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Copyright © 2021 by McGraw Hill Education. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the
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VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY,
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This book is dedicated to my father, Peter A. Fiori who taught me to love and appreciate all
aspects of building and to respect every trade. The truly great men and women are those who
actually execute the work.

Christine M. Fiori
Clifford J. Schexnayder

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 CONTENTS

About the Authors

List of Contributors
Preface

Chapter 1. The Construction Industry

Construction
Glossary of Project Delivery Method Terms
A Goods-Producing Industry
Project Scope
Project Quality
Organization of the Industry
Residential Construction
Commercial/Institutional Construction
High-Rise Building Construction
Industrial Construction
Infrastructure Construction
Public and Private Works
Project Participants
Owners
General Contractors
Subcontractors or Specialty Contractors
Designers, Architects, and Engineers
Construction Manager
Trades
Labor Unions
Insurance Companies
Banks
Suppliers
Permitting Agencies and Building Authorities
The Public
Industry Associations
Construction Labor Force
Project Labor Agreements
Construction Crafts
Safety
Organization of the Construction Business

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Opportunities
Delivering a Better Product
Our Vision

Chapter 2. The Project Team

Team
Manager versus Leader
Management
Plan
Organize
Staff
Direct
Control
Communication
Team Building
Trust
Partnering
Project Focus and Conclusion
People Working Together

Chapter 3. Contract Administration

Description of a Contract
Definition
Essential Contract Documents
Agreement
General Conditions
Supplementary Conditions
Drawings
Specifications
Addenda
Documents Included by Reference
Contractual Relationships
Owners
Designers
General Contractors
Subcontractors
Material Suppliers
Construction Managers
Bid and Award Process
Bidding
Bid Depository

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 Award
Notice to Proceed
Standard Contract Documents
Government
American Institute of Architects
Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee (EJCDC)
Construction Owners Association of America
Types of Construction Contracts
Lump Sum
Unit Price
Cost Plus
Incentive Contracts
Negotiated Contracts
Job Order Contracts
Design–Build
Construction Management-At-Risk (CMAR)
Alternative Technical Concepts (ATCs)
Public Private Partnership (PPP or P3s)
Bonds (Guarantees)
Bid Bonds
Performance Bonds
Payment Bonds
Bonding Limits
Contractor Insurance
Workers’ Compensation Insurance
Commercial General Liability Insurance
Builder’s Risk
Equipment Insurance
Umbrella Insurance
Owner-Controlled Insurance Programs–OCIPs
Certificates
Subrogation
Administering a Construction Contract
Preconstruction Conference
Subcontracts
Submittals
Request for Information
Pay Estimates
Change Orders
Claims
Dispute Resolution
Alternative Dispute Resolution
Liquidated Damages and Substantial Completion

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 Final Inspection

Chapter 4. Construction Accounting

Accounting Practices
Income Statement
Retained Earnings
Balance Sheet
Assets
Current Assets
Long-Term Assets
Liabilities
Owner’s Equity
Liquidity and Working Capital
Current Ratio
Construction Contract Revenue Recognition
Cash Method of Revenue Recognition
Straight Accrual Method of Revenue Recognition
Completed-Contract Method of Revenue Recognition
Percentage-of-Completion Method of Revenue Recognition
Over/Underbilling
Contract Status Report
Financial Statement Analysis
Dollar and Percentage Change
Component Percentages
Ratios

Chapter 5. Construction Estimates

Introduction
Conceptual Estimates
Feasibility Estimates
Engineering and Design Estimates
Estimates for Construction
Estimating Methodology
Work Breakdown Structure
Degree of Detail
Parametric Estimates
Cost-Estimating Relationships
Accuracy and Completeness
Review
Estimate Preparation Basics
Review the Contract Documents

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 Plan the Work
Quantities
Types of Costs
Production
Productivity and Price Resources
Development of Specific Tasks
Labor Unit Cost
Equipment Unit Cost
Material Unit Cost
Unit Cost Reference Data
Costs and Pricing
Supporting Documentation
Labor
Crews
Wage Rates
Overtime and Shift Differential
Taxes and Insurance
Fringe Benefits
Labor Productivity
Productivity Adjustment
Construction Equipment and Plant
Selection of Equipment
Machine Production Rates
Mobilization and Demobilization
Small Tools
Permanent Materials and Supplies
Sources of Pricing Data
Forward Pricing
Freight
Handling and Storage
Taxes
Subcontracted Work
Use of Quotations
Overhead Costs
Job Office Overhead
Duration of Overhead Items
General and Administrative Overhead
Distribution of Overhead

Chapter 6. Estimating Building Projects

Symbols
Computer-Aided Design

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Understanding Project Drawings
General Information
Floor Plans
Elevations and Sections
Special Details
Footing and Foundation
Structural Plans
Mechanical, Plumbing, and Electrical
Specifications
Organization of a CSI Technical Specification
Measurement
Perimeter
Relationship between Perimeters
Concrete Construction (CSI Division 3)
Formwork
Reinforcing
Curing
Pricing Concrete
Masonry Construction (CSI Division 4)
Position of the Brick
Bond
Joints
Factors Impacting Masonry Cost
Masonry Quantities
Pricing Masonry
Metals (CSI Division 5)
Steel Shapes and Nomenclature Information
Sequence of Take-Off
Pricing Steel
Wood, Plastic, and Composites (CSI Division 6)
Lumber
Framing Take-Off
Thermal and Moisture Protection (CSI Division 7)
Openings (CSI Division 8)
Door and Window Schedules
Pricing Doors and Windows
Finishes (CSI Division 9)
Finish Schedules
Finish Work Quantity Take-Off
Estimating Finishes
Finish Work Analysis
Plumbing (CSI Division 22) and Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (CSI Division 23)
Electrical (CSI Division 26)

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 Important Points
Design Build Estimating
Resources

Chapter 7. Scheduling Projects

Project Planning
Historical Perspective
The Planning Process
Assumptions Based on Facts
Select the Course of Action
Activities/Tasks
Activity Duration
Bar Charts
Critical Path Method
Activity Logic Network
Schedule Calculations
Forward Pass
Backward Pass
Critical Path and Critical Activities
Precedence Logic Diagrams
Finish-to-Start
Start-to-Start
Finish-to-Finish
Start-to-Finish
Calendar Date Schedule
Scheduling Activities
Crew and Equipment Resources
Crashing
Pull Driven Schedules
Computer Support
Resource

Chapter 8. Risk Management

Overview
Risk Management Plan
Goals and Objectives of the Risk Management Process
Risk Management Scope
Risk Management Organization
Risk Management Process
Establishing Context
Identification of Risks (Threats and Opportunities)

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Risk Register
Risk Breakdown Structure
Evaluating Risk (Risk Rating)
Cost and Schedule Evaluation
Risk Responses
Response Options for an Identified Threat
Response Options for Opportunities
Control and Monitor Risks
Communication and Consultation
Common Construction Project Risks

Chapter 9. Building Materials

Concrete
Cementitious Materials
Portland Cements
Mortars
Lime Products
Plasters
Masonry Cements
Admixtures for Concrete
Air-entraining
Water-reducing
Retarding
Accelerating
Plasticizers
Pozzolans
Coloring Admixtures
Fibers for Concrete Mixes
Miscellaneous Admixtures
Aggregates
Gradation of Aggregates
Amount of Fine Material Passing the No. 200 Sieve
Hardness
Soundness
Particle Shape
Alkali Reactivity
Freezing and Thawing Resistance
Organic Impurities
Heavyweight and Lightweight Aggregates
Portland-Cement Concrete
Normal-Weight Concrete
Lightweight Concrete

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 Heavyweight Concrete
High-Performance Concretes
Nonstructural or Foamed Cellular Concretes
Polymer Concretes
Concrete Masonry Units
Brick Masonry
Brick Manufacturing
Brick Properties
Brick Sizing
Calculating Brick Openings
Brick Classifications and Grades
Reinforcing Steel
Structural Steel
Wood
Trees
Lumber Grading
Lumber Dimensions
Wood Products
Glue-Lams
Structural Composite Lumber
Structural Wood Panels
Glass
Primary Ingredients
Glass Properties
Glazing for Windows, Doors, and Skylights
Safety Glazing
Glass in Handrails and Guards
Structural Glass Baluster Panels
Glazing in Athletic Facilities
Glass in Walkways
Asphalt and Bituminous Products
Asphalts for Dampproofing and Waterproofing
Bituminous Roofing
Built-Up Roofing
Roofing Felts
Roll Roofing
Asphalt Mastics and Grouts
Bituminous Pavements
Structure of Asphalt Pavements
Asphalt Mixing Plants
Asphalt Paving

