ANATOMY,

PHYSIOLOGY,
& DISEASE

Yna Mae De Leon

Chapter 9
• Globulins
The Cardiovascular o Antibodies and transport
proteins
System—Blood • Fibrinogen and clotting factors
o Protein portion of a clot
Overview o Serum – plasma with fibrinogen
and clotting factors removed
• Ions
➢ The cardiovascular system is o Sodium, potassium,
composed of the heart, blood vessels, chloride, and calcium
and blood.
• Nutrients
Anatomy of Blood o Glucose and amino acids
• Waste products
o Bilirubin
Blood is a connective tissue of formed • Gases
elements in a matrix of plasma. o Oxygen and carbon
dioxide
• Formed elements = cells and cell parts • Regulatory substances
• Plasma = liquid portion of blood o Hormones
Formed Elements
Composition of Blood
• The formed elements of the blood
are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and
thrombocytes.
• Erythrocytes are biconcave disks
with no nuclei.
o The contain hemoglobin
that has iron to carry
oxygen.
o Red blood cells carry
carbon dioxide and
hydrogen ions.
• Erythrocytes
o Carry oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and acid
Anatomy of Blood o Normally do not leave the
Plasma blood vessels unless a
vessel is broken
• Plasma is 91 percent water, 7 percent
protein, and 2 percent ions, nutrients,
waste products, gases, and regulatory
substances.
• Plasma is a solution, and its
concentration is important for
homeostasis.
• Plasma Proteins
o Albumin
o Transport proteins
 Anatomy of Blood ➢ Basophils
• ~0.5-1% of total WBCs
• U-shaped nucleus and blue-
staining granules
• Those that move into tissues are
called mast cells.
• Functions in damaged tissues
and during allergic reactions
o Release histamine, which
dilates blood vessels to
increase blood flow
o Release heparin, which
inhibits clot formation
(anticoagulant)

Formed Elements
➢ Leukocytes
• Granulocytes
o Neutrophils
o Eosinophils
o Basophils
• Agranulocytes
o Monocytes
o Lymphocytes
➢ Neutrophils
• 60-70% of the total WBCs
• Nucleus with 2-5 lobes and ➢ Eosinophils
lavender-staining granules • ~2-4% of the total WBCs
• First WBCs to respond to tissue • Bilobed nucleus with red-
damage staining granules
o Perform phagocytosis and
• Functions
release the enzyme
o Neutralize histamine
lysozyme
released during allergic
• Number increases with acute reactions
infections o Destroy parasitic worms
• Number increases during allergic
reactions and parasitic worm
infections
➢ Monocytes
• ~3-8% of the total WBCs
• Largest WBCs with U- or
kidney-shaped nucleus and no
granules
• Function
o Phagocytosis of bacteria
and cellular debris
 Thrombopoiesis starts from a
hemocytoblast in the red bone marrow.
Anatomy of Blood The liver and kidneys start the process
by producing thrombopoietin when
Formed Elements there is a need for more platelets.
Leukopoiesis starts from a
• Once in tissues, they are called hemocytoblast in the red bone marrow.
macrophages. Lymphocytes and macrophages
produce CSFs when there is a
challenge to the immune system.
There is a different CSF for each type of
leukocyte production.
Erythropoiesis starts from a
hemocytoblast in the red bone marrow.
The liver and kidneys start the process
by releasing erythropoietin (EPO) in
situations of hypoxemia.
Hypoxemia can result from disease,
high elevation, increased exercise,
blood loss, and carbon monoxide.
• Iron, folic acid, vitamin B12,
copper, and vitamin C are
➢ Thrombocytes
needed for erythropoiesis.
• Also called platelets
• Cytoplasmic fragments of Hemopoiesis
megakaryocytes that develop
from hemocytoblasts
• ~150,000 to 400,000 per mm3
of blood
➢ Thrombocytes
• Platelets secrete
vasoconstrictors.
• Platelets secrete clotting factors.
• Platelets form platelet plugs.
• Platelets secrete chemicals to
attract neutrophils and monocytes
to sites of inflammation.
• Platelets destroy bacteria.
• Platelets secrete growth factors
to stimulate mitosis to repair
vessel walls.

