FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology, Volume 6, Issue 4, December 2021 ISSN: 2579-0617 (Paper), 2579-0625 (Online)

Disruptive Engineering: Maximizing the Feedback Relationship between

Industry 4.0 and the Nigerian Engineering Education Sector
1
Oyinlolu A. Odetoye and *2Temitope E. Odetoye
1Department of Electrical and Information Engineering, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Nigeria
2Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

oyinloluodetoye@gmail.com|odetoye.te@unilorin.edu.ng

REVIEW ARTICLE
Received: 16-JUL-2021; Reviewed: 19-AUG-2021; Accepted: 12-DEC-2021
http://dx.doi.org/10.46792/fuoyejet.v6i4.672

Abstract- The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) continues to drive a fusion of physical, digital and biological technology in ways that are
rewriting the norms in engineering practice by introducing new approaches such as Internet of things (IoT) and the Industry 4.0 paradigm,
that are poised to also change the educational sector globally. Nigeria is yet to tap into the full potential of the Third Industrial Revolution. The
relationship between 4IR and engineering education is considered as a positive feedback loop. 4IR technologies have great potential to
enhance the quality of the Nigerian engineering education system, which in turn fosters an improved engineering education sector that is
better-equipped to produce sustainable outcomes in Industry 4.0 era. This paper explores the potentials for application of 4IR technologies
in improving the Nigerian engineering education delivery system by review and suggests ways through which the educational system can
enhance the potentials of its educands to become competitive professionals in the disruptive-technology engineering era. It was concluded
that the feedback relationship which exists between engineering education and Industry 4.0 needs rapt attention of stakeholders in order to
address the reality of disruptive technology.

Keywords- Disruptive technology, Engineering education, Industrial revolution, Internet of things, Positive feedback
—————————— ◆ ——————————
1 INTRODUCTION

T he history of modern engineering is universally

represented as four major eras. Each era was brought
on by transition periods known as Industrial
Revolutions with the earliest era being the First Industrial
Revolution and the current one being the Fourth
Industrial Revolution. These are also known as Industries
1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 and they are frequently abbreviated as
1IR, 2 IR, 3IR and 4IR respectively. Industry 1.0 spurred
the steam-powered mechanization of industrial processes
and powered transportation(Melnyk et al., 2019).
Industry 2.0 ushered in internal combustion (petroleum
product) engines and basic electrical machines and
devices such as the telegraph, new materials such as
plastics and special alloys, as well as powered machine
tools which led to improvements in manufacturing
operations. Industry 3.0 is also known as the Digital
Revolution, as it ushered in the age of digital electronics
and computers, modern intercontinental
telecommunications, internet as well as space exploration
(Moore, 2019). Industry 4.0 is a paradigm shift in the
technological world of the 21st century, in which
technological fusion is the main driver (Bongomin et al.,
2020; Popkova, Ragulina, & Bogoviz, 2019). It builds
mainly on the technologies acknowledged in the previous
Industrial Revolutions, and is propelled by a fusion of
knowledge, leading to disruptive interdisciplinary
technological advancements such as Internet of Things
(IoT), in which mechanical systems can now be
communicated with, and controlled remotely by means of
the Internet (Xu & Duan, 2018; Lun et al., 2019).
*Corresponding Author
Section F- GENERAL SCIENCES, ENGINEERING, & TECHNOLOGY
Can be cited as:
Odetoye O.A. and Odetoye T.E. (2021): “Disruptive Engineering: Maximizing
the Feedback Relationship between Industry 4.0 and the Nigerian Engineering
Education Sector”,, FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology (FUOYEJET),
6(4), 420-426. http://dx.doi.org/10.46792/fuoyejet.v6i4.672
Another emerging technological field in Industry 4.0 is
biorobotics, which is a fusion of materials engineering,
cybernetics, robotics and biology (Ricotti & Menciassi,
2015). Cybernetics by itself involves control theory,
operations research, artificial intelligence and other
disciplines (Pickering, 2010). This unprecedented rate of
knowledge fusion leads to more diverse technological
endeavours and successes thereby resulting to more
potentials for knowledge creation and application, which
yields a “feedback effect”, such that, at any point in the
era of Industry 4.0, the more a nation achieves, the more
it is capable of achieving in the future.