Chapter 10. Building Construction Methods

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Mobilization
Building Systems
Houses
Site Preparation
Foundation
Framing
Building Envelope
Walls
Roof
Insulation
Windows and Doors
Interior Walls
Utilities
Electrical
Water
Mechanical
Environmental Control Systems
Interior Finish
Commercial Building
White Box Buildings
Finished Commercial Buildings
Tilt-Up Construction
Casting the panels
Multistory Buildings
Building Foundation
Building Frames
Construction Challenges
Completing the Frame
Building Interior
Plumbing
Electrical
Above Ceiling Coordination

Chapter 11. Foundations

Structural Excavation
Dewatering
Support of Excavation
Shallow Trenches
Single-Sided Bracing Supports
Limitation on the Use of Diagonal Bracing
Cantilever Supports
Soldier Piles and Lagging

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 Steel Sheet Pile
Footings
Individual Footing
Spread footing or Strip footings and Wall Footings
Shallow Foundations
Deep Foundations
Piers

Chapter 12. Electrical Construction

Basic Electrical Theory

Key Terms
Building Information Modeling (BIM)
BIM Participants
Concrete and Composite Decks
Framing
Shop Drawings and Product Data
2-Dimensional Details
Raceways
Conduit
Cable Tray
Wireway
Surface Raceway
Electrical Duct
Raceway and Conduit Supports
Attachments
Rack Systems
Seismic Bracing
Raceway Bracing
Equipment Bracing
Light Fixture Bracing
Wire
Materials
Insulation
Wire Size
Wire Color
Ampacity
Cable
Electrical Boxes
Device Boxes
Junction Boxes
Box Supports
Conduit Bodies

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Electrical Devices
Receptacles
NEMA Receptacle Configurations
Control Devices
Firestopping
Moldable “Putty” Pads
Thru-Wall Penetrations
Thru-Floor Firestopping
Normal Power Distribution Systems
Primary and Secondary Power Distribution
Feeders
Bus Duct
Branch Power
Panelboards and Load Centers
Branch Circuits Breakers
Branch Circuits
Lighting
Functions
Controls
Emergency Power Systems
Generators
Control and Paralleling Switchgear
Uninterruptible Power Supply
Fire Alarm
Fire Alarm Control Panel and Annunciators
Fire Alarm Control Panel
Termination Cabinets and Remote Panels
Fire Alarm Communication Paths (Conduit, Cable, and Wire)
Initiating Devices
Notification Devices
Structured Cabling
Entrance Facilities
Equipment Room
Backbone Cabling
Telecommunications Room
Horizontal Cabling
Work Area
Wi-Fi or WLAN (Wireless Networking)

Chapter 13. Mechanical Piping Systems

Piping Systems Used in the Built Environment

Plumbing Systems—CSI Division 22

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 Potable Water Distribution
HDPE
PVC
Interior DWV PVC Systems
Water Supply
Fire Suppression Piping
Fire Suppression Systems
Chillers and Boilers
Pumps
Fire Pumps
Pre-Fabricated Assemblies
Pipe Insulation
Expansion and Contraction in Piping
Backflow Prevention
Plumbing Fixtures
Piping Coordination
Piping Commissioning

Chapter 14. HVAC

HVAC Systems
Heating for Buildings
Boilers
Electric Boilers
Condensing Boilers
Pulse Combustion Boilers
Cast Iron Sectional Boiler
Water Tube Boilers
Fin Tube Boilers
Fire Tube Boilers
Feedwater Pumps
Deaerators
Furnaces
Electric Furnaces
Gas-fired Furnaces
Fuel Fired Heaters
Heat Exchangers for HVAC
Central Cooling Equipment
Refrigerant Compressors
Refrigeration Cycle
Centrifugal Compressors
Reciprocating Compressors
Rotary Compressors

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Condensers
Air Cooled Condenser
Water Cooled Condensers
Chillers
Absorption Chillers
Centrifugal Chillers
Air Cooled Chillers
Water Cooled Chillers
Energy Recovery Systems
Cooling Towers
Evaporative Air Coolers
Decentralized HVAC Equipment
Packaged Air Conditioners
Humidity Control Equipment
HVAC Air Distribution
Insulation Requirements
Pipe Insulation
HVAC Piping and Pumps
Hydronic Pumps and Piping
Condensate Pumps
Refrigerant Piping
Ductwork
Ductwork Materials
Duct Accessories
Plenums
HVAC Fans
HVAC Controls
Solar Energy Heating Equipment
Geothermal Systems
Types of Geothermal Systems
HVAC Commissioning

Chapter 15. Energy Efficient Building Systems

Energy Efficient Buildings

LEED Rating System
ASHRAE Standard 189.1
Thermal Comfort
Ventilation
Mechanical Ventilation
Building Envelope
Wall Systems
Exterior Above-Grade Walls

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 Cavity Wall
Barrier Wall
Fenestrations
Example Application
Insulation
Lighting
Daylighting Systems
Appliances and Equipment
Controls
Energy Metering
HVAC Controls
Lighting Controls

Chapter 16. Software Support

Building Information Modeling (BIM)

Clash Detection
4D BIM – Schedule Information
5D BIM – Cost Information
Challenges
Estimating Solutions
Quantity Takeoff
Cost Estimating
Planning and Scheduling
Document Management
Storage and Distribution
Version Control
Workflow Management
Project Cost Management
Job Cost Accounting
Control Budget
Earned Value Management
Forecasting
Field Execution
The Future of Technology in Construction

Chapter 17. Productivity

Introduction
Influence of the Owner of Productivity
Design and Procurement Methods
Pre-construction Planning
Changes of Project Scope

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 Communication
Materials Management
Factors Related to Management and Leadership
Job Satisfaction and Motivational Factors
Organizational Factors
Labor Issues
Measured Mile Analysis
Earned Value Analysis
Determine Percent Complete
Determine Planned Value (PV)
Determine Earned Value (EV)
Identify the Actual Cost (AC)
Calculate Schedule Variance (SV)
Calculate Cost Variance (CV)
Determine Other Status Indicators
Estimate at Completion (EAC)
Work Sampling
Time and Motion Studies
Lean Construction Approaches
Practical Lean Tools

Chapter 18. Quality Management

Importance of Quality
Quality Control
Quality Control Plan
Organization
Personnel
Communications
Assurance
Subcontractors and Suppliers
Specifications
Inspections and Tests
Usefulness
Documentation
Control of Non-Conformances
Project Completion Inspections
Quality Assurance
International Organization for Standardization
Core QA Elements
Quality Assurance and APD Methods
Building Code Requirements
Structuring for Success

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Total Quality Management
Customer Focus
Employee Empowerment
Process Centered
A Unified System
Strategic and Systematic Approach—Vision
Fact-Based Decision Making
Communications
Continuous Improvement
Delivering Quality
Employee Empowerment and Training
Improvement
Quality Management Plans

Chapter 19. Equipment for Building Construction

Tower Cranes
Mobile Cranes
Loader Cranes
Concrete Mixers
Concrete Pumps
Material Handlers
Mobile Lifts
Landscaping Equipment
Safety

Chapter 20. Safety

OSHA Requirements
Recordkeeping Requirements
Reporting Requirements
Contractor Requirements
Managing Safety
Leading Safety
Corporate Health and Safety Plan
Education and Training
Hazard Identification and Assessment
Hazard Prevention and Control
Develop and Update a Hazard Control Plan
Conducting a Job Hazard Analysis
Education and Training
Program Evaluation and Improvement
Incident Investigations

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Subcontractor Management
Contract Requirements – Site Specific Safety Programs
Safety Regulations
Who is Responsible for Site Safety
Safety Orientation Procedures and Policies
Subcontractors
General Housekeeping
Who and When Safety Inspections are Conducted
Required Personal Protective Equipment
Incident Reports
Work Zone Warning Devices
Fire Protection
Equipment Inspections
Control of Lockout/Tag-Out
Hazard Communications
Medical Treatment
Employee Periodic Plan Review
Hazard Control Measures
OSHA Fatal Four
Falls
Trenches and Open Excavations
Electrocution

Index

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Clifford J. Schexnayder is a Del E. Webb School of Construction, Arizona State University
Eminent Scholar Emeritus. He has authored five editions of Construction Planning, Equipment &
Methods, two editions of Construction Management Fundamentals, and the latest edition of
Moving the Earth, all with McGraw-Hill, Inc.
He received his Ph.D. in civil engineering (construction engineering and management) from
Purdue University, and a Masters and Bachelors in civil engineering from Georgia Institute of
Technology. A construction engineer with over 50 years of practical experience, Cliff has
worked with major construction contractors as field engineer, estimator, and corporate chief
engineer. In addition, he served with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers on active duty and in the
reserves, retiring as a colonel. His last assignment was as Executive Director, Directorate of
Military Programs, Office of the Chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C.
He has taught construction management, estimating, and planning at Arizona State
University, Louisiana Tech University, Northeastern, and the University of New Haven. As a
visiting professor he taught these courses at Virginia Tech, the Universidad de Piura, in Peru, the
United States Air Force Academy, and at the Israel Institute of Technology, Technion City,
Haifa, Israel.
Cliff served as a consultant to the Autoridad del Canal de Panama reviewing the cost
estimate for the 3rd Lane project and for the Secretary of the Business, Transportation & Housing
Agency of California appraising issues associated with constructing the main east span of the
San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. He is a member of the National Academy of Construction
and the Academia Panamericana de Ingeniería.