Physiology of Blood

Hemopoiesis
Hemopoiesis is blood production.
There are three forms: erythropoiesis,
leukopoiesis, and thrombopoiesis.
Negative Feedback Correction of
Hypoxemia
Nutritional Requirements for
Erythropoiesis
Physiology of Blood
Life Cycle of a Red Blood Cell
Hemoglobin
➢ Binds oxygen (to a small degree
carbon dioxide)
• Oxygen-carrying hemoglobin is
called oxyhemoglobin
o Bright red color
• Oxygen-deficient hemoglobin is
called deoxyhemoglobin
o Dark red color
• Carries H+ acting as a buffer
One copy of the gene results in a condition
called sickle cell trait.
Two copies of the gene result in sickle cell
disease.
• Advantage to this form of
hemoglobin for people living in
areas plagued with malaria
Sickle Cell Disease
• Iron
o Meat, eggs, vegetables,
legumes
• Folic acid and vitamin B12
o Orange juice, meat, and
dairy products
• Copper and vitamin C
o Meats, fruits, and green
vegetables
• Red blood cells are produced in
the red bone marrow.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen and
carbon dioxide through the
bloodstream for 110 to 120 days
before wearing out.
• The liver and spleen remove old,
worn-out blood cells.
• Hemoglobin is broken down to
heme and globin.
• Heme is further broken down to
iron, which is recycled, and
bilirubin, a waste product. The
liver puts bilirubin in bile, which
eventually leaves the body in
feces. The spleen secretes
bilirubin into the blood, where it is
removed by the kidneys and
excreted with urine.
• Globin is broken down by the liver
and spleen to free amino acids,
which are recycled.
 Breakdown of Hemoglobin
Physiology of Blood
Hemostasis
• Hemostasis is the stopping of
bleeding.
• Three stages in order: vascular spasm,
platelet plug formation, and
coagulation.
o Vascular spasm
constricts the broken
vessel to slow blood flow.
o Platelet plug formation
occurs when platelets
stick to exposed collagen
fibers of broken vessel
walls.
o Coagulation is the last
stage to occur, but it is
the most effective.
• Coagulation involves two
pathways that result in a reaction
cascade of one clotting factor
activating the next until a clot is
formed.
o Extrinsic pathway
o Intrinsic pathway
• Both lead to a common pathway.
• When a vessel is repaired, an
inactive enzyme called
plasminogen converts to plasmin.
• Plasmin dissolves the now
unnecessary blood clot in a
process called fibrinolysis.
Blood Typing
• Blood typing is based on the
presence of ABO and Rh
antigens on the surface of cells.
• Antibodies are dissolved proteins
in plasma that react to foreign
antigens in a process called
agglutination.
• Antibodies for the ABO group are
acquired as a child.
• Antibodies for Rh antigens are
acquired only through an
exposure to the antigen.
Antigens and Antibodies For Each
ABO Blood Type
Physiology of Blood
Blood Typing
• Determining a blood type and
transfusion compatibility:
• Blood types can be determined
by mixing a drop of blood with
sera containing known
antibodies.
• In a transfusion, the donor’s cells
must survive the recipient’s
antibodies.
▪ Transfusion reaction
o Occurs if
mismatched blood
agglutinates
 Physiology of Blood
Blood Typing
• Mother-fetus blood-type compatibility:
o Rh− mothers need
to be concerned
about blood
incompatibility with
Rh+ babies.
o Hemolytic disease
of the newborn
(HDN)
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
Physiology of Blood
Functions of Blood
• The functions of blood fall into three
categories: transportation, protection,
and regulation.
1. Blood transports nutrients,
waste products, gases,
regulatory chemicals, and
heat.
2. Blood protects the body from
its own loss through
hemostasis. Leukocytes in the
blood protect the body from
foreign pathogens.
3. Blood regulates the fluid and
electrolyte balance as well as
the body’s acid-base balance.
Blood Tests
➢ A hematocrit test measures the
percentage of erythrocytes to whole
blood.
➢ A hemoglobin measurement
determines theamount of hemoglobin
in a given amount of blood.
➢ Blood counts can be measured for
RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.
➢ WBC count
• 3,540 to 9,060/mm3 of blood
• Leukocytosis is a high white blood
cell count.
o Leukemia also involves a high
white blood cell count, but the
white blood cells in leukemia
are immature and incapable of
fighting off pathogens.
• Leukopenia is a low white blood
cell count.
➢ WBC differential
• Neutrophils: 40 to 70 percent
• Basophils: 0 to 2 percent
• Eosinophils: 0 to 6 percent
• Lymphocytes: 20 to 50 percent
• Monocytes: 4 to 8 percent
➢ Platelet count
• 165,000 to 415,000/mm3 of
blood.
Blood Disorders
Anemias
• Anemias are a group of disorders
that provide insufficient red blood
cells or hemoglobin to carry
enough oxygen to maintain
homeostasis.
• There are three categories of
anemia:
o Inadequate erythropoiesis
(aplastic or hypoplastic
anemia)
o Hemorrhagic anemia
 Blood Disorders

o Hemolytic anemia
Clotting Disorders
Clotting disorders include:
• Hemophilia – missing clotting factors
• Thrombocytopenia – not enough
platelets
• Disseminated intravascular
coagulation – excess clots forming
throughout the body

Inheritance of a Sex-Linked
Disease