The first institution in Nigeria to offer engineering
education was the Yaba Higher College, Lagos originally
established in 1930 and later succeeded by the Yaba
College of Technology in 1947 (Ojiako, 1986). At its
establishment, an engineer seconded from the colonial
government’s Public Works Department, was the only
engineer among the teaching staff. The output over a
period of 10 years was less than 20 engineering assistants.
This scenario fairly illustrates engineering education in
pre-independence Nigerian era (Ojiako, 1986).
The first Faculty of Engineering in Nigeria was
established at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka in 1961,
barely after the national independence. This
establishment occurred a few years into the Third
Industrial Revolution in the western world. Since then,
higher engineering education has become more accessible
in Nigeria through several public and private institutions.
Industry 3.0 has since evolved over time at a very fast pace
in the western world, giving way to Industry 4.0 early in
the twenty-first century (Oloyede, Ajimotokan, & Faruk,
2017). In Nigeria, however, the evolution from industry
3.0 to 4.0 in engineering education has been beset with
challenges over time (Oloyede et al., 2017; Owolabi &
Rafiu, 2010). One of the major challenges with

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FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology, Volume 6, Issue 4, December 2021
engineering education in Nigeria is the quality of
equipment and infrastructure available for facilitation of
learning engineering (Idris & Rajuddin, 2012).
Owolabi and Rafiu (2010), pointed out that the higher
proportion of laboratory facilities and teaching
equipment in Nigerian tertiary institutions were old and
have been the same ones that had been in use since the
inception of such institutions. There is also an insufficient
laboratory space for students since the equipment
inventory sizes are not usually updated to match the
growing student enrolment in schools over time. Lack of
adaptation of the facilities to the changing requirements
in educational outcomes (Emmanuel, 2011). In essence,
equipment and learning aids for engineering students in
Nigerian institutions are to be improved both
qualitatively and quantitatively, which goes hand in hand
with outdated curricula (Oloyede et al., 2017).
Many of these problems can be traced back to inadequate
funding of higher education in Nigeria (Kofoworola,
2003). Engineering, in particular, is a field that requires
capital investments in all aspects, whether in hardware,
software, or humanware (training and skill acquisition).
Thus, the impact of low funding with which to enhance
delivery of education is keenly felt in the engineering
education industry (Idris & Rajuddin, 2012). There is a
need for transitions to Industry 4.0 reflect in the
engineering industry, the educational sector in general,
and the engineering education subsector in particular, in
order to establish Nigeria in the world of Industry 4.0.
2 DISRUPTIVE ENGINEERING IN THE TWENTY-FIRST
CENTURY
The term sustainable development (SD) has been
assigned various meanings by different organizations
over the years (Byrne, Desha, Fitzpatrick, & Hargroves,
2010). However, a universally-accepted definition is that
sustainable development is a development that meets
presents needs without compromising the capacity to
meet future needs (WCED, 1987). Thus, sustainable
development is not a future concept, it is a present
concept. Sustainable engineering, is generally considered
to be an engineering practice which is economically,
socially and environmentally safe (Byrne et al., 2010). The
environment has received increased amounts of attention
in the modern world, with the recent focus of concern on
adoption of environmentally-safe practices, fuels and
efforts to combat climate change and global warming
(Elum et al.,2017) .
In the 21st century, sustainability is a core value in
community and national development (Byrne et al., 2010)
which is not to be achieved by chance but by
intentionality. The intentionality involves accounting for
the fact that the global environment is being disruptively
infused with technology at a higher rate than in preceding
centuries (González, 2017). This disruptiveness, however,
need not be a negative phenomenon. A characteristic of
preceding industrial revolutions is that advances were
made in some particular engineering fields, such as
chemical engineering in the Industry 2.0 (Agarwal &
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Faculty of Engineering, Federal University Oye-Ekiti.
This is an open access article under the CC BY NC license. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)
http://dx.doi.org/10.46792/fuoyejet.v6i4.672
ISSN: 2579-0617 (Paper), 2579-0625 (Online)
Agarwal, 2017) and electronic engineering in the Digital
Revolution (Taalbi, 2019). Industry 4.0 involves
interdisciplinary advances in technology and thus has
strong economic potentials which will be beneficial to
nations that are able to harness them successfully (Xu,
David, & Kim, 2018).
