employment. Thus,
this book concludes with a discussion on the effects of COVID-19 on the
employment of people with disabilities.
In light of the transition from the medical model to the social-
humanistic model, the issue of efficacy cannot be overemphasised. People
with disabilities are motivated to gain meaningful and satisfactory
employment and are able to contribute to the labour market, earn a liv-
ing, and thus lead a life of self-fulfilment and satisfaction. The question
we raise is how we can enhance the sense of self-efficacy of children with
disabilities so that when they grow up—their path will lead them to a
meaningful inclusion in all aspects of life, including a successful employ-
ment and career.
We believe that the narratives of the inspiring and successful people
with childhood disabilities included in this book will help others with
disabilities believe in their ability to succeed in their careers, to fulfil their
dreams, to gain a decent income, and to experience their disability as a
challenge that should not and must not prevent them to succeed.
In addition, researchers and faculty could use the extensive and updated
literature review in various parts of this book when discussing the
enhancement of self-efficacy of people with disability and their
employability.
The message of our book is hope—as the changes in perceptions, poli-
cies, and sociocultural conditions enable more people with disabilities to
cope with fewer barriers in postsecondary education and training, and
when entering the labour market.
The poet Erez Biton, who has been blind since childhood, wrote about
the galloping horse that abides in every blind person (Biton, 2015). This
poem resonates the desire of many people with disabilities not to let their
disability to become an obstacle in their pathway to leading a successful,
meaningful life.
xxx Introduction
At the conclusion of this introduction, we would like to refer to our

choice of methodology—using qualitative methods enabled us to bring
to you the authentic voice of the unique people we interviewed. Listening
to their voices, which we bring forth in various parts of this book, can
best express their feelings for, and their thoughts and perceptions of, their
life journey. We believe that when you will read the stories of these inspir-
ing people, you, too, will be able to sense in some way the same excite-
ment we felt when we met them.
References
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Books/Henry Holt & Co.
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and future. In N. Watson & S. Vehmas (Eds.), Routledge handbook of disabil-
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Studies, 9(2), 188–211.
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Introduction xxxi
transfer and transfer of training. International Journal of Quality & Reliability

Management, 37(1), 1–17.
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Part I
Introduction to Success,
Self-efficacy and People with
Disabilities
1
Success
1.1 What Is Success?

The aspiration of most people around the world is to succeed in life. But
what is success? How is it defined? Who defines it? And how is it mea-
sured? Success could have very different meanings in various domains
and contexts: success in one’s career may be very different from success in
family life or academics. In addition, success can have very different mean-
ings during different times in life or for different social classes and cul-
tures. Different cultures may emphasise different aspects of success, such
as doing well in academics or in sports (e.g., Ryan et al., 2010). In this
book we focused on occupational success in its broader sense, including
career success. How is career success defined and operationalised? Is it the
accumulation of positive work and psychological results based on a per-
son’s work experiences, as Seibert and Kraimer (2001) suggest? Or, per-
haps, workplace success is both objective and subjective, as Teodorescu
et al. (2017) suggest. According to them, extrinsic indicators of success
constitute objective success. These accomplishments can be evaluated
objectively by others and include measures such as a high annual income,
earning competitive credentials, or holding respected or well-recognised
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

E. C. Miller, E. Kass, Self-Efficacy and Success: Narratives of Adults with Disabilities,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14965-8_1
4 E. C. Miller and E. Kass
positions in an organisation. But these are all accomplishments and are

