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From Resistor
to Transistor
Resistor
Resistor

R
 Simple Circuit

I
V R

V= I x R
Voltage Source symbol is removed
V

I R
I = V / R
Single resistor is divided into 2
V

R1
R = R1 + R2
I
R2
Calculating Current
V

R1 R = R1 + R2

I I = V / R
R2
Voltage across R1 is V1
V

R1 V1

I
R2
Voltage across R2 is V2
V

R1 V1

I
R2 V2
V = V1 + V2
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1

I
R2 V2
V1 = I x R1
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1 V1 = I x R1

I
R2 V2
V2 = I x R2
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1

I
R2 V2 V2 = I x R2
Calculating V1 and V2
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1 V1 = I x R1

I
R2 V2 V2 = I x R2
Finding Output Voltage Vo
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1

I
R2 V2 Vo
Vo with reference to GND
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1

I Vo
R2 V2
In this circuit V2 & Vo are same
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1

I Vo
R2 V2 Vo = V2
Calculating Vo using V and V1
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1 Vo = V – V1

I Vo
R2 V2 Vo = V2
 Short Circuit
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1

I Vo
R2 = 0 Ω (Short) R2 V2
 Calculating Vo
V = V1 + V2
R2 = 0 Ω (Short)
R1 V1
V2 = I x R2 = 0V
Vo = 0V I Vo = 0V
R2 V2
 Open Circuit
V = V1 + V2

R1 V1

I Vo
R2 = ∞ Ω (Open) R2 V2
 Calculating Current
V = V1 + V2

R2 = ∞ Ω (Open) R1 V1
I = 0A
I Vo
R2 V2
 Unable to find out Vo
R2 = ∞ Ω (Open) V = V1 + V2
I = 0A
Vo = V2 = I x R2 R1 V1

Vo = 0 x ∞ Vo
0 x ∞ is indeterminate R2 V2
So, we can not calculate the
Value of Vo.
Let us use different method
 Calculating V1
V = V1 + V2

R2 = ∞ Ω (Open) R1 V1
I = 0A
V1 = I x R1 = 0V I Vo
R2 V2
 Calculating Vo
V = V1 + V2

R2 = ∞Ω (Open) R1 V1
I = 0A
V1 = I x R1 = 0V I Vo
Vo = V – V1 = V R2 V2
 Calculating Vo
V = V1 + V2

R2 = ∞Ω (Open) R1 V1
I = 0A
V1 = I x R1 I Vo = V
Vo = V – V1 R2 V2
Vo = V
 Supply Voltage V = 5V
V = V1 + V2

R2 = ∞Ω (Open) R1 V1
I = 0A
V1 = I x R1 I Vo = 5V
Vo = V – V1 R2 V2
Vo = V
If we assume V is 5V
Then Vo = 5V
 Make R2 as Variable Resistor
V = V1 + V2

R2 = 0 Ω to∞Ω R1 V1 = 5V to 0V
I = V/R to 0A
We assume V is 5V I Vo = 0V to 5V

If R2 = 0 , Vo = 0V R2 V2 = 0V to 5V

If R2 =∞, Vo = 5V
 Unknown R2 But I is Known
V = V1 + Vo
If R2 is not known,
But I & R1 are known R1 V1
Then
I Vo
V1 = I x R1
R2
Vo = V – V1
 Rename the I as Iy
V = V1 + Vo
If R2 is not known,
But Iy & R1 are known R1 V1
Then Vo
Iy
V1 = Iy x R1
R2 Make R2 as a Block
Vo = V – V1
Change I to Iy
 Iy will Change if R2 is Changed
R1 is a Fixed Resistor. V = V1 + Vo
R2 is a Variable Resistor.

If we change R2 R1 V1
Iy will Change
Iy Vo
R2 can be changed R2
manually or
Electrically.
 Change in Iy means Change in R2
R1 is a Fixed Resistor. V = V1 + Vo
R2 is a Variable Resistor.

If Iy is changed, R1 V1
It means R2 is
Changed Iy Vo
R2 can be changed R2
manually or
Electrically.
 Changing the value of R2 Electrically
V = V1 + Vo

Let us Change R2
Electrically Iy R1 V1
Vo
New type of
R2
Variable Resistor
 Input Voltage is Applied
Value of R2
V = V1 + Vo
changed based
on the input
Voltage (Vi)
Iy R1 V1
Vo
Vi R2
Input Voltage produces Input Current
Let us assume
V = V1 + Vo
The Input Voltage
Vi produces Ix
Iy R1 V1
Vo
Ix
Vi R2
Input Current changes the Value of R2
V = V1 + Vo
When Ix Changes
R2 Changes
Iy R1 V1
When R2 Changes
Iy Changes Vo
So, when Ix Ix R2
Changes,
Iy Changes
 Relation between Ix & Iy
V = V1 + Vo
Let us fix a ratio
between Ix and Iy
Iy R1 V1
Let us call the ratio
as B. Vo

Iy
Ix R2
-- = B or Iy = B * Ix
Ix
 Nice feature of the Special Variable Resistor
Normally V = V1 + Vo
Iy = V / (R1 + R2).