The concept of disruptive technology is not completely
new (Paschek, 2019) as the invention of the cotton gin in
1794 revolutionized the textile industry of that era while
the invention of the aeroplane in 1903 changed the
transportation world (González, 2017; Lyubomirskiy,
2019) . Furthermore, technologies in the 21st century that
have emerged show the capacity to impact billions of lives
in a short span of time and in a much more involved way
than has been previously possible (Madry, 2020).
Instances abound of wide scope of effects on various
sectors that have already been made possible in the age of
Industry 4.0, such as the military and defence sectors of
nations (Lele, 2019), the health sector (Aceto et al. 2020),
manufacturing industries (Koh et al., 2019; Zheng et al.,
2018), scientific research (Hirschi, 2018), information
management and flow (Putz et al., 2021), trade dynamics
(Dzwigol et al., 2020), transportation and logistics
(Barreto, Amaral, & Pereira, 2017), and educational
activity (Shahroom & Hussin, 2018).
In 2020, the social networking platform known as
Facebook has over 2 billion active users within only 16
years of existence (Clement, 2020). Facebook, among
other social media, has the capability of identifying and
recommending people, including long-lost acquaintances
of users (Billedo, et al., 2020). It provides advertisements
to the targeted audiences that are most likely to respond
to such, thereby transforming the world of
advertisements and social connectivity. Several other
social media applications have sprung up over the years,
and have come to be of significant economic significance
over time especially during the COVID-19 pandemic
period (Santiago et al., 2021). The emergence of social
media has successfully disrupted the initial humanity’s
technological prowess in radio which was then
considered a revolutionary communication device when
analogue radio technology was considered ground-
breaking. Moreover, drones are now being used for
agricultural activities. Indeed, stakeholders and experts
globally are already planning for Industry 5.0 (Paschek,
2019) in which Nigeria should not be left out.
The German Federal Ministry of Education and Research
launched a project in 2016 featuring three universities, in
which remote and virtual laboratories were integrated
with online courses. Rapid improvements in learning
experience were recorded after implementation
(Grodotzki, Ortelt, & Tekkaya, 2018). In China, Industry
4.0 Innovation Centres were implemented in a similar
pilot project and it was found that the students of the
selected production management courses were more-
easily and more-quickly able to pick up the connections
between theoretical and practical skills and manifest
creativity when compared with traditional learning
methods (Yang et al., 2018). An analysis of the engineering
in Azerbaijan, an oil-producing country like Nigeria,
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FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology, Volume 6, Issue 4, December 2021
reflects a deliberate drive towards wholesale adoption of
Industry 4.0 in the value chain. However, in Azerbaijan,
there is also an imbalance of emphasis, favouring the
cyber aspect over the physical systems aspects, a situation
which the researchers have pointed out can be best
tackled at the educational level (Ahadov et al., 2019). The
situation also points to the importance of ensuring that
not only students of electrical or computer science and
engineering, but all engineering fields are introduced to
industry 4.0 in their educational processes.
In the Fourth Industrial Revolution, not only are new
skills emerging, but some currently available skills are
gradually becoming obsolete (Bongomin et al., 2020). This
disruption in skills requirement indicates that the
Nigerian educational sector need not only to evolve in
order to catch up with the train but need to “evolve to
keep evolving”. Reasonable sustainability can be
achieved in the Nigerian engineering educational system
when it is fashioned not to only produce near-future
engineers that are equipped with the skills to be relevant
in the global technological community, but to instil the
needed evolution culture that propels Nigeria’s
engineering capacity for continuous national and
international development in the long-term.
3 THE FEEDBACK LOOP BETWEEN INDUSTRY 4.0
AND ENGINEERING EDUCATION
The relationship between Industry 4.0 and the
engineering education sector indicated in Figure 1, is
fundamentally one of positive feedback on many levels.
The feedback relationship can be maximized for the
benefit of the national development. Figure 1 illustrates
that when engineering education is enhanced, the
standard of engineering personnel is raised, and the
success of such a nation in the 4IR era is more firmly
ensured through capacity building for globally relevant
contributions to 4IR technology.
