Khadga Dynasty

Khadga Dynasty ruled the Vanga and Samatata areas of ancient Bengal in c 7th-8th century AD.
Information about the dynasty comes from two copperplates discovered at Ashrafpur (near
Dhaka), coins, and the Chinese accounts of Sheng-che (c 7th cent AD) etc. Of these, the
Ashrafpur plates are the most important. The first known ruler of the dynasty is Khadgodyama
(c 625-640 AD); but nothing is known about his predecessors. Khadgodyama was succeeded by
his son Jatakhadga (c 640-658 AD). The line of succession continued through his son
Devakhadga (c 658-673 AD) and his grandson Rajabhata (c 673-690 AD). Rajabhata was
probably succeeded by his brother Balabhata (c 690-705 AD). The second Ashrafpur grant refers
to an Udirnakhadga. The last part of his name may indicate that he too probably belonged to
the Khadga dynasty, but the period of his reign is yet to be determined.
The Khadga kings did not use any paramount title like paramexvara. This indicates that they
were local rulers. The extent of their territory is difficult to ascertain. In one of the Ashrafpur
plates there are references to Talapataka and Dattakataka, identified respectively with Talpara
and Datgaon villages under Raipura upazila in Narsingdi.
The Khadgas were politically dominant in the region of Vanga. The Ashrafpur plates were issued
from the Jayaskandhavara of Jayakarmantavasaka, indentified with Barkanta (Badkamta) in
Comilla, in the 13th regnal year (c 671 AD) of Devakhadga. So, it appears that Devakhadga had
extended his power from Vanga to Samatata uprooting the Rata king Sridharana Rata (c 660 -
670 AD). This is epigraphically supported by the Deulbadi Sharvani image inscription of Queen
Prabhavati. The inscription depicts Devakhadga as benevolent (Danapati) and powerful
(pratapi) and the conquerer of all enemies (Vijitarikhanda). The conquest probably required
legitimisation through construction of or patronage to religious establishments. In accordance
with the tradition of the age, this might have led Devakhadga to grant lands to Buddhist
monastic establishments.
Both Ashrafpur grants make it clear that Devakhadga and his son Rajabhata together donated
15 patakas and 20 dronas of land to the four viharas and viharikas in charge of the revered
preceptor Sanghamitra. The amount of the land donated to each vihara corresponds to about
484 bighas (1 pataka at least 128 bigha) at an average. Devakhadga, however, did not get the
monasteries constructed; rather the establishments were already in existence and the Khadga
king brought them within a single campus (ekagandikrta') therby making it a sacred landscape.
Attempts were made to achieve economic gains by utilising the donated lands. An important
aspect of the plate is that it refers to Krsyamanaka, meaning tillers of land. The cultivators
appear to have been mere agricultural labourers because they were neither landowners, nor
did they have any right to enjoy the lands; land ownership lay with the monastic
establishments. And the lands were enjoyed by another stratum of Bhujyamanakas mentioned
in the grants. Those who enjoyed the land (bhujyamanakas) were different from those who
actually cultivated (krsyamanakas) it. This difference leads one to conceive of a three tier land
system in vogue: land-owning monasteries (Viharas and Viharikas), the beneficiaries
(bhujyamanakas), and the actual tillers of the soil (krsyamanakas). The system appears to have
been the same as mentioned in the Yajnavalkya Smrti (c 200 BC-200 AD) mahipati (King),
Ksetrasvami (landowner) and Karsaka (actual tiller).
Both Devakhadga and his son Rajabhata supported the Buddhist practices in Samatata. The
Chinese monk Sheng-Che Ch'an Shih writes that when he came to Samatata (his arrival time is
not known) the king of the country was Ho-luo-She-Po-t'o or Rajaraja (bhata), Devakhadga's
son. He was a great admirer of the three-gems - the Buddha, the Law and the Order (San-pao)
and a zealous upasaka (Wu-po-so-chia) who followed the five Buddhist commandments. The
king is said to have given to the monks and nuns offerings (not specified) for their maintenance.
Every morning on behalf of the king an officer was sent to the monastery to ask the welfare of
the resident monks including Sheng-che. The vihara where the monks and the great Che used
to live was the Rajavihara. This Rajavihara may be suggested to have been the same as
mentioned in the Gunaighar Copper plate of Vainyagupta (AD 507). All these
supports/patronages may be explained as the king's efforts towards legitimising his royal
power.
The copper plate of Balabhata, another son of Devakhadga, describes him as having granted 28
patakas of land in the area of Dhanalaksmipataka (unidentified) for the maintenance of the
viharas and stupas and for the renovation and repair works at the axramas. The plate refers to
mahabhogaxrama, meaning probably the ashrama where grand religious festivals were held.
The viharas were apparently eight in number and in them, the Parimitamatam and
Danachandrika were taught and discussed. The donations were apparently made for the
residential religious structures erected in the name of the Buddhist Trinity- the Buddha, the
Dharma and the Samgha.
The first Ashrafpur copperplate, however, furnishes a little more information about the
religious leaning of the dynasty. It refers to the inscription of the name Srimat Devakhadga
below the bull facing the left and not dharmachakra (Wheel of Law). This may indicate
Devakhadga's Shaiva leaning which appears to have continued through his son Balabhata who
also described himself as paramahesvara Rajaputra in his copperplate.
Devakhadga's queen Prabhavati also caused the goddess Sharvani to be covered with gold
leaves out of reverence for the goddess (mahadevibhaktya hemaliptam-akarayat) at the village
of Deulbari in Comilla. The goddess Sharvani has eight arms which hold the thunderbolt, the
bell, the bow and the shield on the left; and the concheshell, the goad, the sword, and the
wheel on the right. She stands on a lotus-seat on the back of a conchant lion and belongs to the
Brahmanical pantheon.
No where in the Deulbadi image inscripton, however, has it been mentioned that the goddess
Sharvani was built and installed at Deulbadi. Indeed if we go by the inscription, we can surmise
that the image of the goddess was already in existence at Deulbadi when the queen covered it
with gold leaves.
The Shaiva leanings of Devakhadga, his queen Prabhavati, and their son Balabhata, should be
explained as an act of stabilising Khadga royal power in the newly conquered area of Samatata
(Vijitarikhanda). The queen's act of covering the goddess with gold leaves occurs following the
word Vijitarikhanda relating to Devakhadga.
Two more inscriptions of the Khadgas have been found in the Shalvan Vihara excavated area
which, however, do not point out any thing about the activities of the dynasty.
The Deva dynasty, as has been epigraphically suggested, might have supplanted the Khadgas in
8th century AD.