not necessarily equal to a career success. In contrast, intrinsic indicators
of career success are subjective and include people’s subjective evaluation
of their career achievements. These indicators typically include self-report
measures such as job or career satisfaction, hopefully a job that fulfils
one’s values. Personal perspectives on success may include contribution to
society, family relations, self-fulfilment, professional fulfilment, security,
interpersonal achievements, and so on (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986;
Parker & Chusmir, 1992; Shockley et al., 2016). It should be noted that
personal definitions of success (especially career success) may be influ-
enced by gender (e.g., Khilji & Pumroy, 2019; Schmitt, 2020), class and
cultural background (e.g., Zhang & Cross, 2011), and the type of
employment (private and self-employment sectors compared to the pub-
lic sector; Abele et al., 2011). Arthur et al. (2005) defined career success
as the ‘accomplishment of desirable work-related outcomes at any point
in a person’s work experiences over time’ (p. 179). Shockley et al. (2016)
offered several dimensions of subjective career success, including authen-
ticity, growth and development, influence, meaningful, personal life,
quality work, recognition, and career satisfaction. We believe that addi-
tional subjective measures of career and occupational success should
include self-efficacy (e.g., Abele & Spurk, 2009), as suggested by the
social cognitive career theory (Lent et al., 1994).
Another important issue regarding success is who defines success—the
individuals who achieve their personal goals or the society in which these
individuals live?
1.2 Success Among People with Disabilities

The term disability encompasses a wide variety of ways in which people
interact with the world, from hearing or visual disabilities through cogni-
tive, physical, or emotional challenges. It should be borne in mind that
people with the same medical diagnosis may have very different defini-
tions of the extent to which their disability defines them and how their
disability manifests in certain contexts (Dunn & Burcaw, 2013; Kimball
et al., 2016). The diversity among people with disabilities is clearer when
1 Success 5
disability is recognised as only one of several social personalities a person

may have (Kimball et al., 2017).
The elusive criteria for success usually refer to and are evaluated by the
dominant culture in each society and usually apply to nondisabled peo-
ple. This raises the question of whether the same criteria could or should
apply to people with disabilities or whether society should set up differ-
ent criteria when evaluating the success of people with disabilities. This
question is especially pertinent given the multiple obstacles and limita-
tions that are often imposed on them by society, implicitly and explicitly.
An examination of the literature on success of people with disabilities
raised several issues; most of them refer to the success of changing societal
attitudes or organisations towards the inclusion of people with disabilities
or to the success of their rehabilitation (e.g., Brittain, 2004; Luecking,
2008). However, in recent years some studies have examined various
aspects of success among adults with disabilities, especially success in
higher education among students with learning disabilities (Haber et al.,
2016; Ju et al., 2017; Los Santos et al., 2019; Russak et al., 2017; Troiano
et al., 2010).
In their book Exceeding Expectations, Reiff et al. (1997) examined sto-
ries of occupationally successful adults with learning disabilities. They
acknowledged that success is a subjective and multidimensional concept.
They used objective and subjective measures of success that included
income level, educational level, occupational success (defined as ‘promi-
nence in one’s field’, job satisfaction, and professional status classifica-
tion). These variables were derived from the Duncan Socioeconomic
Index (Reiss, 1961)
References
Abele, A. E., & Spurk, D. (2009). The longitudinal impact of self-efficacy and
career goals on objective and subjective career success. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 74(1), 53–62.
Abele, A. E., Spurk, D., & Volmer, J. (2011). The construct of career success:
Measurement issues and an empirical example. Zeitschrift für
Arbeitsmarktforschung, 43(3), 195–206.
Arthur, M., Khapova, S., & Wilderom, C. (2005). Career success in a boundary
less career world. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 177–202.
Brittain, I. (2004). Perceptions of disability and their impact upon involvement
in sport for people with disabilities at all levels. Journal of Sport and Social
Issues, 28(4), 429–452.
Dunn, D. S., & Burcaw, S. (2013). Disability identity: exploring narrative
accounts of disability. Rehabilitation Psychology, 58(2), 148.
Gattiker, U. E., & Larwood, L. (1986). Subjective career success: A study of
managers and support personnel. Journal of Business and Psychology,
1(2), 78–94.
Haber, M. G., Mazzotti, V. L., Mustian, A. L., Rowe, D. A., Bartholomew,
A. L., Test, D. W., & Fowler, C. H. (2016). What works, when, for whom,
and with whom: A meta-analytic review of predictors of postsecondary suc-
cess for students with disabilities. Review of Educational Research,
86(1), 123–162.
Ju, S., Zeng, W., & Landmark, L. J. (2017). Self-determination and academic
success of students with disabilities in postsecondary education: A review.
Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 28(3), 180–189.
Khilji, S. E., & Pumroy, K. H. (2019). We are strong and we are resilient: Career
experiences of women engineers. Gender, Work & Organization, 26(7),
1032–1052.
Kimball, E., Friedensen, R. E., & Silva, E. (2017). Engaging disability:
Trajectories of involvement for college students with disabilities. Disability as
Diversity in Higher Education (pp. 61–74). Routledge.
Kimball, E. W., Moore, A., Vaccaro, A., Troiano, P. F., & Newman, B. M. (2016).
College students with disabilities redefine activism: Self-advocacy, storytell-
ing, and collective action. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 9(3), 245.
Lent, R., Brown, S., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a unifying social cognitive
theory of career and academic interest, choice, and performance. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 45, 79–122.
Los Santos, D., Bain, S., Kupczynski, L., & Mundy, M. A. (2019). Determining
academic success in students with disabilities in higher education. International
Journal of Higher Education, 8(2), 16–38.
Luecking, R. G. (2008). Emerging employer views of people with disabilities
and the future of job development. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation,
29(1), 3–13.
Parker, B., & Chusmir, L. H. (1992). Development and validation of a life-
success measures scale. Psychological Reports, 70(2), 627–637.
1 Success 7
Reiff, H. B., Gerber, P. J., & Ginsberg, R. (1997). Exceeding expectations:

Successful adults with learning disabilities. Pro-ed.
Reiss, H. (1961). Duncan socioeconomic scale. University of Chicago Press.
Russak, S., Daniel-Hellwing, A., & Dahan, O. (2017). Hear my voice: Success
stories of college graduates with learning disabilities. Mofet Institute.
Ryan, C. S., Casas, J. F., Kelly-Vance, L., Ryalls, B. O., & Nero, C. (2010).
Parent involvement and views of school success: The role of parents’ Latino
and White American cultural orientations. Psychology in the Schools,
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Schmitt, M. (2020). Career success factors of women engineers in leadership
positions. Journal of Applied Leadership and Management, 8, 115–133.
Seibert, S. E., & Kraimer, M. L. (2001). The five-factor model of personality
and career success. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 58(1), 1–21.
Shockley, K. M., Ureksoy, H., Rodopman, O. B., Poteat, L. F., & Dullaghan,
T. R. (2016). Development of a new scale to measure subjective career suc-
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37(1), 128–153.
Teodorescu, A., Furnham, A., & MacRae, I. (2017). Trait correlates of success at
work. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 25(1), 36–42.
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A cultural perspective. Emotion, 11(4), 866.
2
Self-Efficacy as a Source of Success
2.1 What Is Self-Efficacy?

An individual’s sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) is the extent to
which people feel that they can successfully cope with new or challenging
tasks to achieve their goals. Therefore, self-efficacy is one of the main
conditions needed to attain success. Bandura used self-efficacy to explain
how people feel, think, behave, or are motivated (Althauser, 2015). For a
certain behaviour to occur, the individual must believe in his ability to
successfully perform the tasks. That belief influences his ability to cope
with challenges as they arise while performing that behaviour. Bandura
(1997) expanded his theory to include emotional and motivational com-
ponents, through which individuals may fulfil their potential to perform.
Following Bandura, some researchers emphasised additional aspects of
self-efficacy, including attaining a worthy cause through personal effort.
According to Hirschi et al. (2017), in general, self-efficacy is a key com-
ponent for human agency and particularly for career development pro-
cesses and outcomes. When people have a high sense of self-efficacy, it
motivates them to act and invest energy, effort, and persistence in pursu-
ing their goals.
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 9