So, if we change Iy R1 V1
R1, Iy need to change
Vo
But in this case
The Iy will not Ix R2
Change even if R1 is
Changed.
 Ix is Calculated
V = V1 + Vo

Ix = Vx/Rx Iy R1 V1
Vo
Rx
Vx R2
Ix
 Vo is Calculated
Ix = Vx/Rx V
Iy = B * Ix
V1 = Iy * R1 R1 V1
Vo = V – V1 Iy
Vo
Rx
Vx R2
Ix
 Introduced a Voltage Source VE
Ix = (Vx-VE)/Rx V
Iy = B * Ix
V1 = Iy * R1 R1 V1
Vo = V – V1
Iy
Vo
Rx
Vx R2
VE
Ix
Change the name of Supply Voltage to Vcc
Ix = (Vx-VE)/Rx V
Vcc
Iy = B * Ix
V1 = Iy * R1 R1 V1
Vcc – V1
Vo = V
Iy
Vo
Rx
Vx R2 Change V to Vcc
VE
Ix
 Change the names for Symbols
Ix = (Vx-VE)/Rx Vcc
Ic = B * Ix
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Vo = Vcc – Vc
Ic
Vo
Rx Change R1 to Rc
Vx V1 to Vc
VE
Ix Iy to Ic
 Change the names for Symbols
Ib = (Vb-VE)/Rb Vcc
Ic = B * Ib
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Ic
Vo = Vcc – Vc Vo
Rb
Vb Change Vx to Vb
VE Rx to Rb
Ib Ix to Ib
 IC to Ib ratio name is changed
Ib = (Vb-VE)/Rb Vcc
Ic = β * Ib
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Ic
Vo = Vcc – Vc Vo
Rb
Vb Change B to β
VE
Ib
 Name the 3 Terminals of the Box
Ib = (Vb-VE)/Rb Vcc
Ic = β * Ib
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Ic
Vo = Vcc – Vc C Vo
Rb B
Vb Name the three
VE
Ib terminals of the
E Box as E,B and C.
 Change the Voltage Source to Diode
Ib = (Vb-VBE)/Rb Vcc
Ic = β * Ib
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Ic
Vo = Vcc – Vc C Vo
Rb B
Vb VBE
Change VE to VBE
Ib
E
Removed the Internal Circuit of the Box
Ib = (Vb-VBE)/Rb Vcc
Ic = β * Ib
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Ic
Vo = Vcc – Vc C Vo
Rb B
Vb
Ib
E
Change the box from Square to Circle
Ib = (Vb-VBE)/Rb Vcc
Ic = β * Ib
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Ic
Vo = Vcc – Vc C Vo
Rb B
Vb
Ib
E
Given new Symbol for the Variable Resistor
Ib = (Vb-VBE)/Rb Vcc
Ic = β * Ib
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Ic
Vo = Vcc – Vc C Vo
Rb B
Vb
Ib
E
 Change the Symbol diagram
Ib = (Vb-VBE)/Rb Vcc
Ic = β * Ib
Vc = Ic * Rc Rc Vc
Ic
Vo = Vcc – Vc Vo
C
Rb B
Vb
Ib E
Change the Symbol diagram
Vcc

Rc Vc
Ic
C
Vo
Rb B
Vb
Ib E
 Transistor
This Variable
Resister is C
called as
Transistor.
B

E – Emitter
B – Base
E C - Collector
Transistor
Transistor – Mode of Operation

Transistor acts as a

Regulator (Variable Resistor) or a

switch (ON/OFF).
 Transistor – Mode of Operation

The Transistor has 3 operating modes.

1. Cut-off (Switch - OFF)

2- Saturation (Switch - ON)
3- Active (Regulator).
 Transistor – Cut-off Mode
5V
Vb < VBE (Generally 0.7V)
So Ib = 0A 1K 0V
0A
Ic = 0A C
5V
10K B
Vc = Ic x Rc = 0V .1V β = 10
0A
Vo = Vcc - Vc = Vcc E
 Transistor – Active Mode
0 < Ic < Ic.max 5V

Ib = (Vb - VBE)/Rb 1K 2.3V

2.3 mA
Ic = β x Ib
C 2.7V
Vc = Ic x Rc 10K B
3V β = 10
Vo = Vcc - Vc 0.23mA E

0V < Vo < Vcc

 Transistor – Saturation Mode
Ic > Ic.max 5V

Ic.max = Vcc/Rc
1.25 mA 4K 5V
Ic = β Ib
C
0V
Ic = Ic.max 10K B
3V β = 10
Vc = Ic x Rc = Vcc 0.23mA E
Vo = Vcc - Vc = 0V
 Transistor – Active Mode

When a Transistor acts as a Regulator, it is called an Amplifier.

When a Transistor acts as a Switch, it is called a Gate.

The transistor in Active Mode - Analog Electronics

The transistor in Cutoff/Saturation Mode - Digital Electronics