Christine Fiori is the Program Director of the Construction Management Program at Drexel
University where she teaches courses in Project Controls, Equipment Applications and
Economics, and Strategic Management. Prior to joining the faculty at Drexel University, she
served as the Preston and Catharine White Fellow and Associate Director of the Myers-Lawson
School of Construction at Virginia Tech. She received her Bachelors, Masters, and Ph.D. in Civil
Engineering with a concentration in Geotechnical Engineering from Drexel University. She was
a Civil Engineering officer in the United States Air Force and taught at both the United States
Air Force Academy and Arizona State University.
Christine led a National Science Foundation sponsored team to explore the construction
techniques of the Inca, specifically the Inca road throughout Peru. This research supported
development of the Smithsonian exhibit at the Museum of the Native American Indian
“Engineering an Empire.” She was recognized as an Engineering News Record Top 25
Newsmakers of 2010 for her research on the Inca Road. In addition, Dr. Fiori was featured on the
Science Channel in an Episode of Strip the City pertaining to Machu Picchu. She has led diverse
groups of student teams to Vietnam, Kenya, Belize, Guatemala, and Haiti to complete
construction projects and community engagement programs. Currently her work is focused in
Belize and Africa. She also serves as a Bridges to Prosperity Construction Mentor, serves on the
Board of Directors and as a mentor for the ACE Mentoring program of Southeastern
Pennsylvania, was elected as the first Affiliate member of the Carpenters’ Company of the City
and County of Philadelphia, and is an instructor at the United Brotherhood of Carpenters and

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Joiners Training Center in Las Vegas, Nevada.

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Lester M. Hunkele, III, P.E., F. CMAA, Hunkele Consulting, Myrtle Beach, South Carolina.
Lester managed the technical, contractual, and administrative aspects of the development and
design-build of both the four million-square-foot Ronald Reagan Building in Washington, D.C.
and the six million-square-foot Pentagon Renovation surrounding 9/11. (Chapter 2: The Project
Team.)

Meredith G. Kinkle is the founder of Kinkle Consulting, LLC. She has more than 14 years of
experience in planning, and scheduling of infrastructure, roadway, commercial, and bridge
projects. She was named ENR’s Southeast Top Young Professional of 2017. Kinkle Consulting
provides technical and Project Management consulting using 3D Modeling integration with 4D
capabilities. They also provide schedule auditing and analysis as well as delay and claim
management. (Chapter 7: Scheduling Projects.)

Daniel D’Angelo, P.E., Clifton Park, New York. Principal Civil Engineer with Applied Research
Associates, Inc., Risk Manager to the Executive Steering Committee, technical adviser, and
federal liaison for the Tappan Zee Hudson River Crossing Project. He provides consultant
services on risk management and project management. (Chapter 8: Risk Management.)

Robert Moreno, Agoura Hills, California. Sr. Vice President, Southern California for
Bergelectric. Projects of note include the Children’s Hospital of Orange County and St. John’s
Santa Monica Hospital. (Chapter 12: Electrical Construction.)

Lantz Holtzhower, Ph.D. Kennesaw State University, Marietta, Georgia, Assistant Professor
Construction Management, College of Architecture and Construction Management. (Chapter 13:
Mechanical Piping Systems.)

Aaron Cohen, CPC, Phoenix, Arizona. Director at InEight Inc. for building estimating and
project management software solutions and AGC Lecturer at Arizona State University. (Chapter
16: Software Support.)

Aviad Shapira, D.Sc., Professor (Emeritus) of Construction Engineering and Management,

Technion–Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel. Over the years he was a Visiting
Professor at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque and at the University of Wisconsin–
Madison. Dr. Shapira accrued his practical experience as a project engineer and project manager
in a general contracting firm prior to pursuing an academic career. He specializes in building
construction equipment selection, operation, management, economics, productivity, and safety.
(Chapter 19: Equipment for Building Construction.)

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 PREFACE

While many construction task operations have not changed, the industry has moved away from
design-bid-build project delivery to Design/Build and Construction Manager/General Contractor
(CMGC) methods. Only 19% of the construction put in place in the next 3 years will be
delivered by the old design-bid-build approach. Sustainability is the political/social buzzword;
however, a better statement of what can and is now being delivered is low-energy or zero-energy
use buildings. New materials and designs allow creation of energy-efficient homes and buildings.
The concepts are not new; in fact the Greek philosopher Socrates studied how to build energy-
efficient structures 2,500 years ago.

BIM
BIM models are different from 2D or even 3D CAD drawings. They are made up of intelligent
objects, so when design changes are made, the model is updated throughout design no matter
who is working with it. BIM is a process, not an application

Other critically important construction project delivery issues are: (1) schedule to meet the
owner’s need, time to market, (2) comprehensive work safety, and (3) delivered quality. To
accomplish these goals, builders are moving to coordination of tasks using Building Information
Modeling (BIM) and other linked software systems. These tools provide all members of the
project team with access to current project drawings and related documents, including
specifications. “The future of construction is connecting the field to the office.”1
The challenge, even on small projects, is to ensure that everyone—not just the engineers in
the office but the superintendents and foremen in the field directing the work—is working with
the latest set of plans. When a project is constructed using paper documents and plans, someone
is going to be left out of the data-loop. The result will be delays and rework.

Software tools such as BIM and PlanGrid are the digitized future of construction processes.
They serve to accelerate project delivery, improve productivity, and enhance delivered quality.

Always be aware of available tools but never forget; construction is a people business and
success goes to those who spend time personally observing and interacting with people. Human
relationships are critically important and must be developed. The computer and the apps on the
iPads are tools, but people lead and perform the work of construction. This imperative is
discussed in Chapter 2: The Project Team.
Many individuals and firms have supplied information and illustrations for this work, and we
owe them a great debt of gratitude. Others have freely given their time to explain specialty areas
of construction. Their support and help is appreciated. However, full responsibility for all content
rests with our author team.
We solicit comments on this edition.

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 —CLIFF SCHEXNAYDER
Construction Engineer
Frisco, Texas

—CHRISTINE FIORI
Program Director of the Construction Management Program
Drexel University

1Tracy Young, PlanGrid’s co-founder and CEO. PlanGrid is now (20 Dec. 2018) part of
Autodesk.

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CHAPTER 1
THE CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

The construction industry is the second largest goods-producing industry in the United States. It
employs more than 6.4 million people in craft and management positions. Construction work can
be broken down by type: residential, commercial/institutional, high-rise building, industrial, and
heavy/highway. Most contracts are awarded to a general contractor who awards subcontracts to
specialty contractors. Today, Alternative Project Delivery methods are used for the majority of
projects, with the most common project delivery method being design–build where the designer
and contractor are a team from the beginning of a project. This is a change from the design–bid–
build project delivery method of the past.

CONSTRUCTION
The use of Alternative Project Delivery (APD) methods, sometimes referred to as Alternative
Contracting Methods (ACMs), including variations of Design Build (DB), Construction
Manager/General Contractor (CM/GC), Construction Management-at-Risk (CM-at-Risk), and
Alternative Technical Concepts (ATCs) has changed the roles and responsibilities of owners,
designers, and contractors. To further complicate the situation, many of these delivery methods
include a private financing component, Public-Private Partnership (PPP or P3s), adding a fourth
participant interested in timely delivery of a project—the concessionaire. Almost all sectors of
the construction industry, building, industrial, and heavy-highway, have embraced the use of
APD methods. Such alternative delivery methods are changing how a project owner or a
concessionaire, the designer, and the contractor:
1. Achieve project success
2. Manage project delivery
3. Allocate Quality Assurance (QA) activities
4. Allocate project risks

APDs are about identifying opportunities and allocation of risk.