E. C. Miller, E. Kass, Self-Efficacy and Success: Narratives of Adults with Disabilities,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14965-8_2
The development of self-efficacy is a significant component in a per-

son’s motivation to reach goals. People with a high sense of self-efficacy
take upon themselves more roles, persist and invest in what they do, cope
with challenges, and tend to succeed more than people with a low sense
of self-efficacy (Kass, 2012; Schunk & DiBenedetto, 2021). Self-efficacy
was correlated with achieving desirable attainments (Feldman & Kubota,
2015). Self-efficacy is measured in relation to a task, a role, or a profes-
sion. When people have a low sense of self-efficacy regarding a certain
task, they will avoid performing activities they perceive as beyond their
ability but will attempt to perform tasks they believe they can perform
successfully. People with a high sense of self-efficacy will set up personal
challenges and will continue to cope despite repeated failure, and they
will approach intimidating tasks in a relaxed manner. In addition, people
who believe that ability can be developed will choose to actively cope
with the task ahead (Bandura, 2006, 2011).
According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy develops based on four
sources: actual performances, vicarious experiences, forms of social per-
suasion, and physiological and affective indexes.
Actual performances are the most reliable source because they provide
pupils with an indication of their ability to succeed. In order to gain
accomplishments, people must adapt and adjust to different circum-
stances. If they experience repeated successes when performing tasks, it
enhances their sense of self-efficacy.
The second source of self-efficacy is vicarious experiences. Such experi-
ences are not direct but indirect experiences gained through observations
of other people successfully performing tasks. What is important in
developing the individual’s self-efficacy is the similarity of the model to
the observer. The greater the similarity to the model, the more likely the
observer’s self-efficacy will be influenced by the model’s success (in other
words: ‘if they can do it so can I’).
The third source is forms of social persuasion, although actual perfor-
mances can outweigh their effects. In addition, the source of persuasion
will be more effective if perceived as reliable or trustworthy or having an
ulterior motive. In addition, the source of persuasion knows what the
task is all about, that they act in my favour, and that they know the per-
son they are trying to persuade and that person’s abilities (Kass, 2012).
2 Self-Efficacy as a Source of Success 11
Finally, the fourth source of self-efficacy is physiological and emotional

arousal. If the person learns to interpret this arousal as preparing him or her
for the task, his self-efficacy to perform the task will not be compromised.
It should be borne in mind that self-efficacy per se is not sufficient for
achieving desirable results if not accompanied by the skills and abilities
required for completing the task. In addition, the development of a per-
sonal sense of self-efficacy during childhood and adolescence is highly
important in the individual’s adult life (Kass, 2012). Kass (2015) also
found that silencing female teachers by authority figures (their parents
and principals) decreased their professional self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy has a mediating, sometimes hidden, factor that affects
various outcomes. For example, a study about women with long-term
spinal cord injury reported that general self-efficacy had a significant role
mediating between coping strategies adopted by these women and hope
(Byra & Gabryś, 2022). Self-efficacy was also found to predict mental
health and happiness among deaf and hard-of-hearing adolescents
(Patra, 2021).
2.2 Differentiating Between Self-Efficacy

and Related Concepts
At first glance, a distinction must be made between the concept of sense
of self-efficacy and other related psychological concepts such as self-
esteem, competence, outcome expectancy, and grit.
The first distinction should be between self-efficacy and self-esteem.
Self-esteem is the result of a process of social comparison that individuals
make between themselves and their social group. It also depends on the
value that one’s society attributes to that social group and to cultural pat-
terns (Kass, 2012). Bandura (1997) emphasised that these two concepts
represent different phenomena. Self-esteem is related to the facet of a
person’s self-worth and to the cultural value of the person’s traits and
skills. In contrast, self-efficacy deals with evaluating personal skills regard-
less of one’s culture. Bandura (1997) claimed that people are often per-
ceived according to cultural stereotypes, such as ethnicity, and not by
their personality. This perception can hamper their self-esteem, although
their sense of self-efficacy may remain high in various domains. In other