Deva Dynasty

Deva Dynasty ruled in Samatata with Devaparvata as their capital. The dynasty is now known in
greater details from the Mainamati excavations. Though a number of their inscriptions, coins
and seals were known, the importance of their rule was actually revealed through the discovery
of archaeological remains recovered' from the undisturbed early levels of Mainamati (8th-9th
centuries AD).
The archaeological remains at Mainamati mainly represent the Deva period. The rule of the
Devas was indeed a period of peace, prosperity, and creative excellence, and may be
designated as the 'Golden Age' of Vanga-Samatata (southeast Bengal). The greatest
achievement of the Devas was in the field of art and architecture.
Whatever information we have regarding the rule of this dynasty is derived almost exclusively
from their epigraphic records. No less than five copperplates and one stone plaque inscription
of the Deva period have been recovered from Mainamati. Only two of the copperplates have so
far been deciphered and published. These are: (i) The Mainamati plate of Anandadeva with an
endorsement of the grant by his son and successor Bhava Deva on the reverse; and (ii) the
Calcutta Asiatic Society plate of Bhava Deva. In addition to giving the correct and confirmed
genealogy of the dynasty, they have supplied information of great interest and significance
regarding the Deva period not known from any other source.
The genealogy of the Deva dynasty that can be retrieved from the copperplates is as follows: (i)
Shri Shantideva; (ii) his son and successor, Shri Viradeva; (iii) the latter's son and successor by
his wife Somadevi, Shri Anandadeva; and (iv) Anadnadeva's son and successor, Shri Bhavadeva,
the last known king of the dynasty.
The most significant information supplied by the first record is about the newly constructed
capital at Vasantapura. Apparently, the old capital had to be abandoned due to attacks of
invaders. Anandadeva, the third and greatest ruler of the dynasty, issued the grant in his 39th
regnal year from this new capital. Bhavadeva's grant in the same plate was issued in his 2nd
regnal year from the old capital at Devaparvata. Evidently, it was regained shortly afterwards
either by Anandadeva himself or by his son Bhavadeva. The lands donated in both cases were
for a Viharika in the Ratnatraya establishment at 'Vendamati' (perhaps related to the modern
'Gandhamati' area of Kotbari) in the Peranatana Visaya of Devaparvata.
The records have also established an interesting parallel with the ancient Vanga Kingdom of the
6th century AD. The great-grandfather of the done of these grants was a contemporary of
Samacharadeva of the family of Gopachandra of Vanga.
The second, better known as Calcutta plate was originally recovered from Ananda Vihara,
Mainamati. In addition to giving the genealogy of the Deva dynasty, it gives an elaborate
description of the capital city of Devaparvata that was encircled by the sacred river Ksiroda like
a moat. (This river is now identified with the Gumti in Comilla district). This record also
mentions the 'Vendamati Viharika' of the Ratnatraya shrines. On palaeographic grounds the
Deva copperplates have been dated to late 8th and early 9th century AD.
Coins and Sealings the recovery of more than 500 gold, silver and few copper coins from the
Deva period levels in Mainamati gives an excellent idea about the flourishing economic
conditions and commercial prosperity of the Deva Kingdom, but not much information about
the Devas themselves. The discovery of a very large number of Arakanese type thin silver coins
with 'Harikela' legend in this collection (known as Harikela coins) has a great significance for the
determination of the location of the long-lost Harikela Kingdom. However, the innumerable
terracotta, clay and baked-clay sealings recovered from the Mainamati excavations mostly
containing the Buddhist creed formula have only some palaeographic significance. This is not
the case with the three-line inscription on a few terracotta sealings which have identical
impressions bearing the original name of Shalvan Vihara and of its royal builder. It reads xri-
Bhavadeva Maha Vihara Arya-Bhiksusangghasya (of the establishment of the great monastery
