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SEVENTH EDITION
Literacy
for the 21st Century
A Balanced Approach
GAIL E. TOMPKINS
California State University, Fresno, Emerita
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Dedication
In memory of my parents,
Ruth and Charles Tompkins,
who took me around the world and
celebrated my accomplishments.

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About the Author
I’m a teacher, first and foremost. I began my career as a
first grade teacher in Virginia in the 1970s. I remember
one student who cried as the first day of school was
ending. When I tried to comfort him, he sobbed ac-
cusingly, “I came to school to learn to read and write,
and you forgot to teach me.” The next day, I taught
that child and his classmates. We made a small pat-
terned book about “Tom,” a stuffed animal in the
classroom. I wrote some of the words and the stu-
dents supplied the others, and I duplicated and bound copies
of the book for each child. We practiced reading it until everyone memorized
our little book. The children proudly took their books home to read to their parents. I’ve never
forgotten that child’s comment and what it taught me: Teachers must understand their students
and meet their expectations.
My first few years of teaching left me with more questions than answers, and I wanted
to become a more effective teacher, so I started taking graduate courses. In time I earned a
master’s degree and then a doctorate in Reading/Language Arts, both from Virginia Tech.
Through my graduate studies, I learned a lot of answers, but more importantly, I learned to
keep on asking questions.
Then I began teaching at the university level. I taught at Miami University in Ohio, then
at the University of Oklahoma, and finally at California State University, Fresno. I’ve taught
preservice teachers and practicing teachers working on master’s degrees, and I’ve directed
doctoral dissertations. I’ve received awards for my teaching, including the Provost’s Award
for Excellence in Teaching at California State University, Fresno, and I was inducted into the
California Reading Association’s Reading Hall of Fame. Through the years, my students have
taught me as much as I’ve taught them, and I’m grateful to all of them for what I’ve learned.
I’ve been writing college textbooks for more than 30 years, and I think of the books I
write as teaching, too: I’ll be teaching you as you read this text. When I write a book, I try
to anticipate the questions you might ask and provide that information so that you’ll become
an effective teacher. I’ve written other books published by Pearson Education, including
Language Arts: Patterns of Practice, 9th ed. (2016); Teaching Writing: Balancing Process and
Product, 6th ed. (2012); 50 Literacy Strategies, 4th ed. (2014); and two grade-level-specific ver-
sions of this text: Literacy in the Early Grades, 3rd ed. (2015); and Literacy in the Middle Grades,
2nd ed. (2010).


Preface
Teaching reading and writing effectively is a great responsibil-

ity. I think it’s one of the most critical responsibilities teachers
have because literacy makes a huge difference in students’
lives—good readers and writers have many more opportunities
throughout their school years and beyond. Meeting challenges
for developing readers and writers has never been more im-
portant, because new technologies have changed what it
means to be literate. And, learning to read and write well
closes the achievement gap among students, affecting not only
their academic success but also their future.
This text, Literacy for the 21st Century: A Balanced Ap-
proach, shares my vision for reading and writing instruction.
It covers the fundamental components of literacy, illustrates
how to teach strategies, identifies how to differentiate in-
struction to meet the diverse needs of students today, and
supports digital teaching and learning. In a nutshell, I’ve
written Literacy for the 21st Century to help you create a class-
room climate where literacy flourishes, technology is a tool
to meet the needs of contemporary teaching and learning,
and differentiated instruction scaffolds instruction so all stu-
dents can be successful.
NEW TO THIS EDITION