words, self-esteem refers to people’s judgement regarding their esteem
compared to their cultural group. In contrast, self-efficacy judgement
refers only to these individuals’ belief about their ability to perform a
certain task and not according to certain cultural expectations. Another
distinction between self-efficacy and self-esteem is that the former can
predict the goals that people will set for themselves and their ability to
attain them, while self-esteem does not affect personal goals or their per-
formance. Finally, sense of self-efficacy could be perceived as one compo-
nent of self-esteem but is different conceptually.
Another related concept is competence (White, 1959). White assumed
that there is an innate need, non-biological in nature, to cope with the
world effectively and that individuals’ behaviour is based on these indi-
viduals’ sense of competence. However, White termed the concept but
did not develop a complete, testable theory of competence. According to
Bandura (1997), it is very difficult to examine whether the motivation for
a certain behaviour is competence or the satisfaction that the person
derives from performing this behaviour. Since self-efficacy is measured
separately from the behaviour or the actual performance of the task, it
provides a basis for predicting the generalisation and perseverance of that
behaviour. Another difference is that competence is influenced by per-
sonal and direct experience, while sense of self-efficacy is influenced by
verbal persuasion of other and from physiological arousal.
Outcome expectancy is yet another concept that relates to self-efficacy
but is different from it. Bandura (1977, 1997, 2006) distinguished
between the expectation to be able to behave in a certain way and the
expectation for an outcome that this behaviour may yield. He defined
outcome expectancy as individuals’ evaluation that certain behaviour
would lead to a certain outcome, while the expectation to efficacy is peo-
ple’s belief that they could successfully perform the required behaviour
that will attain the desired outcome. In other words, self-efficacy asks a
question about the personal ability to act (‘could I do it?’), while outcome
expectancy queries whether there is an ability to attain desired outcomes
through specific behaviours (‘if I’ll do it, what would happen then?’). In
a way, the difference between outcome expectancy and sense of self-
efficacy stems from the possibility that people may believe that certain
behaviour will lead to an expected outcome, but if that person is not

confident in their ability to perform that behaviour, then outcome expec-
tancy will have no effect over their behaviour. After all, even if, objec-
tively, people have an ability that could lead to a certain outcome, there
is no confidence that the outcome will be achieved without a sense of
self-efficacy.
Finally, we would like to discuss the relationship between self-efficacy
and the more recently developed concept of grit (Duckworth, 2016).
Grit is a higher-order personality trait that helps an individual cope with
challenges. Duckworth defined grit as a personality trait that combines
long-term perseverance with passion. She asserted that grit and effort
combined contribute more to an individual’s achieving and sustaining
success than talent. Shechtman et al. (2013) defined grit as ‘[p]ersever-
ance to accomplish long-term or higher order goals in the face of chal-
lenges and setbacks, engaging the student’s psychological resources, such
as their academic mindsets, effortful control, and strategies and tactics’
(p. vii). Grit has been shown to be an effective predictor of success and
retention in a variety of contexts. Several studies found a correlation
between grit and the academic performance of students (Duckworth
et al., 2011; Duckworth & Gross, 2014).
The distinction between self-efficacy and grit is that the latter empha-
sises the concepts of passion, interest, practice, and hope. Thus, in a way,
grit is an aspect of self-efficacy. However, a recent meta-analytic review of
the grit literature with a particular focus on the structure of grit and its
relation to performance, retention, conscientiousness, cognitive ability,
and demographic variables (Credé et al., 2017) found that the higher-
order structure of grit is not confirmed. They also found that grit was
only moderately correlated with performance and retention and that it
was very strongly correlated with conscientiousness. They also found that
perseverance of effort was a stronger predictor of academic performance
even after controlling for conscientiousness. They concluded that the
construct validity of grit is in question and that its utility lies primarily in
the facet of perseverance. It appears that more research is needed to fur-
ther clarify the construct of grit, and we agree with Fite et al. (2017)
about the need for longitudinal studies to understand how grit develops
over time.
2.3 Sense of Self-Efficacy of Students

with Disabilities
in the Educational System
School success is a challenge for many students, particularly students
with disabilities. In part, this can be attributed to the students’ level of
self-efficacy (Asakereh & Dehghannezhad, 2015), although factors such
as classroom goal structures are involved as well (cf: Uçar & Sungur,
2017). Most of the studies in this field have focused on students with
learning disabilities, especially those in college (e.g., Russak et al., 2017).
Studies investigating students in elementary and high school suggest that
students with disabilities exhibit a low sense of self-efficacy during their
school years, although the impact of learning disabilities on self-efficacy
may be indirect (e.g., Alaei et al., 2012).
Following the four sources of self-efficacy, Schunk and DiBenedetto
(2021) suggest that teachers should provide their pupils with learning
disabilities with opportunities to learn and perform successfully which
likely build students’ self-efficacy for future similar tasks and tell them
that they believe they can perform the required tasks.
Pupils who experience a high level of negative physical or emotional
arousal when performing certain tasks but attempt to gain control over
the situation are more likely to increase their sense of agency and control.
2.4 Occupational Self-Efficacy