GLOSSARY OF PROJECT DELIVERY METHOD TERMS

A + B bidding (cost-plus-time bidding). A bidding procedure used to select the low
responsive bidder based on a monetary combination of the traditional bid price (A) and the
time (B) needed to complete the project or a critical portion of the project.
Alternative Technical Concepts (ATCs). Proposing teams are allowed to submit

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 innovative, cost-effective solutions for achieving project success. The offered solutions must
be equal to or better than the owner’s design and/or construction criteria. The ATC process is
often used when a project is being delivered with the design–build method.
Construction Manager (CM). Sometimes referred to as the “construction manager—
general contractor (CMGC)” method.
Construction Manager at Risk (CMAR). When the CM makes a commitment to deliver
the project within a guaranteed maximum price (GMP).
Design–Bid–Build (DBB). A project delivery method where a completed project design is
provided to the bidding contractors. The project owner has separate contracts with the
designer and the construction contractor. Construction cost (bid price) is a significant factor
in contractor selection. The method is often termed the “traditional method.”
Design–Build (DB). More project owners are entering into a single contract with one entity,
the design-build team, to deliver their projects.
Design–Build–Finance–Operate–Maintain (DBFOM). This method requires the contractor
to design, construct, finance, operate, and maintain an owner’s facility. It is a type of Public–
Private Partnership (P3) concession.
Multiparameter bidding. A bidding procedure used to select a project contractor based on a
monetary combination of the traditional bid price (A), the completion time (B), and other
elements (C) such as construction quality, safety, and life-cycle costs. Quantification of the
elements and bidder evaluation methodology are included in the procedure. The method is
sometimes termed A + B + C bidding.

A GOODS-PRODUCING INDUSTRY
Construction is a goods-producing industry. Still, certain segments of the industry are service
businesses: for instance, designers, who prepare studies and designs for clients, provide a
service. On the other hand, contractors, who build facilities, produce a product. The most
significant differences between the construction industry and most other product industries are
the size and cost of the product, and in most cases custom-design, one-of-a-kind features. The
product to be delivered by any construction contract is also a manufactured product: a building,
road, factory, church, residence, or office building. These products are constructed in response to
the specific needs of a customer. Contractors service the needs of their customers, but the
product of construction is not a service: it is a product, properly built in accordance with the
expectations of an owner.
Construction in the United States can be described as a single industry. But it includes more
than just the work of building structures on a project site. It includes engineers and architects
who create project designs, the manufacturers and distributors of the materials and equipment for
the project, the construction managers who lead the on-site work, unions and tradespeople who
perform the actual work, the municipal officials who review plans and enforce the building
codes, the workers at concrete batch plants where concrete is proportioned for delivery to the
project site, the workforce in manufacturing facilities assembling prefabricated components used
in many buildings, and many others in supporting roles. The industry is in reality a sector of the
economy.
Construction can be an easy-in, easy-out business. It is easy to get started because the

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licensing requirements are not uniform from state to state and not difficult to fulfill in most
states. Nearly anyone with a pickup truck and a cell phone can start a small construction
business. The number of people keeping their accounts receivable tallied on one visor of the
pickup and the accounts payable tallied on the other is probably quite large.
For very small companies, getting out of the construction business is not difficult either. All
it takes is one bad project. Most construction companies are small, having only one or two
permanent employees. Such companies are generally not able to withstand a single
unsatisfactory or deficient project or a down year, so the number of construction companies
experiencing failure each year is quite large when compared to other industries. About 10,000
construction companies, somewhere around 1–5% of the industry, fail every year with about $2
billion in liabilities. According to many studies, profit margins in the industry can be very
minimal, only about 1–3%.

PROJECT SCOPE
The first and most important project planning document is the owner’s definition of facility need,
the Project Scope. Producing a clear and comprehensive description of project purpose and
desired features is not an easy task. To simply tell an architect, “We need a school building for
six hundred students” will not produce the desired facility. The result of such direction will be
multiple change orders, and change orders cost an owner extra money.

Inadequate scope definition is a leading cause of project failure.

When APD methods are used, the contractor becomes involved in supporting the project
owner’s effort to craft a project scope document. The time and effort devoted to working closely
with an owner to clearly describe goals—deliverables, significant milestones, facility
performance, expectations/commitments to external stakeholders—will lead to accurate
predictions of project cost and schedule, and to delivery of a facility having the desired
operational characteristics. The need for full and clear project scope definition is imperative even
for small projects. Nevertheless, in many cases projects suffer from inadequate and imperfect
scope definition. The development of a clearly articulated project scope using standardized
terminology requires participation by a wide cross-section of individuals and, in many cases,
active participation by external stakeholders. Without the effort of carefully developing a project
scoping document, significant items can be overlooked. These could include:

• Flood plain encroachment (project constraint)

• Fire water pressure needs for multistory building (a mandatory deliverable)
• Facility effect on surrounding area traffic flow (effect on external stakeholders)
• Electrical wiring to take advantage of solar energy (owner-directed inclusion)
• Permitting and building code requirements (regulatory requirements)

In addition, be forewarned, many project owners are sensitive to things like:

• Sustainability objectives

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• Long-term carbon footprint
• Energy independence systems
• Use of natural lighting

Get everyone to sign off on the final statement of project scope. With an agreed-to scope
there will be minimum cost and schedule changes required during the construction phase of
project delivery.

PROJECT QUALITY
With the DBB contracting method, contractors perform Quality Control (QC) sampling and
testing, and the results from the QC tests may or may not be used by the owner for work item
acceptance decisions. The contractor’s focus is on meeting the contract specifications; this is a
minimum requirement for quality. Quality management becomes much more important when
APD methods are used by a project owner. With an APD method, the responsibility roles of the
owner and contractor for achieving quality are changed. In many cases the project designer will
not have a direct contractual relationship with the owner. With the shift to an APD method, the
contractor has the ability to leverage and introduce new approaches to providing quality.
The use of an APD contracting method usually leads to greater owner satisfaction with
delivery of the project. A comparative study of public school projects in the Southeastern United
States completed between January 2006 and December 2012 found the CM at Risk Alternative
contracting method superior to DBB in all areas of owner satisfaction: overall service, planning,
cost control, schedule control, quality control, communications, and cooperation.

ORGANIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY

There are many ways to describe the organization of the construction industry, but it may be best
to visualize it as organized around delivery of five types of projects: (1) residential, (2)
commercial/institutional, (3) high-rise building, (4) industrial, and (5) heavy/highway. Owners
who expect to earn a profit from the constructed facility build most projects. To fulfill a social
need, government agencies build the last category.

Residential Construction
This category includes contractors and developers who build individual homes, apartment
complexes, and assisted-living facilities. Builders of individual homes generally fall into two
groups: those who build custom homes individually suited to the buyer’s needs and builders of
tract homes, offering standard designs and floorplans with a limited number of options or
upgrades. Residential construction is generally not bid work. Builders of custom homes and
apartments negotiate a construction price with the owner. Developers of tract homes set the price
of the finished house based on market conditions.

Commercial/Institutional Construction
Commercial construction includes offices, manufacturing plants, medical centers, and retail

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shopping centers, whereas institutional construction refers to healthcare, education, recreation, or
public works projects. Projects in this category range in size from small convenience stores to
multimillion-dollar office buildings.
Both private owners and government owners contract for buildings in this category.
Commercial projects can be very different compared to residential work, having different rules,
regulations, and building standards. Private owners generally negotiate the price of the buildings,
while the government agencies typically use a low-bid or best-value process.

High-Rise Building Construction

High-rise structures pose particular design and construction challenges (Fig. 1.1). There is
probably no universal definition of high-rise buildings, but one government planning agency
uses:

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FIGURE 1.1 Large commercial project site with multiple high-rise buildings.

Low-rise: 1–6 stories (in the order of 10–76 ft)

Mid-rise: 7–12 stories (in the order of 88–150 ft)
High-rise: 13 stories and higher (greater than 165 ft; and a mechanical floor is needed for

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 every 25 stories)

Emporis Standards (a global provider of building information) defines a high-rise building as

“a multi-story structure of unknown height from 12–39 floors” and a skyscraper as “a multi-story
building whose architectural height is at least 330 ft.” In New York City, Central Park Tower
will have a height of 1,550 feet and the skylines of many other cities are changing with new
high-rises. Steel frame construction is used for these tall buildings.

Industrial Construction
Manufacturing plants, petrochemical refineries, pipelines, electricity-generating facilities, and
high-tech facilities, such as hospitals and clean rooms, are examples of industrial facilities.
Contractors who perform this category of work are specialists in the kind of projects they
undertake, and they normally negotiate a price for the delivered facility.

Infrastructure Construction
In addition to highways, this category includes structures such as dams and levees, canals, water
and wastewater treatment projects, bridges (Fig. 1.2), railroads, and tunnels. Such work, which
represented about 25% of all construction spending in 2017, is usually awarded by a low-bid or a
best-value process, with design-build more prevalent for large complex projects.

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FIGURE 1.2 Major bridge project.