built by Shri- Bhavadeva).
Architecture the three great Buddhist establishments at Shalvan Vihara, Ananda Vihara, and
Bhoja Vihara, the grand stupas at Kutila Mura, and the remarkable shrines at Itakhola Mura and
Rupban Mura represent Deva architecture. The Devas are especially renowned for the three
great Buddhist establishments (Shalvan, Ananda and Bhoja Viharas). Strikingly similar in shape,
size, and general features, these are all characterized by a citadel-like quadrangle with massive
back walls and fortified single entrance, and a prominent central shrine of cruciform shape in
the open courtyard.
The achievement of the Devas in architecture is undoubtedly represented by the 'cruciform
Buddhist shrine' as built in the centre of these establishments. Apparently developed from the
semi-cruciform shrines like those of Itakhola Mura and Rupban Mura, this unique type was not
hitherto known in Buddhist architecture of India at all. The fully developed classic example of
the type is at Shalvan Vihara. There is hardly any doubt now that it influenced not only Pala
architecture at Paharpur and Vikramashila, but also that of ancient Burma, Cambodia,
Indonesia, and in fact, the whole of Southeast Asia.
Sculpture among archaeological objects, sculptural finds represent the largest single group
other than pottery. Except a fine headless specimen found in situ at Itakhola Mura, no stucco
sculpture has been discovered in Mainamati. Stone sculpture is also very rare. The limited
number of specimens in local soft grey shale and inferior sandstone is, however, distinguished
by superior style, workmanship and refinement and by a harmonious blending of physical
elegance, with spiritual charm and an easy expressiveness. Among the specimens of this class,
special mention must be made of a colossal sandstone Buddha discovered from Rupban Mura,
that can claim to be the largest, finest, and best-preserved specimen in the whole of Eastern
India. The collection of Mainamati bronzes is rich and remarkable by any standard. The vast
majority of them belong to the Deva period. More than 150 excellently preserved specimens
are on record.
They mainly consist of small votive images for cult worship. But large life-size images can also
be found. The Mainamati bronzes primarily represent religious art. No bronze sculpture of a
purely secular character has yet been noticed. Extraordinarily rich, varied and valuable, they
show a perplexing variety of iconographic types and provide reliable archaeological evidence of
the historic development of the Buddhist religion in the subcontinent. They reveal particularly,
as nothing else does, an almost complete picture of the socio-religious life of the period, of the
historic transformation of popular religion from Mahayana to Tantrik forms, and of its gradual
decline in this subcontinent on the one hand, and its phenomenal rise and growth in other
parts of Asia on the other.
Terracottas the terracotta art of Mainamati is almost exclusively represented by sculptured
plaques found in situ on the basement walls of cruciform shrines. It is now recognised beyond
any doubt that these relics belong to a single cultural period, that of the Devas, and that they
represent an indigenous style of art deep-rooted in the folk art of Bengal. It evidently originated
and developed in this region during this period and gradually spread over the rest of the
country and in neighboring areas. Described as 'crude, light-hearted and unreflective works of
art', these are greatly distinguished by their quality of great expressiveness. Its most noticeable
features are its richness and variety and its vitality and dynamism. In subject matter, these bas-
reliefs are overwhelming in their bewildering profusion and confusion. It includes almost
everything that can be found in the life and imagination of the Bengal countryside.
The terracotta plagues together with the carved and ornamental bricks that decorate the
borders of their panels constitute an attractive and distinctive school of art of the Deva period.
It is in these reliefs that the personality of ancient Vanga-Samatata has found its fullest and
finest expression.