It can be noted that Industry 4.0 can enhance engineering
education in multiple ways. Two major complementary
approaches to this effect are: applying 4IR technologies in
education delivery and integration of 4IR content into
Fig. 1: Feedback relationship between engineering education and Industry 4.0
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Faculty of Engineering, Federal University Oye-Ekiti.
This is an open access article under the CC BY NC license. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)
http://dx.doi.org/10.46792/fuoyejet.v6i4.672
ISSN: 2579-0617 (Paper), 2579-0625 (Online)
training programmes of engineers. The feedback
relationship can be maximized as considered in
subsequent sections.
3.1 SKILLS OF THE INDUSTRY 4.0 ENGINEER
New skill sets are needed by engineers to keep up, thrive
and contribute effectively. These include both hard and
soft skills, which the education system should be adapted
to strongly incorporate. Skills of the Industry 4.0 engineer
include:
Interdisciplinary Expertise: Engineers should be trained
not only to be knowledgeable in their own fields, but to
be knowledgeable enough to collaborate with
professionals outside their areas of specializations and
even outside the engineering profession (Weissbach &
Pflueger, 2018). Knowledge of fields that may not
ordinarily be considered core to engineering
specializations should be encouraged by the educational
system. Advances in biomedical engineering, for instance,
often involve strong input of electronics and medical
knowledge, computer science, and in most cases,
chemistry (Mikołajewska & Mikołajewski, 2017).
Developing a speech synthesis machine in an indigenous
Nigerian language would most likely involve engineers
working closely with language experts. Renewable
energy research efforts involve knowledge of physics,
electronics, materials engineering, chemistry and other
fields(Chang et al., 2017). Frequent innovations are more
likely to occur when individuals are skilled in multiple
fields (Beemt et al., 2020; Lattuca, Knight, Ro, &
Novoselich, 2017; Soboleva & Karavaev, 2020).
Creativity and Innovation: Technology is able to evolve
because of engineers who are creative, able to create
concepts, theories, devices, systems and new ways of
representing knowledge. Thus, flexible and creative
approaches to engineering should be encouraged and
cultivated during the training of engineers (Martínez et
al., 2021; Tekmen-Araci & Mann, 2019). Modern engineers
should look beyond being custodians of knowledge but at
being creators and appliers of knowledge (Kozlo &
Shemshurina, 2018).
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FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology, Volume 6, Issue 4, December 2021
Communication Skills: The modern world is a global
community, in which communication is a factor of
innovation (Jarmooka, et al., 2020). As new fields of
knowledge and new skills emerge, specialized and
standardized communication skills emerge. An example
is in computer programming and Computer Aided
Design (CAD), in which conventions are developed and
frequently revised for documentation of work, such as the
ISO standards in CAD (Morse et al.,2018) and the Python
Enhancement Proposals (PEP) convention in the field of
computer programming in which code is not just to be
functional but also readable (Fenton et al., 2017).
Engineers should also be able to effectively collaborate
with other experts in various fields outside of the
engineering profession.
Social and Business Knowledge: Engineering is a field
dedicated to provision and maintenance of goods and
services as an end product, thus, engineers should be
trained to have an awareness of the social, legal and
commercial context of their work (Byrne et al., 2010). They
should also be savvy of concepts such as quality
assessment, health and safety, ethics, political and
financial factors, codes of practice, and cultural contexts
in engineering practice (Zhang & Zhu, 2021).
Digital Skills: The Fourth Industrial Revolution builds
on the Digital Revolution, and digital information is an
enabler for Industry 4.0. Thus, engineers of the future,
whatever their specialization, should be able to harness
available digital resources and work with Information
and Communication Technology in order to increase their
effectiveness. It is found that much of the world’s ability
to carry on during the COVID-19 pandemic is due to the
increasing digitalization of operations. From testing kit
production to vaccine research, predictive modelling,
remote communications and video conferencing, digital
technology has contributed in diverse ways to the global
response to the pandemic, in ways that have been
facilitated by Industry 4.0.