In the case of transportation projects, the owner is usually a government agency. For some
complex projects, owners prefer to prequalify bidders. This means a contractor will be allowed to
bid only after completion of a prequalification process to demonstrate experience, qualifications,
technical and managerial expertise, and financial capacity for the project.

PUBLIC AND PRIVATE WORKS

There are many ways to categorize the construction industry besides project type. One of the
most convenient is to consider public work (government) projects and private work. Public
sector work accounted for less than 25% of the construction dollars spent in 2017. The largest
share of the construction market is private work. The type of owner, public or private, is

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significant because of the differences in procurement procedures and regulations.
The public bidding process is encumbered by rules, which have no application to private
projects. Public work is defined here as all work performed using the public’s money. This
includes government agencies at all levels: federal, state, and local. It also embraces small
agencies such as local water districts and school boards. Public agencies are not spending their
own money; the money expended to complete a project belongs to the taxpayers. Such
organizations have bureaucratic rules and procedures, thousands of rules and policies. Projects
must be awarded to the lowest responsible and responsive bidder. Exceptions are not allowed.
There are similarly strict rules governing how projects are advertised. Anyone who can provide a
bid bond is allowed to bid unless the project requires contractors to prequalify.
Private persons and corporations, on the other hand, are spending their own money. They are
not as encumbered by bureaucracy and rules. They may open bids (or simply take proposals) in
any way they choose. They may decide who will be allowed to submit proposals. They may
choose not to advertise a project at all, but to award it to their favorite contractor who has built a
reputation of delivering quality. The majority of construction is privately funded. Public projects
receive most of the publicity, but there is more private work than public work.

PROJECT PARTICIPANTS
A description of the industry would not be complete without including the other professions,
government organizations, and stakeholders who are part of the construction industry.

Owners
No project is ever undertaken without an owner who defines the need, provides the financing,
makes the decision to build the facility, and manages the construction process. Owners can be
either public or private. Most public owners, such as the Corps of Engineers or departments of
transportation, are experienced construction managers. The majority of private owners, such as
small manufacturing companies, have little or no construction management expertise and depend
on consultants to help them manage their projects. Besides providing the project funding, the
primary responsibility of the owner is to define the scope of the work.

construction manager
A person or entity who coordinates the construction process on behalf of an owner.

General Contractors
Contracts are typically awarded to a general contractor (GC) or prime contractor, who is the
party signing the contract with the owner to deliver the project. The GC could be an individual, a
partnership, a corporation, or other business entity capable of performing construction work as a
contractor. While there are differences, many states have specific licensing requirements for
general contractors. Typically, requirements include:

general contractor
A general contractor has the primary contact with a project owner and supervises the project
while self-performing some tasks and hiring specialty subcontractor for others.

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 Completion of a trade exam together with a business and law exam
Documentation of work experience
Proof of general liability insurance

States without specific General Contractor licensing requirements often have other
stipulations such has holding a business license, or registration with a Contractors Board or State
Division of Labor. States without licensing regulations usually advise contractors to check the
licensing requirements of local governments before beginning a project.
The general contractor manages project construction and delivered quality, keeps the work
on schedule, controls costs, and ensures coordination of work tasks and their performance in a
safe manner. Because the GC holds the contract to deliver the project, this entity/person handles
all coordination with the owner. The GC may hire subcontractors skilled at a specific type of
work and knowledgeable about the code requirement, and other regulations pertaining to their
work specialty.
The general contractor is hired to oversee and coordinate all project work, and to deliver a
completed project, whereas a specialty contractor specializes in the execution of a particular type
of work.

Subcontractors or Specialty Contractors

The construction of even a small building may require 20 or more subcontractors, also known
as specialty contractors. Normally the subcontractor has a contractual agreement with the GC to
perform a specific item of work and be paid by the GC.

subcontractors
Subcontractors work under a prime or general contractor performing specialty work tasks as
independent contractors.

Subcontractors or specialty contractors make up the largest portion of the construction

industry. They offer a specialized set of skills such as electrical or mechanical, steel erection,
acoustical, drywall and painting, and carpeting. A subcontractor holds a contract with the GC,
not with the project owner. In most cases subcontractors are selected by the GC but in some
cases a subcontractor is specified for a project by the owner. General contractors evaluate and
select subcontractors based on offered price, but other important considerations are:

• Safety record, typically the company’s accident Experience Modification Rate (EMR)
• Financial strength
• Specialized equipment
• Past performance, including responsiveness to schedule and quality

Subcontractors tend to work for contractors with whom they have an established relationship.

Designers, Architects, and Engineers

In the case of DBB projects, owners select an architect or engineer (A/E) to design the project.

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The A/E is selected based on demonstrated ability to design the project in a specified time frame
and to provide a design buildable at a cost acceptable to the owner. The designer will prepare the
construction documents (plans and specifications) for the owner. Architects are usually the lead
designers for building projects—vertical construction. They subcontract some of the work, such
as the structural frame and mechanical/electrical/plumbing (MEP) systems, to engineers who
specialize in such work. Engineers are normally the lead designers for industrial facilities and
heavy civil projects. They may subcontract part of the work, such as train stations or office
buildings, to an architect.

architect
An architect, working for a project owner, designs and reviews the construction of buildings.

engineer
Engineers collaborate with architects to design the structural, electrical, and mechanical
systems of a building.

The designer’s involvement during construction will depend on the project delivery method
used by the owner. In the case of a DBB project, the owner may employ the designer to oversee
the performance of the construction contractor. In such a capacity, the designer will evaluate the
quality of the contractor’s work and approve progress payments. If it is necessary to issue
contract change orders, the designer will assist the owner in negotiating with the contractor the
magnitude of the resulting cost and time adjustments to the contract.

Construction Manager
The term construction manager has many meanings. Some contractors call themselves
construction managers. A professional construction manager provides a service—usually by
serving as an advisor to an owner and overseeing the owner’s construction contracts.

construction manager
Construction managers plan, coordinate, budget, and supervise projects.

Frequently, construction managers subcontract 100% of the project work. Normally they
prefer to be involved in both the design and construction processes because they bring
construction expertise to the design process. Some engineering and architectural firms offer
construction management services, to represent the owner during project construction. To make
the definition even more complex, not all people who call themselves construction managers
work for a construction contractor: there are some government agencies that have employees
classified as construction managers.

Trades
The trades consist of both union and open shop workers. The rules of employment vary by state
and locality. Unions are organized by craft, with specific unions representing workers within a
specific craft trade. Take for example, electricians: those who belong are members of an
electricians’ union. The carpenters’ union is somewhat more diverse. It can, based on local
practice, represent workers who are carpenters, piledrivers, millwrights, shipwrights,

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exterior/interior specialists, scaffold erectors, insulators, and related craft workers.

open shop
A contracting business that does not require craft employees to have union membership.

Labor Unions
The purpose of labor unions is to improve the lives of their members. They use the power of
collective bargaining to address wages, benefits, and working condition issues. A union acts as
an intermediary between its members and the employing business. Unions develop skilled
workers by their apprenticeship training programs.

labor unions
Unions organize workers to influence work conditions. They also provide their members
construction tasks skill training.

While unions are generally formed around crafts and trades, today many unions represent
several trades, not only the trade used in its name. Unions are operated by the members, have
constitutions, and are made up of locals. The carpenters’ union, “The United Brotherhood of
Carpenters and Joiners of America,” has over 2,500 locals. The locals serve as the contract-
negotiating body for their members in their local area, negotiating labor agreements presented to
and accepted by the signatory companies. The signatory companies employ union workers and
agree to the terms of the union’s contract. Employers of union members benefit from the union
training programs and hiring halls.

Insurance Companies
Contractors are often required to provide a bid bond as a condition of being allowed to offer a
price to construct a project. A bid bond provides the project owner assurance about a bidder’s
financial resources to undertake the job under the terms of the offered contract and at the price
quoted in the bid. If a contractor fails to provide the required bond, the bid will automatically be
rejected.
Usually, contractors must provide insurance, performance bonds, and payment bonds prior to
contract award. Insurance companies also provide these other required bonds. Correspondingly,
they arrange liability and property insurance for contractors. Most public construction contracts
require bonding because the bonds provide the project owner legal and financial protection.

Banks
Banks provide the necessary working capital to contractors so expenses for materials, labor,
equipment, and overhead can be paid in the interval between performance of the work and
progress payments by the owner. Typically, owners make progress payments monthly. Banks
also provide both short-term and long-term financing to project owners.

Suppliers
All material used for construction projects, from concrete to paint, comes from suppliers. Many
suppliers assist designers with material and installed equipment selection. Suppliers provide

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prices to contractors for preparing bids, prepare shop drawings, and fabricate items specifically
for individual projects. Designers rely heavily on standard specifications and standards such as
those published by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). It is important for
designers to understand the standard specifications and design standards they are using because
there are design standards for nearly every level of product quality. When the owner wants a
high-quality product, it is important to use a specific quality standard. It is equally important to
ensure the quality of a construction project by using quality suppliers.

