Lecture 7a: Blood • Respiratory gases (O2

and CO2)
Hormones (steroids and
thyroid hormone are
FUNCTIONS
carried by plasma
● Transport of: proteins)
○ Gases, nutrients, waste products
○ Processed molecules PLASMA
○ Regulatory molecules ● 90% water
● Regulation of pH and osmosis ● Colloid - liquid containing suspended
● Maintenance of body temperature substances that don’t settle out
● Protection against foreign substances ● Includes many dissolved substances
● Clot formation ○ Nutrients
○ Salts (electrolytes)
○ Respiratory gases
COMPONENTS
○ Hormones
● Blood is the only fluid tissue a type of ○ Plasma proteins
connective tissue, in the human body ○ Waste products
● Components of blood ● Most abundant solutes in plasma
○ Formed elements (living cells ● Most are made by the liver
○ Plasma (nonliving fluid matrix) ● Includes:
○ Albumin - an important blood
buffer and contributes to osmotic
pressure
○ Clotting proteins - reduce blood
loss when a blood vessel in injured
○ Antibodies - help protect the body
from pathogens
● Blood composition varies as cells
exchange substances with the blood
○ Liver makes more proteins when
levels drop
○ Respiratory and urinary systems
restore blood pH to normal when
blood becomes too acidic or
alkaline
PLASMA (55%)
● Plasma helps distribute body heat
Water 90% of plasma volume;
solvent for carrying other
substances; absorbs heat
FORMED ELEMENTS (CELLS) (45%)
Salts (electrolytes) Osmotic balance, pH Erythrocytes • 4-6 million per mm3 of blood
buffering, regulation of (RBC) • Transports oxygen and help
membrane permeability transport carbon dioxide
● Sodium
● Potassium
● Calcium
● Magnesium Leukocytes • 4,800-10,800 per mm3 of
● Chloride (WBC) blood
● Bicarbonate • Defense and immunity

Plasma proteins - Albumin - osmotic

balance, pH buffering Basophil
- Fibrinogen - clotting
of blood
- Globulins - defense
(antibodies) and lipid
transport Neutrophil

Substances • Nutrients (glucose,

transported by blood fatty acids, amino acids,
vitamins)
Eosinophil
• Waste products of
metabolism (urea, uric
acid)
 Lymphocyte

Monocyte

Platelets • 250,000-400,000 per mm3

of blood
• Blood clotting

LEUKOCYTES (white blood cells, WBCs)

● Crucial in body’s defense against disease
● Complete cells, with nucleus and
organelles
● Able to move into and out of blood vessels
(diapedesis)
● Respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues (known as positive
chemotaxis)
● Move by amoeboid motion
Types:
● Granulocytes
○ Granules in their cytoplasm can be
stained
○ Possess lobed nuclei
■ Neutrophils
● Most numerous
ERYTHROCYTES (red blood cells, RBC) (40-70%)
● Main function is to carry oxygen ● Multilobed
● RBCs differ from other blood cells ● Phagocytes at active
○ Anucleate (no nucleus) sites of infection
○ Contain few organelles; lack ● Present in the pus of
mitochondria wounds
○ Essentially bags of hemoglobin ● Kills parasitic worms
(Hb) and play a role in
○ Shaped like biconcave discs allergy attacks
Homeostatic imbalance: ● Detoxify chemicals
● Anemia is a decrease in the ● 1-4% of WBCs
oxygen-carrying ability of the blood ■ Basophils
○ Lower-than-normal number of RBC ● Rarest of the WBCs
○ Abnormal or deficient hemoglobin ● Contains heparin
content in the RBCs (anticoagulant) and
○ Sickle cell anemia (SCA) results histamines
from abnormally shaped ● Important in
hemoglobin inflammatory and
allergic reactions
● 0-1% of WBCs
 ● Agranulocytes ● When worn out, RBC are eliminated by
○ Lack visible cytoplasmic granules phagocytes in the spleen or liver
○ Nuclei are spherical, oval or ● Rate of RBC production is controlled by
kidney-shaped the hormone erythropoietin
■ Lymphocytes ■ EPO, is a hormone produced
● Large, dark purple by the liver and kidneys
nucleus ● Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a
● Slightly larger than response to reduced oxygen levels in the
RBCs blood
● Reside in lymphatic ● Homeostasis is maintained by negative
tissues feedback from blood oxygen levels
● Produces antibodies ● Normal blood oxygen levels:
(immune response) ○ 75-100mm Hg (PaO2)
● 20-45% of WBCs ○ 95-100% (SaO2)
■ Monocytes
● Largest of WBCs
List of WBC from most to least
● Distinctive U- or
abundant
kidney-shaped
1. Neutrophils
nucleus
2. Lymphocytes
● Function as
3. Monocytes
macrophages
4. Eosinophils
● Important in fighting
5. Basophils
chronic infection
● Engulfs and digests
Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
dead cells, foreign
substances,
microbes, cancel
cells, etc.
● 4-8% of WBCs
Abnormal number of leukocytes
● Leukocytosis
○ WBC count >11,000 cells per mm3
of blood
○ Generally indicates an infection
● Leukopenia
○ Abnormally low WBC count
○ Commonly caused by certain
drugs, such as corticosteroids and
anticancer agents
● Leukemia
○ Bone marrow becomes cancerous
○ Numerous immature WBC are
produced