This seventh edition of Literacy for the 21st Century is exciting because it incorporates a vari-
ety of new features and digital applications. I share detailed information in this Preface of
what is new to this edition, but here’s a brief list:
First Time as REVEL This seventh edition is offered in a new immersive online
format called REVEL that’s been designed to accommodate 21st-century learning on
laptops and tablets. REVEL offers a variety of interactive experiences:
Learning Outcomes The REVEL format guides the chapter structure.
Specifically, I list the learning outcomes at the beginning of each chapter, organize
the chapter’s content into sections addressing each learning outcome, and include
self-assessments at the end of the section. The Evaluate & Reflect projects at the
end of the chapter invite you to apply the learning outcomes authentically—with
teachers and students in real K–8 classrooms.
Classroom Videos* Important concepts in each chapter are illustrated in videos,
showing you how teachers apply them in authentic classroom settings.
Self-Assessments* Short-answer and multiple-choice self-assessments at the
end of each chapter section check your understanding and identify gaps in your
learning, and project-based assessments at the end of each chapter invite you to
*These features are available only in REVEL, exclusively from http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/ or by ordering the
Tompkins REVEL plus Loose-Leaf Version (ISBN 0134090195) or the Tompkins REVEL Access Code Card (ISBN 0134303202).
vii
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viii PREFACE
delve more deeply into the chapter content and apply what you’re learning through
classroom observations, interviews with students and teachers, and real teaching
experiences.
Organizational Change In Chapter 10, Organizing for Instruction, I’ve added guided
reading as an effective approach for teaching reading. Responding to reviewer requests,
I’ve described and discussed the purpose, components, theory base, applications, strengths,
and limitations of this instructional approach.
Teach Kids to Be Strategic Reviewers also requested a change to the feature Teach
Kids to Be Strategic, so it has been thoroughly revised to specify what you need to do
to ensure that your students have ample practice with the strategic behaviors they need
to use to be successful readers and writers.
New Topics In every edition I explain new literacy concepts. These are some of the
critical new discussions in this edition:
Oral Language In Chapter 1, Becoming an Effective Literacy Teacher, and Chapter
4, The Youngest Readers and Writers, I discuss the critical role of oral language in
literacy development for both native English speakers and English learners. In
addition, I explain how to nurture and monitor children’s oral language proficiency
through grand conversations, choral reading, hot seat interviews, oral reports,
retelling stories, and other literacy activities.
Close Reading In Chapter 2, The Reading and Writing Processes, and Chapter 8,
Promoting Comprehension: Reader Factors, I discuss close reading—helping students
understand the deeper meaning of complex text—and I describe how to implement
it in grades K–8.
Standards New features in this text address the Common Core State Standards
for English Language Arts, demonstrate how to use them in your classroom, and
point to the value of addressing Standards in lesson planning. The Standards
hold you accountable for teaching grade-level-specific content, and the vignettes
at the beginning of each chapter and in the Compendium of Instructional
Procedures show you how effective teachers integrate the Standards into their
teaching.
The Instruction–Assessment Cycle Assessment is a crucial part of effective
literacy instruction. You’ll be held accountable for determining students’ literacy
levels, monitoring their progress, diagnosing strengths and weaknesses, and
documenting student learning. In Chapter 1, Becoming an Effective Literacy Teacher,
and Chapter 3, Assessing Literacy Development, I teach you how to follow an
instruction–assessment cycle; in other chapters, the information about how to
assess phonics, fluency, comprehension, and other topics also follows this four-step
cycle. In addition, this text is organized using the instruction–assessment cycle;
you’ll notice that the terms planning, monitoring, evaluating, and reflecting are used
throughout to call your attention to the learning outcomes, quizzes, and end-of-
chapter projects.
MY GOALS
First and foremost, I have written this text for you. I know you want to become a successful
teacher of reading and writing, capable of using the instructional approaches that unlock
reading and writing for all the students you have the privilege to teach. It’s why I’ve loaded
Literacy for the 21st Century: A Balanced Approach with the most effective instructional meth-
ods for kindergarten through eighth grade, methods that are based on scientific research

PREFACE ix
and classroom-tested practice. I’ve also written it to help you meet the needs of every stu-
dent in your classroom—children who come to school well prepared for literacy learning
and those who struggle with learning to read and write, including children whose first lan-
guage isn’t English.
To make this text and its valuable resources accessible, I have organized it into four
distinct parts, and I present pedagogy and classroom applications through five text
themes—teacher accountability, instructional support, diverse learners, assessment resources, and
technology tools. These themes illustrate the significant roles and responsibilities teachers
must learn to teach reading and writing effectively.
TEACHER ACCOUNTABILITY
As a teacher, you’ll be responsible for your students’ literacy achievement, and your
accountability will depend on how well you address reading and writing standards in your
literacy lessons and how successfully you use instructional methods. This text will ad-
vance your understanding of what you’re expected to teach and the instructional ap-
proaches you’re expected to use. These text features point to ways you can be an account-
able teacher:
Teacher Checklists
Teaching reading and writing requires understanding a number of important compo-
nents—the processes of reading and writing; literacy assessment; and the procedures for
teaching phonemic awareness and phonics, fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and writ-
ing. You can answer the questions in Teacher Checklists to ensure you address key ele-
ments for each literacy component. CHAPTER 6 Developing Fluent Readers and Writers 185
CHAPTER 8 Promoting Comprehension: Reader Factors 269
group reads each sentence. As children read and reread the text aloud, they become increasingly fluent
authors’ assumptions and assess thereaders. Here’s
veracity the last
of their section of the class’s retelling:
claims.
Common Core State Standards The document identifies these reader factors:
1 Soon it was January again.
Key Ideas and Details. Students demonstrate
both literal
3 Hermit
their un-
and “Goodbye.
Crab said, in- Be good
TEACHER
2 The big Hermit Crab moved out of his house and the little crab moved in.
derstanding of a text, ask and answer
How to do
my Ifriends.”
Checklist
teach reader factors?
ferential questions, and explain 4relationships
Soon Hermit Crab amongsaw the next perfect house for him.
You’ll be responsible for ensuring that the literacy lessons, strategies, and skills you teach
ideas. 5 It was empty. Do I address Standards in my instruction?
Do I explain that strategies are problem-solving tactics?
Integration of Knowledge and Ideas. 1 It was a little plain
Students analyze but Hermit Crab didn’t care.
Do I teach comprehension strategies using a
visual and multimedia elements, use2reasons
He will decorate it
and evidence
align with standards. Your state may use its own standards or use some adaptation of the
combination of explanations, demonstrations, and
3 with starfish,
to support ideas, and make comparisons between two practice activities?
texts. 4 with coral, Do I have students apply comprehension strategies in
5 with sea anemones, literacy activities as well as in thematic units?
Common Core State Standards for English Language Arts. Three features in this text il-
Range of Reading. Students read and
level fiction and nonfiction texts2 and
proficiently.
understand
1 with sea urchins,
independently
grade-
with snails. and
Do I teach groups of strategies in routines so that
students learn to orchestrate their use of multiple
strategies?
All There are so many possibilities! Do I display student-made charts about the strategies
lustrate how to integrate the Common Core State Standards into your instruction. Level of Text Complexity. Students learn how to read
increasingly challenging texts. The underlined words are high-frequency
Do I have
wordsstudents
complex texts?
in the classroom?
that read and analyze
are posted on increasingly
the word wall in Ms. Williams’s
classroom; of the 75 words in this excerpt, 42 are high-frequency words! Also, two of the new words
Do I have students read and comprehend grade-
The Standards place equal emphasis on week,
for this teaching students
soon and house, are used twice.
appropriate fiction and nonfiction texts?
NEW Standards Check! At the end of each