Permitting Agencies and Building Authorities

Permitting agencies and building authorities represent the interests of public safety. This group
includes federal agencies such as the Federal Highway Administration and the General Services
Agency, state departments of transportation, and local agencies such as municipal zoning boards
and even homeowners’ associations. They administer publicly funded construction projects, and
they ensure private construction projects comply with zoning laws and building codes.
The intent of building codes is ensuring reasonable standards of construction quality and
safety for the public. Building codes usually require a contractor to obtain a building permit from
a public agency prior to any construction, repair, or alteration of a building or structure. An
application for a building permit together with any necessary supporting data are reviewed by the
building department to confirm compliance of the proposed work with the applicable building
laws/codes of the jurisdiction. During progress of the work, a building department official will
examine the areas of work subject to inspection. In the case of commercial buildings, final
approval is needed before issuance of a Certificate of Occupancy. A Certificate of Occupancy is
not a guarantee of quality or even of conformance to the local Building code. Because of the
legal doctrine of sovereign immunity, there can be no redress against the building department if
defects are discovered later.

The Public
The public is impacted by every construction project. Those effects can be good or can have a
negative impact on an area. Voters approve bond issues for new schools, roads, and other public
facilities. But the public is often inconvenienced while a project is being constructed. Individual
members of the public residing close to a project can be irritated by construction noise,
vibrations, dust, or lighting for nighttime work. These can be especially bothersome when work
occurs early in the morning, after nightfall, or on weekends. Adjacent structures can be damaged
by construction project activities. Significant settlement or vibration damage may occur due to
dewatering, pile driving, and heavy equipment movement.

Industry Associations
Most participants in the construction industry belong to one or more industry or professional
association. Membership in some of these associations is by the firm or corporation, whereas in
other cases membership is by the individual.

American Concrete Institute (ACI) is a technical and educational organization. The mission
of ACI is to develop, share, and disseminate the knowledge and information needed to utilize
concrete to its fullest potential. It is a leading authority and resource of consensus-based
standards and other technical resources addressing concrete design, construction, and

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materials. The Institute’s publication Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete,
ACE 318-14 is an important document for contractors responsible for the placement of
building concrete.
American Institute of Constructors (AIC) is a professional society for practicing
constructors. It is the sponsoring organization for the Constructor Certification Program. The
AIC Constructor Certification Commission was organized to expand the constructor-
qualifying process to include a written examination and to offer an internationally recognized
certification process. The certification process was peer developed and is intended to set high
standards for skills, knowledge, education, and conduct for those recognized as a Certified
Professional Constructor (CPC).
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) is a professional organization for architects in
the United States. AIA provides model contract documents for the design and construction
industry. It attempts to raise public awareness of the value of architecture and the importance
of good design.
American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. (AISC) is a nonprofit trade association and
technical institute established to serve the structural steel industry in the United States. AISC
publishes AISC 360 Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. This specification is the
guidance document for steel building structural design and is referenced in all U.S. building
codes.
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) represents members of the civil engineering
profession worldwide. It is the world’s largest publisher of civil engineering content and an
authoritative source for codes and standards to protect the public. The Society’s discipline-
specific institutes and technical groups bring together volunteers from around the world to
advance the profession’s technical expertise. The Construction Institute within ASCE
specifically addresses design skills, and supervision and management of projects.
Associated Builders and Contractors (ABC) is a national trade association representing
contractors, subcontractors, material suppliers, and related firms. ABC is the only national
association devoted exclusively to the merit shop philosophy of providing the best
management techniques, the finest craftsmanship, and the most competitive bidding and
pricing strategies in the industry, regardless of labor affiliation.
Associated General Contractors of America (AGC) was the first major association of
general contractors. Today the AGC has over 26,000 members, including over 6,500 general
contractors and over 9,000 specialty contractors, plus suppliers, and service providers.
Historically, the association has handled wage and contract negotiations with local building
trade unions throughout the United States.
Construction Industry Institute (CII) is a research organization with a singular mission:
improving the competitiveness of the construction industry. The CII is a unique consortium
of leading facility owners and contractors who have joined together to find better ways of
planning and executing capital construction programs.
National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE) is a national society of licensed
professional engineers (PEs) across all disciplines. It promotes the ethical and competent
practice of engineering and licensure. NSPE serves its members and the public through state
and territorial societies and chapters.

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CONSTRUCTION LABOR FORCE
Twenty-five states have right-to-work laws, making it illegal to require union membership as a
condition of employment. On the average, 8.9% of the construction workers in the right-to-work
states belong to a union. The other states are union states where the state laws permit union
organization of employees and union contractors agree to hire only through the union hiring
halls.

Project Labor Agreements

Government agencies have on occasion utilized collective bargaining project labor agreements
(PLAs) for their projects. A PLA is for a specific construction project and is applicable only for
the project’s duration. The agreements terminate at completion of the project. PLAs can have
many different sets of agreements, but the basic agreement commits contractors to hire workers
only through union hiring halls.

project labor agreement (PLA)

Agreement between the contractor/s and unions for a single large project to hire workers
through the union hiring hall in exchange for a no-strike agreement.

In return, the unions agree not to strike for the duration of the project. By law, a PLA has no
impact on a contractor’s existing employees, only on hiring new employees. According to recent
court decisions, this kind of requirement does not exclude open shop contractors from bidding
work. However, the number of union versus nonunion contractors who successfully bid PLA
projects does not support the claim.

strike
A work stoppage by a body of workers to enforce compliance with demands made on an
employer.

Construction Crafts
Trade unions all have very valuable training programs, and these are an important contribution to
the industry. But these programs are able to reach only a limited number of people. Craft training
requires a great deal of “hands-on” work. For some tools, the instructor needs to put his or her
hands onto the hands of the student to demonstrate and teach the proper use of the tool. Because
of the nature of the training, the size of classes must be limited. The industry needs more trained
craftspeople than the unions can provide. Construction company owners believe the top
challenge facing the construction industry is a shortage of trained labor. Labor and management
need to work together to solve this problem. Here are short descriptions of the tasks each
construction craft performs.

Brickmasons, Blockmasons, and Stonemasons. The work of a mason varies in complexity,

from laying a simple masonry walkway to installing an ornate exterior on a high-rise
building. Brickmasons and blockmasons are the trowel trades. They build and repair walls,
floors, partitions, fireplaces, chimneys, and other structures with brick, precast masonry
panels, concrete block, and other masonry materials. Stonemasons work with natural-cut

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stone and artificial stone, building walls or creating exterior stone surfaces and floors.
Carpenters. The tasks of cutting, fitting, and assembling wood and other materials for the
construction of buildings, highways, bridges, docks, industrial plants, and many other
structures are the responsibility of carpenters. Builders are increasingly using specialty trade
contractors who, in turn, hire carpenters who specialize in just one or two types of work.
Some of these activities are setting forms for concrete construction; erecting scaffolding; or
doing finishing work, such as installing interior and exterior trim. However, a carpenter
employed by a general building contractor often must perform a variety of the tasks
associated with new construction, such as framing walls and partitions, putting in doors and
windows, building stairs, laying hardwood floors, and hanging kitchen cabinets.
Cement Masons and Concrete Finishers. One of the most common and durable materials
used in construction is concrete. Cement masons and concrete finishers place and finish the
concrete. They may also color concrete surfaces; expose aggregate (small stones) in walls
and sidewalks; or fabricate concrete beams, columns, and panels. In preparing a site for
placing concrete, cement masons check the forms (formwork) for holding the liquid concrete
and properly aligning it according to the plan dimensions. They then direct the placing of the
concrete and supervise laborers who use shovels or special tools to spread the liquid
concrete. Concrete finishers will guide a straightedge back and forth across the top of the
forms to “screed,” or level, the freshly placed concrete. Immediately after leveling the
concrete, finishers carefully smooth and/or texture the concrete surface.
Construction Equipment Operators. Skilled operators, also called operating engineers,
maneuver or control the heavy machinery (cranes, bulldozers, front-end loaders, rollers,
backhoes, graders, dredges, hoists, drills, pumps, and compressors) used to construct roads,
bridges, buildings, and other structures. The operation of these machines is becoming more
complex as a result of computerized controls. Equipment operators may set up and inspect
equipment, make adjustments, and perform minor repairs and maintenance to their machines.
Some states require construction equipment operators to have an occupational license. When
equipment operation involves moving a machine from one site to another, a commercial
driver’s license (CDL) is needed. An operator of piledriver equipment working in some states
must have a crane license.
Construction Laborers. Although the term “laborer” implies work requiring relatively low
levels of skill or training, many tasks performed by these workers require a high level of
training and experience. Construction laborers perform a wide range of physically demanding
tasks. They may be employed to operate hand and power tools, air hammers, earth tampers,
cement mixers, small mechanical hoists; set braces to support the sides of excavations; and
erect scaffolding. Construction laborers help other craft workers including carpenters,
plasterers, and masons.
Electricians. The electricians perform electrical construction, fabrication, installation, and
erection work. They install electrical systems and equipment for a variety of purposes,
including lighting, climate control, security, and communications. Electricians work inside or
outside buildings.
Glaziers. Glass has many uses in modern buildings. Insulated and specially treated glass
keeps in warmed or cooled air and provides good condensation and sound-control qualities;
tempered and laminated glass makes doors and windows more secure. In large commercial
buildings, glass panels give office buildings a distinctive look while reducing the need for