Renewable/ Sustainable Technology: Sustainability
requires the practice of engineering in ways that do not
degrade the environment over time. This requires
engineers to learn how to solve problems in safe ways
(Byrne et al., 2010). For example, the automobiles of the
future are being envisioned to produce minimum carbon
emissions, and even rely on alternative energy sources
and propulsion methods, apart from fossil fuels and
combustion engines, such as batteries and solar energy
and electric engines respectively (Gunkel et al., 2020).
Future engineers have to be conversant with modern
technologies such as these, and learn to build systems
around them, for sustainable national development and
to be at par in Industry 4.0.
Discipline-Specific Technology: Engineering is
practiced with numerous modern hardware and software
tools. In automobile engineering, for instance, On-Board
Diagnostics (OBD) has become a standard tool for vehicle
diagnostics (Adamu et al., 2021; Abubakar et al., 2019. As
such, engineers and technologists in that specialization, as
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Faculty of Engineering, Federal University Oye-Ekiti.
This is an open access article under the CC BY NC license. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)
http://dx.doi.org/10.46792/fuoyejet.v6i4.672
ISSN: 2579-0617 (Paper), 2579-0625 (Online)
appropriate, should learn how to use these technologies.
In the event that superior technologies emerge in a
specialization, the training of engineers should be
adapted to include mastery of such technologies as well.
Control engineers in industry and in academics now use
several mathematical programs to enhance their R&D,
such as MATLAB (Odaro & Bello, 2020). Engineering
educational institutions can purchase licenses for these
software packages and incorporate these software
packages into the way students learn engineering to make
them more effective in the recent dispensation.
Design Skills : The fundamental difference between the
engineer and the scientist is that the engineer’s role is
more often to apply knowledge. Technologies and
improvements on them are born from ideas and
understanding. Also, technologies exist at different
system levels. For example, in computing hardware, there
is silicon-level design, transistor level design, the gate-
level design, register-level design, processor-level design,
and other possible levels of design depending on the
application (Mirzaee et al., 2017). Thus, Industry 4.0
Engineers should be trained with a view to equipping
them with practicable design skills at various levels in all
specializations.
3.2 POTENTIALS FOR ENGINEERING EDUCATION
ENHANCEMENT WITH 4IR TECHNOLOGY
Education delivery methods are very important, because
they directly affect the effectiveness of the education
process. Industry 4.0 has a subset known as Education 4.0,
which merges education and industry in realistic
contexts, preparing educands for responsibilities in the
modern world (Ally & Wark, 2019). Various approaches
can be applied to enhance education of engineers for
sustainability. Some methods which are proposed,
including some which have been experimentally applied
with promising results are:
Teaching Factory: The teaching factory model of
education is similar to the training of medical
professionals whereby medical schools and hospitals are
combined as teaching hospitals. This type of system is
also applicable to engineering students, such that the
teaching of theory, practical, design and manufacturing
education is delivered in a combined way in which
components are linked together in a form that is relevant
to industrial practice, with the use of delivery
mechanisms that allow the production environment to
be accurately represented and experienced during the
learning process (Chryssolouris, Mavrikios, & Rentzos,
2016). This method will help to smoothly inculcate the
realities of the industrial environment into students and
enable them to appreciate the processes for developing
real engineering solutions, such as planning, human
resources, bottleneck identification and elimination, as
well as utilization and maintenance of real equipment as
opposed to purely hypothetical scenarios. Such a system
is easily updated, because the content of the curricula
adapts with the modern industrial practices.
Distance Learning Technology and Massive Open
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FUOYE Journal of Engineering and Technology, Volume 6, Issue 4, December 2021
Online Courses (MOOCs): These are online courses
offered in an open-access manner, via the web, to
participants (Mogo et al., 2018). MOOCs offer both
traditional teaching materials such as recorded video
lectures and documented courseware, homework,
assessment and feedback, as well as interactive activities
such as forums for interaction. MOOCs can also be
structured to follow a regular semester style. The major
advantage of MOOCs are their flexibility, the open access,
and the accessibility. The openness also implies that they
could be centralized and decentralized as necessary, or
restricted as is necessary. For example, a MOOC system
can be established and managed directly at school level,
by private bodies, by Non-Governmental Organizations,
or even at National level.