Self-directedness and human agency are main drivers of career success in
current career development research and theory (Sullivan & Baruch,
2009). As mentioned earlier, Bandura’s definition of self-efficacy (1997)
refers to the beliefs and perceptions that individuals hold regarding their
ability to perform specific tasks and challenges. The concept of occupa-
tional self-efficacy specifically refers to people’s belief that they can per-
form and master the tasks that are necessary to succeed in their job
(Jungert et al., 2013; Rigotti et al., 2008) and is related to several psycho-
logical distress or well-being variables. A similar concept related to
occupational self-efficacy is professional self-efficacy, defined by Friedman

(1997) as professionals’ belief in their ability to control events that affect
their professional lives. Loeb et al. (2016) found that men reported higher
occupational self-efficacy than women.
These beliefs play a key role in positive career development. Abele and
Spurk (2009) stated that empirical research demonstrated that self-
efficacy beliefs are positively related to objective and subjective career
success. Çetin and Aşkun (2018) found that occupational self-efficacy
and intrinsic motivation have a significant role over work performance
and that intrinsic motivation served as a partial mediator in this
relationship.
Several researchers found that occupational self-efficacy has a role in
mediating the relationship between various work environment aspects,
job-related outcomes, and subjective measures of workers, such as various
personality traits, salary, job insecurity, job satisfaction, work engage-
ment, thriving at work, and health among employees (Guarnaccia et al.,
2018; Hirschi & Jaensch, 2015; Maggiori et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2019).
Several occupational stress studies (e.g., Borgogni et al., 2013; Mazzetti
et al., 2014) have studied workaholism and absences from work and
found indirect relations between them and occupational self-efficacy.
In a large study of teachers, Friedman (2003) found that self-efficacy is
inversely correlated with perceived burnout. In other words, the lower a
person’s self-efficacy level, the greater the perceived burnout level.
ccupational Self-Efficacy Among People

O
with Disabilities
Some researchers explored occupational self-efficacy among people with

disabilities. The studies in this area include a wide variety of populations,
such as people with developmental intellectual disabilities or people
whose disability occurred later in life, such as brain injury. For example,
Soeker (2012) studied adults with brain injury who returned to work and
found that occupational self-efficacy in this population is a construct
consisting of four aspects: (1) a sense of loss of one’s former self and iden-
tity; (2) concerns and uncertainty about one’s future; (3) a process of
self-acceptance and regaining belief in oneself; and (4) occupational par-

ticipation that enabled growth.
Other researchers drew a more complicated picture of the relationship
between occupational self-efficacy and job performance among employ-
ees with disabilities.
Baumgärtner et al. (2014) found that higher level of social support was
especially conducive for low self-efficacious employees with disabilities.
Thus, they suggested that employees with disabilities require different
levels of social support in order to attain high levels of job performance.
Therefore, organisations should consider individual levels of self-efficacy
and provide support accordingly in order to enable employees to gain
high job performance.
Nota et al. (2010) explored interests and self-efficacy beliefs in less
complex occupations among adults with intellectual disability. They
found that individuals with intellectual disability tended to be more
interested in low-to-mid-complexity occupations and have higher self-
efficacy belief levels in these occupations. They also found that self-
efficacy beliefs had a predictive role, regardless of intellectual level or
gender. They emphasised the importance of early vocational and career
guidance activities that could help people with intellectual disabilities to
develop self-efficacy and set their professional goals.
In the European Union, only about slightly over 50% of people with
disabilities are employed compared to about 75% of nondisabled people
(Lecerf, 2020). In the United Kingdom, the rate is slightly higher, with
employment rate of 51.7% among people with disabilities, compared to
an 81.7% employment rate among nondisabled people (Powell, 2019).
In the United States, the rate of employment among people with disabili-
ties was much lower in 2018—19.1%—compared to the 65.9% employ-
ment rate among their nondisabled counterparts (U.S. Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2018). The high rates of unemployment among people with
disabilities suggest, in part, the importance of developing not only the
necessary professional and interpersonal skills but also sense of self-
efficacy. These individuals often face formidable challenges when they
attempt to enter the labour market.
For example, a study conducted in Israel by the planning and research
authority of the National Security Services found significant gaps between
people with and without disabilities in rate of employment (53.4% vs