@Seismicisolation
@Seismicisolation
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Story of a Short Life. Dutton, $1.00; Crowell, $0.75.
Timothy Shoes. [Short story.]
The Brownies. Young, $1.00; Burt, $0.75.
Fairstar, Mrs. (pseud. of Richard Hengist Horne).—Memoirs of a London
Doll. Brentano, $1.25.
Fletcher, R. H.—Marjory and Her Papa. Century, $1.00.
French, Allen—The Junior Cup. Century, $1.50. [Vide the same author’s
excellent legendary-historical tale, “Sir Marrok.” Century, $1.00.]
Gaskell, E. C. (S.)—Cranford. (For older readers.) Macmillan, $1.50.
Gates, Eleanor (Mrs. Richard Walton Tully.)—Biography of a Prairie Girl.
Century, $1.50.
Gilson, Roy Rolfe—Katrina. (For older readers.) Baker and Taylor, $1.50.
Goldsmith, Oliver—The Vicar of Wakefield. [Ill., Hugh Thomson. Vide
also Caldecott.] Macmillan, $1.50.
Goody Two Shoes. (Ed., Welsh.) Heath, $0.20. [Vide also edition,
Macmillan.]
Goulding, Frank—The Young Marooners. Dodd. No price stated. [There
is a companion volume, “Marooner’s Island.” This Southern writer is
little known.]
Hale, Lucretia P.—The Peterkin Papers. Houghton, $1.50. [There is
another volume, “The Last of the Peterkins, with Others of Their Kin.”]
Harker, L. Allen—Concerning Paul and Fiametta. Scribner, $1.25. [This
book is delightfully human; some would consider it more a story about
children than for children.]
Higginson, Thomas W.—Tales of the Enchanted Islands of the Atlantic.
Macmillan, $1.50.
Hill, C. T.—Fighting a Fire. [Stories of real life.] Century, $1.50.
Hughes, Rupert—The Lakerim Athletic Club. Century, $1.50.
The Dozen from Lakerim. Century, $1.50.
Hughes, Thomas—Tom Brown’s School Days at Rugby. Macmillan, $1.50;
Houghton, $1.00. [For older readers, there is “Tom Brown at Oxford.”]
Irving, Washington—Bracebridge Hall. (Ill., Caldecott.) Macmillan,
$1.50.
Old Christmas. (Ill., Caldecott.) Macmillan, $1.50.
Jackson, Helen Hunt—Ramona. Little, Brown, $1.50.
Nelly’s Silver Mine. (A Story of Colorado life.) Little, Brown, $1.50.
Cat Stories. Little, Brown, $2.00.
Jamison, Mrs. C. V.—Lady Jane. Century, $1 .50.
Toinette’s Philip. Century, $1.50. [Descriptions of early New-Orleans
life.]
Jewett, Sarah Orne—Betty Leicester. Houghton, $1.25.
Johnson, Rossiter—Phaeton Rogers. Scribner, $1.50.
King, Capt. Charles—Cadet Days. Harper, $1.25.
Kipling, Rudyard—“Captains Courageous.” (A tale of the Gloucester
fishermen.) Century, $1.50.
Lamb, Charles and Mary—Mrs. Leicester’s School. Dent (ill., Winifred
Green, in Kate Greenaway style). Macmillan, $2.25.
La Ramée, Louise de (Ouida)—Dog of Flanders. Lippincott, $1.50.
Lucas, E. V. (Ed.)—Old-Fashioned Tales. Stokes, $1.50.
(Ed.) Forgotten Tales of Long Ago. Stokes, $1.50.
Marryatt, Frederick—Masterman Ready. Macmillan, $1.50; Routledge,
$1.25. [Some librarians would reject Marryatt as they would Ballentyne;
others would include him as they would Ballentyne.]
Martineau, Harriet—The Crofton Boys. Routledge, $0.75; Heath, $0.30.
Mathews, Margaret H.—Dr. Gilbert’s Daughters. Coates, $0.75.
Moffett, Cleveland—Careers of Danger and Daring. [Stories of real life.]
Century, $1.50.
Molesworth, Mrs.—Two Little Waifs. Macmillan, $1.00.
 Carrots. Macmillan, $1.50; Crowell, $0.75.
Munroe, Kirk—Cab and Caboose. Tale published in St. Nicholas.
Derrick Sterling. Harper, $0.60.
Myrtle, Harriet—Country Scenes.
Man of Snow. [Out of print, but re-publication strongly advised by
librarians.]
Ollivant, Alfred—Bob, Son of Battle. Doubleday, $1.50. [Strongly
recommended for its vigour and its vividness.]
Otis, James (pseud, of J. O. Kaler)—Toby Tyler; or, Ten Weeks with a
Circus. Harper, $0.60.
Mr. Stubbs’s Brother. Harper, $0.60.
Paull, Mrs. H. B.—Only a Cat. Whitaker, $1.25. [An excellent story.]
Pier, Arthur S.—Boys of St. Timothy’s. Houghton, $1.50.
Pyle, Howard—Jack Ballister’s Fortunes. Century, $2.00.
Richards, Laura E.—Captain January. Estes, $0.50.
Sandford, Mrs. D. P.—The Little Brown House and the Children who
Lived in It. Dutton, $2.00.
Saunders, Marshall—Beautiful Joe. Am. Bap., $0.25.
Scudder, Horace E.—Bodley Books. Houghton, 8 vols., $12.00 set; $1.50
each.
The Children’s Book. (Edited.) Houghton, $2.50.
Ségur, Mme. S. (R.) de—The Story of a Donkey. Heath, $0.20.
Sewell, Anna—Black Beauty. Page, $1.25.
Sharp, Evelyn—The Youngest Girl in School. Macmillan, $1.50.
Sherwood, M. M. (B.)—The Fairchild Family. Stokes, $1.50.
[Recommended for historic value.]
Shaw, F. L.—Castle Blair. Little, Brown, $1.00.
Spyri, J.—Story of Heidi. DeWolfe Fiske, $1.50; Ginn, $0.40.
Stevenson, Robert Louis—Treasure Island. Scribner, $1.00.
[“Kidnapped” is a sequel.]
Black Arrow. Scribner, $1.00. [A good “penny-dreadful.”]
Stockton, Frank R.—A Jolly Fellowship. Scribner, $1.50.
Stuart, Ruth McEnery—The Story of Babette. Harper, $1.50. [Vide the
same author’s “Solomon Crow’s Christmas Pocket.” Harper, $1.25.]
Taggart, Marion Ames—The Little Gray House. McClure, $1.25. [The
author has unfortunately been persuaded to continue her story in a second
volume.]
Trimmer, Sarah K.—History of the Robins. Heath, $0.25. [Historic
interest.]
Trowbridge, John T.—The Tinkham Brothers’ Tide-Mill. Lothrop, Lee,
$1.25.
His Own Master. Lothrop, Lee, $1.25.
Jack Hazard and His Fortunes. Coates, $1.25. (In a series.)
Twain, Mark (pseud. of Samuel L. Clemens.)—Huckleberry Finn. Harper,
$1.75.
Tom Sawyer. Harper, $1.75.
Van Dyke, Henry—The First Christmas Tree. (Ill., Pyle.) Scribner, $1.50.
The Story of the Other Wise Man. Harper, $1.00.
Verne, Jules—A Tour of the World in Eighty Days. [Vide various
editions.]
Twenty Thousand leagues under the Sea. Coates, $0.75. [Vide various
editions.]
Wiggin, Kate Douglas—Half a Dozen House Keepers. Altemus, $0.75.
Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. Houghton, $1.25.
The Bird’s Christmas Carol. Houghton, $0.50.
Timothy’s Quest. (Ill., Oliver Herford.) Houghton, $1.50.
Polly Oliver’s Problem. Houghton, $1.00.
Wyss, J. R. v. and Montolieu, Baronne de—Swiss Family Robinson.
Warne, $2.50; Dutton, $2.50. [Cheaper editions.]