THROMBOCYTES (platelets)
● Cell fragments of megakaryocytes
● Needed for the clotting process
● Normal platelet count: 300,000 platelets
per mm3 of blood

HEMATOPOIESIS
● Blood cell formation
● Occurs in red bone marrow (myeloid
tissue)
● All blood cells are derived from a common
stem cell (hemocytoblast)
● Hemocytoblasts form two types of
descendants
○ Lymphoid stem cell, produces
lymphocytes
○ Myeloid stem cell, produce all other
formed elements
ERYTHROPOIESIS
● Production of red blood cells
● RBCs wear out in 100 to 120 days
HEMOSTASIS
● Process of stopping the bleeding that
results from a break in a blood vessel
● Hemostasis involves three phase
○ Step 1: Vascular spasms
■ Immediate response to
blood injury
■ Vasoconstriction causes
blood vessel to spasm
■ Spasms narrow the blood
vessel, decreasing blood
loss
○ Step 2: Platelet plug formation
■ Collagen fibers are exposed
by a break in a blood vessel
■ Platelets become “sticky”
and cling to fibers
■ Anchored platelets release
chemicals to attract more
platelets
■ Platelets pile up to form a
platelet plug (white
thrombus)
○ Coagulation (blood clotting)
■ Injured tissues release
tissue factor (TF)
■ PF3 (a phospholipid)
interacts with TF, blood
protein clotting factors, and
calcium ions to trigger a
clotting cascade
■ Prothrombin activator
converts prothrombin to
thrombin (an enzyme)
■ Thrombin joins fibrinogen
proteins into hairlike
molecules of insoluble
fibrin
● Forms a meshwork
(the basis for a clot)
■ Normal clotting time = 3-6
minutes
Disorders of Hemostasis:
● Undesirable clotting
○ Thrombus
■ A clot in an unbroken blood
vessel
■ Can be deadly in areas such
as the lungs
○ Embolus
■ A thrombus that breaks
away and floats freely in the
bloodstream
■ Can later clog vessels in
critical areas such as the
brain
● Bleeding disorders
○ Thrombocytopenia
■ Insufficient number of
circulating platelets
■ Arises from any condition
that suppresses the bone
marrow
■ Even normal movements
can cause bleeding from
small blood vessels that
require platelets for clotting
■ Evidenced by petechiae
(small purplish blotches on
the skin)
○ Hemophilia
■ Hereditary bleeding disorder
■ Normal clotting factors are
missing
■ Minor tissue damage can
cause life-threatening
prolonged bleeding
Lecture 7b: Cardiovascular System

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

● A closed system of the heart and blood

vessels
○ The heart pumps blood
○ Blood vessels allow blood to
circulate to all parts of the body
● To deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells
and tissues
● To remove carbon dioxide and other
waste products from cells and tissues

THE HEART: VALVES

● Allow blood to flow in only one direction to
prevent backflow
● Four valves
○ Atrioventricular (AV) valves -
between atria and ventricles
■ Bicuspid (mitral) valve (left
side of the heart)
■ Tricuspid valve (right side of
heart)
○ Semilunar valves - between
ventricle and artery
■ Pulmonary semilunar valve
■ Aortic semilunar valve

THE HEART: CHAMBERS

● Right and left side act as separate pumps
● Four chambers
○ Atria
■ Receiving chambers
■ Right atrium
■ Left atrium
○ Ventricles
■ Discharging chambers
■ Left ventricle

THE HEART’S ROLE IN BLOOD CIRCULATION

● Systemic circulation
○ BLOOD flows from LEFT side of the
heart through the body tissues and
BACK to the RIGHT side of the
heart
● Pulmonary circulation
○ BLOOD flows from the RIGHT side
of the heart to the lungs and back
to the LEFT side of the heart
 ● Heart block
○ Damaged AV node releases them
from control of the SA node; result
is in a slower heart rate as
ventricles contract at their own
rate
● Ischemia
○ Lack of adequate oxygen supply to
heart muscle
● Fibrillation
○ A rapid, uncoordinated shuddering
of the heart muscle
● Tachycardia
○ Rapid heart rate over 100 beats
per minute
● Bradycardia
○ Slow heart rate less than 60 beats
per minutes