84.6%, accordingly) and in salary levels. In addition, the study found
that people with disabilities were more likely to be laid off during the
COVID-19 pandemic and found it more difficult to regain employment
(Gil Ad, 2021).
Thus, helping them as early as possible to develop their skills and per-
sonal career goals, combined with sense of self-efficacy, is critical for their
meaningful inclusion in the labour market.
However, there is still a lack of empirical research about success stories
of adults with a diverse range of childhood disabilities and about their
experiences earlier in life.
The purpose of this book is to examine factors and processes operating
at different stages in the lives of individuals with childhood disabilities
within the educational and family systems that enabled them to succeed.
We should learn from these factors and processes about what parents and
educational teams could do to enhance the chances for success for people
with disabilities.
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Self-Efficacy and Success: Narratives

of Adults with Disabilities Erez C. Miller

Erez C. Miller · Efrat Kass

ISBN 978-3-031-14964-1 ISBN 978-3-031-14965-8 (eBook)

because of various childhood disabilities, to cope with greater and some-

teacher. It was through my close professional and personal friendship

to self-efficacy cognitively, emotionally, and practically all my life.

Arugot, Israel Erez C. Miller

We would like to thank the research authority of Mofet Institute in Tel

This book was conceived after exciting research that we conducted. We

parents on the academic aspirations of their children, their dedication,

Part I Introduction to Success, Self-­efficacy and People with

Part II The School Years 21

7.6 The Consequences of Misdiagnosis and Delayed

Part III Higher Education Years 161

Part IV Career and Employment of People with Disabilities 177

10.2 Internal Factors That Support Employment Among

Appendix 1: Designing and Implementing the Study225

Erez C. Miller, Ph.D., is a senior lecturer at Achva Academic College,

Sense of Self-Efficacy as a Mediating Factor in

the development of employees’ self-efficacy through direct advice.

inaccessible transportation and public buildings, and limited social sup-

without disabilities, then economies will benefit from between 3% and

At the conclusion of this introduction, we would like to refer to our

transfer and transfer of training. International Journal of Quality & Reliability

1.1 What Is Success?

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

positions in an organisation. But these are all accomplishments and are

1.2 Success Among People with Disabilities

disability is recognised as only one of several social personalities a person

Reiff, H. B., Gerber, P. J., & Ginsberg, R. (1997). Exceeding expectations:

2.1 What Is Self-Efficacy?

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 9

The development of self-efficacy is a significant component in a per-

Finally, the fourth source of self-efficacy is physiological and emotional

2.2 Differentiating Between Self-Efficacy

their sense of self-efficacy may remain high in various domains. In other

behaviour will lead to an expected outcome, but if that person is not

2.3 Sense of Self-Efficacy of Students

2.4 Occupational Self-Efficacy

occupational self-efficacy is professional self-efficacy, defined by Friedman

 ccupational Self-Efficacy Among People

Some researchers explored occupational self-efficacy among people with

self-acceptance and regaining belief in oneself; and (4) occupational par-

people with and without disabilities in rate of employment (53.4% vs

Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspectives on

You might also like

Arugot, Israel Erez C. Miller

Part I Introduction to Success, Self-efficacy and People with

Part II The School Years 21

7.6 The Consequences of Misdiagnosis and Delayed

Part III Higher Education Years 161

Part IV Career and Employment of People with Disabilities 177

10.2 Internal Factors That Support Employment Among

Appendix 1: Designing and Implementing the Study225

1.1 What Is Success?

1.2 Success Among People with Disabilities

2.1 What Is Self-Efficacy?

2.2 Differentiating Between Self-Efficacy

2.3 Sense of Self-Efficacy of Students

2.4 Occupational Self-Efficacy

ccupational Self-Efficacy Among People