BOOKS ABOUT CHILDREN

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey—Story of a Bad Boy. (Ill., Frost.) Houghton,
$2.00; $1.25.
Eggleston, Edward—The Hoosier School-Boy. Scribner, $1.00.
Ewald, Carl (Tr., DeMattos.)—My Little Boy. Scribner, $1.00.
Gilson, Roy Rolfe—Mother and Father. Harper, $1.25.
Howells, William Dean—A Boy’s Town. (Told for Harper’s Young
People.) Harper, $1.25.
Hutton, Laurence—A Boy I knew and Four Dogs. Harper, $1.25.
Larcom, Lucy—New England Girlhood. Houghton, $0.75. [Vide various
editions.]
Martin, Edward S.—The Luxury of Children. Harper, $1.75 net.
Richards, Laura E.—When I Was Your Age. Estes, $1.25.
Warner, Charles Dudley—Being a Boy. Houghton, $1.25.
Whittier, John G. (Ed.)—Child-Life in Prose. Houghton, $2.00.

ETHICS AND RELIGION

Bible for Young People (Ed., Mrs. Joseph Gilder; Bishop Potter.)—
Century, $1.50; ed. de luxe, $3.00.
Bunyan, John—Pilgrim’s Progress. Century (Ill., Brothers Rhead.), $1.50;
Scribner (Ill., Byam Shaw), $2.50 net.
Field, Eugene—A Little Book of Profitable Tales. Scribner, $1.25.
Gatty, Mrs.—Parables from Nature. Bell (2 vols.); Macmillan, $1.50;
Dutton (Everyman’s Library.).
Houghton, Louise Seymour—Telling Bible Stories. Scribner, $1.25. [R.
G. Moulton has edited for Macmillan a Children’s Scries of Bible
 Stories.]
Psalms of David (Ill., Brothers Rhead.)—Revell, $2.50.
Ruskin, John—Sesame and Lilies. [Vide editions, McClurg, Mosher,
Crowell, etc.]

III. Bibliographical Note

A few references of a miscellaneous character are here given:
Bible in Elementary Schools (J. G. Fitch)—Nineteenth Century, 36:817.
Book, The Child and His (Mrs. E. M. Field)—London, Wells, Gardner,
Darton & Co., 1891.
Book, The Child and the (Gerald Stanley Lee)—Putnam, 1907.
Book-Plates, Modern, and their Designers (Gleeson White)—The Studio,
1898–99, Supplement 1.
Books, Better, Some Means by Which Children May Be Led to Read
(Clara W. Hunt)—Library Journal, 24:147.
Books, Children’s (Caroline M. Hewins)—Public Library, 1:190.
Books, Children’s, and Children (H. A. Page)—Contemporary, 11:7.
Books for Boys and Girls, On Some (From Blackwood)—Liv. Age, 209:3.
Books for Children, Illustrated (W. M. Thackeray)—Fraser, 33:495 (1846).
Books for Children That Have Lived (C. Welsh)—Library [London], n.s.,
1:314.
Books, The Best Hundred, for Children—Liv. Age, 225:132.
Carnegie Libraries, Giving (I. F. Marcosson)—World’s Work, 9:6092.
Culture, On a Possible Popular (T. Wright)—Contemporary, 40:25.
English, On the Teaching of (Percival Chubb)—Macmillan, 1902.
Girl, The Reading of the Modern (Florence B. Low)—Nineteenth Century,
59:278.
Girls Read, What (E. G. Salmon)—Nineteenth Century, 20:515.
Henty Book, What You Can Get Out of a (Caroline M. Hewins)—
Wisconsin Library Bulletin, Sept.-Oct., 1906.
Lesson-Books, Our Ancestor’s (S. E. Braine)—Liv. Age, 222:522.
Librariana: An Outline of the Literature of Libraries (F. J. Teggart)—
Library Journal, 25:223, 577, 625.
Libraries, Home, for Poor Children (Frances J. Olcott)—Chautauquan,
39:374.
Libraries, Public, in the United States: Their History, Condition, and
Management. Bureau of Education, 1876.
Libraries, Small, Hints to (M. W. Plummer)—Pratt Institute, 1902.
Libraries, The Free Travelling, in Wisconsin. The Story of Their Growth,
etc. Wisconsin Free Library Commission, Madison, 1897. [Interesting
monograph.]
Libraries, What Free, are doing for Children (Mary W. Plummer.)—
Library Journal, Vide vol. 22.
Library, The Free: Its History, etc. (John J. Ogle)—London, Allen, 1897.
Library Literature in England and in the United States During the
Nineteenth Century (F. J. Teggart)—Library Journal, 26:257.
Library Movement in the South Since 1899 (Anne Wallace)—Library
Journal, 32:253.
Library Work with Children (Arabella H. Jackson)—Carnegie Library,
Pittsburgh, Pa. [Statistical.]
Library Work, Rational, With Children, and the Preparation For It (Frances
J. Olcott)—Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh. Boston: A. L. A. Pub. Board.
Reprint Series, No. 9, $0.05.
Lists, Reading, Fallacies of—Liv. Age, 170:218.
Literature, Cheap (Helen Bosanquet)—Contemporary, 79:671.
Literature, Cheap, for Village Children—Liv. Age, 138:296.
Literature, Children’s (Ellen M. Henrotin)—National Magazine (Boston),
7:373.
Literature for the Little Ones (E. G. Salmon)—Nineteenth Century,
22:563.
Literature, Modern, Children and (H. Sutton)—Liv. Age, 192:287.
Music, Public School (S. W. Cole)—New Eng. Mag., n.s., 13:328.
Music in Schools, Teaching of (J. C. Hadden)—Nineteenth Century,
42:142.
Music, The Introduction of the Study of, into the Public Schools of Boston
and of America (J. C. Johnson)—Boston, 1:622.
Novels, Some, to Read (Caroline M. Hewins)—Traveller’s Record, Feb.-
Mar., 1889.
Periodicals, Children’s Books and (Abby L. Sargent)—Library Journal,
25:64 [Conference, June 7–12, 1900.]
Pictures in Library Work for Children, The Place of (Annie C. Moore)—
Library Journal, 25:159.
Read, Some Things a Boy of Seventeen Should Have Had an Opportunity
to (H. L. Elmendorf)—R. of Rs. (N. Y.), 28:713.
Reader, The Modern Child as a (Tudor Jenks)—Book-Buyer, 23:17.
Reading for Boys and Girls (E. T. Tomlinson)—Atlantic, 86:693.
Reading for Children (H. V. Weisse)—Contemporary, 79:829.
Reading, On (Georg Brandes)—Internal. Quar., 12:273.
Reading, On the Pleasure of (Sir John Lubbock)—Contemporary, Feb.,
1886.
School, The Novel and the Common (Charles Dudley Warner)—Atlantic,
65:721.
Schools, School-books, and School-masters. A Contribution to the History
of Educational Development in Great Britain (W. Carew Hazlitt)—
London, 1888.
Schooldays of Eminent Men (John Timbs)—London, 1870.
Shakespeare for Children (Charles Welsh)—Dial (Chicago), May 16,
1907, in answer to Shakespeare, Reading, to Children (Walter Taylor
Field)—Dial (Chicago), May 1, 1907.
Stories to Children, How to Tell (Sara Cone Bryant)—Houghton, $1.00
net.
Story-Books, Children’s (F. Maccuun)—Liv. Age, 241:746.
Story-Tellers, About Old (Donald G. Mitchell)—Scribner.
Women’s Clubs, How, May Help the Library Movement (E. G. Browning)
—Library Journal, 24:—suppl. C. 18. [Conference, May 9–13, 1899.]

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
Typographic inconsistencies in the bibliographic references silently
corrected.
All footnotes have been renumbered sequentially and moved to the ends of
their respective chapters.

Corrections
Page Original Correction Notes

v wth with typo

41 verification, verification. typo

73 irrritability irritability typo

122 Dr. Watts’ Dr. Watts’s match usage on p. 124

128 “Away down the river Away down the river, original has no “

129 beautitul beautiful typo

136 graphcally graphically typo

140 DeGenlis De Genlis typo

143 laisse laissé typo

143 m’egaye m’égaye typo

143 I prefer “I prefer missing open quote

171 area way areaway typo

181 improverishing impoverishing typo

182 betweeen between typo

186 text book text-book typo

191 Prufungsausschüsse Prüfungsausschüsse typo

196 fourteen fourteen- typo

219 O’Keefe O’Keeffe typo

221 Swift, Dean Swift, Jonathan incorrect attribution

223 How o Make Baskets How to Make Baskets typo

230 Electrcitiy Electricity typo

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