THE HEART: CARDIAC CYCLE

● Cardiac cycle - events of one complete
heart beat
○ Systole = contraction
○ Diastole = relaxation
THE HEART: CONDUCTION SYSTEM ● Atria contract simultaneously
● Intrinsic conduction system (nodal ● Atria relax, then ventricles contract
system)
○ Heart muscle cells contract,
without nerve impulses, in a
regular, continuous way
● Special tissue sets the pace
○ Sinoatrial node = SA node
(“pacemaker”), is in the right
atrium
○ Atrioventricular node = AV
node, is at the junction of the atria
and ventricles
○ Atrioventricular bundle = AV
bundle (bundle of His). is in the
interventricular septum
○ Bundle branches are in the
interventricular septum
○ Purkinje fibers spread within the
ventricle wall muscles

HEART CONTRACTIONS
● Once SA node starts the heartbeat
○ Impulse spreads to the AV node
○ Then the atria contract
● At the AV node, the impulse passes
through the AV bundle, bundle branches,
and Purkinje fibers
● Blood is ejected from the ventricles to the
aorta and pulmonary trunk as the
ventricles contract
Homeostatic imbalance:
 THE HEART: CARDIAC OUTPUT BLOOD VESSELS: THE VASCULAR SYSTEM
● Cardiac output (CO) ● Transport blood to the tissue and back
○ Amount of blood pumped by each ○ Carry blood away from the heart
side (ventricle) of the heart in one ■ Arteries
minute ■ Arterioles
● Stroke volume (SV) ○ Exchanges between tissues and
○ Volume of blood pumped by each blood
ventricle in one contraction (each ■ Capillary beds
heartbeat) ○ Return blood toward the heart
○ Usually remains relatively constant ■ Venules
○ About 70mL of blood is pumped ■ Veins
out of the left ventricle with each
heartbeat
● Heart rate (HR)
○ Typically 75 beats per minute

CO = HR x SV
CO = HR(75 beats/min) x SV(70 mL/beat)
CO = 5250 mL/min

● Starling’s law of the heart–the more the

cardiac muscle is stretched, the stronger
the contraction
● Changing heart rate is the most common
way to change cardiac output

THE HEART: REGULATION OF HEART RATE

● Increased heart rate
○ Sympathetic nervous system
■ Crisis
■ Low blood pressure
○ Hormones
■ Epinephrine
■ Thyroxine
○ Exercise
○ Decreased blood volume
● Decreased heart rate
○ Parasympathetic nervous system
○ High blood pressure or blood
volume
○ Decreased venous return STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES AMONG BLOOD
VESSELS
● Arteries have thicker tunica media than
veins to withstand greater blood pressure
● Capillaries are only one cell layer (tunica
intima) to allow for exchange between
blood and tissue
● Veins have thinner tunica media than
arteries because they operate under low
pressure
● Veins also have valves to prevent backflow
of blood
● Lumen of veins are larger than arteries to
act as blood reservoirs
Let's review..
● Why are arteries more muscular?
● Why are veins more elastic/flexible?
● Why do veins have valves while arteries
don’t?

BLOOD PRESSURE
● Measurements by health professionals are
made on the pressure in large arteries
○ Systolic - pressure at the peak of
ventricular contraction
○ Diastolic - pressure when
ventricles relax
○ Write systolic pressure first and
diastolic last (120/80 mm Hg)
● Pressure in blood vessels decreases as
distance from the heart increases

BLOOD PRESSURE: EFFECTS OF FACTORS

● BP is blood pressure
○ BP is affected by age, wight, time
of day, exercise, body position,
emotional state
● CO is the amount of blood pumped out of
the left ventricle per minute
● PR is peripheral resistance, or the amount
of friction blood encounters as it flows
through vessels
● Narrowing of blood vessels and increased
blood volume increases PR
● Neural factors
○ Autonomic nervous system
adjustments (sympathetic division)
● Renal factors
○ Regulation by altering blood
volume
○ Renin–hormonal control
● Temperature
○ Heat has a vasodilating effect
○ Cold has a vasoconstricting effect
● Chemicals
○ Various substances can cause
increases or decreases
● Diet
 VARIATIONS IN BLOOD PRESSURE
● Normal human range is variable
○ Normal
■ 140 to 110 mm Hg systolic
■ 80 to 75 mm Hg diastolic
○ Hypotension
■ Low systolic (below 90 mm
Hg)
■ Often associated with illness
○ Hypertension
■ High systolic (above 140
mm Hg)
■ Can be dangerous if it is
chronic

- BUBAN -