Chandra dynasty

The Chandra dynasty was a Buddhist dynasty, originating from the Bengal region of Indian
subcontinent, which ruled the Samatata area of Bengal, as well as northern Arakan. Later it was
a neighbor to the Pala Empire to the north. Rulers of Chandra kingdom were adherents
of Buddhism. The Kings of Chandra dynasty were identified as the kings of Vangaladesha in the
Tirumulai inscription of Chola dynasty. The dynasty was founded around the 4th century AD.

History

The Anandachandra Inscription (729 AD) mentions that the Chandra dynasty was established by
Dvenchandra (or Mahataing Chandra) in 370 AD. He had assumed the throne of Waithali after
the end of the Annaveta dynasty. The ye Dhamma inscriptions of the Queen of Niti Chandra are
dated to early 6th century AD based on paleographic grounds.
The Chandra kingdom was one of the last Buddhist strongholds in the Indian subcontinent. The
kingdom flourished as a center of the Tantric schools of Buddhism. It played a role in the
diffusion of Mahayana Buddhism to Southeast Asia.
The Chandras had to leave their old capital Waithali, because one of King Srichandra led
invasions into Kamarupa. The Chandras played an important role in the regional politics and
military history of erstwhile Bengal.
In the reign of King Govinda Chandra, the Chandras were eventually overthrown during an
invasion by the Chola dynasty of South India.

The coastal kingdom had trade networks with states in what is

now Myanmar, Thailand, Indonesia and Vietnam. 10th century shipwrecks around the coast
of Java provide evidence of maritime links between southeastern Bengal and Southeast Asia.
Bronze sculptures may have been imported by the Javanese from the Chandra kingdom in
southeastern Bengal. Arab merchants also traded with the kingdom.
King Anandachandra mentions mission he sent to Sinhalese King Silamegha (Aggabodhi IV)
(727-766)

Archaeology

There are numerous inscriptions dating from the period of the Chandra dynasty. The three
archaeological sites associated with the dynasty
include Bikrampur and Mainamati in Bangladesh and Waithali in Rakhine
State, Myanmar (Burma).

Education

Chandrapur University in Shrihatta was as large as other religious institutions

like Nalanda, Taxila, Mahasthangarh[8] or Odantapuri and was established before Oxford,
and Cambridge universities or even the Jagaddala Vihara. It was made by king Srichandra. Its
exact location has not been found. Chandrapur university was unique in contrast with other
universities and the viharas established by Buddhist kings in India. Its curriculum included
almost all of the subjects from the Hindu Shastra except the grammar of Chandragomin who
was Buddhist by religion. Moreover, the students of this university were also Hindu Brahmins.
The nine monasteries were overseen mainly by Hindu Brahmins. [8] This is because the Buddhist
king, Srichandra, granted lands in Paschimbhag in the name of Buddha for nine Brahmin
monasteries where the Chaturvedas were mainly taught. Kamalakanta Gupta referred to this
grant as "unique among other Buddhist kings" since it implies Srichandra's favouritism towards
Brahmins.
Land distribution among 25 classes of people, guests, and students indicates an efficient
administration in the universities. According to Zafir Setu, this administrative arrangement is
more consistent with the present-day university system.