Virtual/Simulated Laboratories: Experiments and
laboratory exercises, as well as machinery can be
modelled and simulated on computers such that they can
be performed and interacted with virtually (Liu,
Valdiviezo-díaz, Riofrio, & Sun, 2015). This provides the
learners with visualization of systems and
conceptualization and helps to familiarize them with
procedures by being interactive. This method is
particularly useful for learning lower level fundamental
physical concepts and is found to be particularly effective
especially at secondary school level to give solid technical
background for engineering training(Chou & Feng, 2019).
Students can be able to, for example, edit the parameters
of a virtual electric motor, observing the effects on its
speed with certain voltage, without the inherent risk of
electric shock. It is also a better form of alternative-to-
practical than printed pictures, that can be implemented
more cheaply than VR for some types of experiments.
These simulations are distinguished from Virtual Reality
(VR) in that they are mostly carried out on 2-D
workstation computer systems or even tablet computers
(Edeh et al., 2021).
Virtual Reality/ Augmented Reality (VR/AR) Learning:
VR/ AR is one of the main technologies emerging in
Industry 4.0. It has mainly found application in the
entertainment industries, but has great potential for the
education industry, especially in practical-oriented fields
such as engineering and medicine. VR is an immersive
simulation of the physical world in which the user can
see, hear, grab, lift, hold, and interact with objects almost
as if they were physically present (Mourtzis, Zogopoulos,
& Vlachou, 2018). This is done by the use of sensors and
actuators to accurately reproduce the sensory interactions
with the systems and environments being virtually
created. With VR, pilots, for example, are able to learn
how to fly planes, feeling the movements of the plane,
seeing the weather and turning their heads and seeing the
controls and operating them. One could also enter a ship’s
engine room to interact with the components, all this
being done virtually. It is easy to see how such training
could be incredibly beneficial to learners to help develop
invaluable skills in operation of equipment and
inspection of systems.
Remote Laboratories: Using the power of Internet of
Things (IoT) and Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), it is now
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Faculty of Engineering, Federal University Oye-Ekiti.
This is an open access article under the CC BY NC license. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)
http://dx.doi.org/10.46792/fuoyejet.v6i4.672
ISSN: 2579-0617 (Paper), 2579-0625 (Online)
possible to conduct lectures and actual physical
experiments in teaching laboratories over long distances.
The devices in the system can be controlled remotely,
while the resulting measurements can be detected by
sensors and be automatically forwarded to wherever it is
needed. For example, one does not have to enter the lab
every time to manually measure the height of liquid in a
cylinder or pH value of an experiment in progress at
regular intervals (Cardoso, Sousa, & Gil, 2016). It can be
arranged such that the researcher or student can access
the pH value at any time, using a platform on their
personal computers, and even issue commands to the
experiment setup to record the pH value continuously
over time which can be seen as a graph even from the
student’s bedroom. This shows enormous potential to
make learning more accessible and flexible for researchers
and engineers in training.
University-Industrial Linkages: In engineering, practical
skill, experience, or at least practical knowledge is very
important compared to other fields, similar to the medical
profession, such that even academics benefit from
practical experience. For this reason, engineering
education deserves more industrial input that the average
field of study (Ali Idris & Rajuddin, 2012). While the
teaching factory tries to make the curriculum delivery
directly relevant to the industrial requirements, it is also
desirable to have actual industrial component of
engineering education, and collaboration between
academia and industry should be encouraged. For
example, students could be funded by and write their
theses even at doctorate level on relevant topics to some
engineering establishments, which has been found to be
useful in industries such as the aerospace industry
(Gautrey, 1998). This has been the trend in the developed
nations. A deliberate and informed effort by relevant
stakeholders in Nigeria to achieve this in Nigeria is
needed and will go a long way in improving the outcome-
based effectiveness of engineering education in Nigeria.
4 CONCLUSION
In order to address the reality of disruptive technology,
the feedback relationship which exists between
engineering education and Industry 4.0 needs rapt
attention of stakeholders. Ways through which the
Nigerian engineering educational system can enhance the
potentials of its educands towards becoming competitive
professionals in the disruptive-technology engineering
era have been discussed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the
reviewers’ panel at 2020 National Engineering
Conference, held in Abuja, Nigeria to this paper.
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