how to use reader factors to comprehend fiction and nonfic-
tion texts. For more information, check the feature Common
Core State Standards: Reader Factors. ✓
STANDARDS CHECK!
chapter-opening vignette are directives for identifying Explicit Instruction
Ms. Williams addressed the Common Core State Standards as she taught high-frequency words
in the vignette you’ve just read. Review the second grade literacy Standards document online
the Standards the vignette teachers address while teaching

at http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy, and identify the Standards that Ms. Williams ad-
The fact that comprehension is an invisible mental process
dressed through makes it activities.
her assessment difficult toCreate
teach;your list, and compare it with Ms. Williams’s.
however, through explicit instruction, teachers can make comprehension more visi-
their lessons.
ble. They explain what comprehension is and why it’s important, and they model how
to use strategies by thinking aloud. Next, teachers encourage
students to direct their thinking as they read, gradually releasing
Common Core State Standards Boxes Look

responsibility to students through guided and independent COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS
practice. Finally, they move students from focusing on a single
Reader Factors
F
comprehension strategy to integrating several strategies in rou-
for Common Core State Standards boxes that point tines. Ms. Ali demonstrated the concept luency is the ability
of gradual release toin read
the and write effortlessly and COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS
efficiently; Theand
Common Core is
State Standards for English Language Arts
vignette at the beginning of the chapter as shebecoming
reviewedfluenteach readers writers a de-
comprehension strategy and had velopmental
the students milestone.
practiceMost students reach
it as they the fluent stage Reading Fluency
emphasize that students are expected to read a broad range
of high-quality and increasingly challenging texts. Students
out how to plan purposeful literacy lessons that during

read picture books; then she had them
plicit
they read Joey Pigza Loses Control
theapply
second
instruction
(Gantos,
all or
thethird gradeas
strategies throughmust
2005).and lots of authentic make
This achievement is crucial because both
a combination
reading
readers
dards
of ex-precisely what authors say and
be able to understand
and writing.
interpretations
specify and
Reading Standards: Foundational Skills foster K–5 students’
based on textual evidence. The Stan-
these writers
understanding of the basic conventions of the English writing
comprehension requirements:
align with state and national literacy standards.

system so that they’ll become proficient readers who can
TEACHING STRATEGIES. Teachers must be teach
able toindividual
focus attention
compre- on meaning, not on
Students decoding
determine the central ideas of a text and
comprehend analyze
fiction and nonfiction texts. They address these
and spelling words. Researchers
hension strategies and then show students how to integrate sev- have found that
their fluent
development. readers fluency requirements:
comprehend what they’re
eral strategies simultaneously (Block & Pressley, 2007). They reading better than less fluent read-
Students make connections with background Students knowledge
NEW Standards in the Classroom In a number

know and apply grade-level phonics and word-
introduce each comprehension ersstrategy
do (National Reading
in a series of Panel,
miniles- 2000). The same is true about
and other texts. analysis skills to decode words.
sons. Teachers describe the writers:
strategy,Fluent
modelwriters
it for are more as
students successful Students
in craftingdraw effective
inferences from the textual evidence.
Students read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to sup-
they read a text aloud, use it compositions than less fluent writers
and are. Students cite textual evidence that supports
of instructional procedures in the Compendium,
collaboratively with students, port comprehension.
their answers
provide opportunities for guided and Thethen
Common Core State
independent Standards fortoEnglish
practice questions Language
or supports their positions.
Students use word-identification strategies to decode un-
(Duke & Pearson, 2002); the Arts address reading
independent practice fluency as an essentialStudents
is important foundational
comprehend skill familiar
grade-level stories, words.
informational
that students must develop by fourth grade to become profi-
Pearson REVEL users can hyperlink to Standards
because it’s motivational. The Minilesson: Teaching Students books, and other texts independently
The and proficiently.
Standards emphasize that foundational skills aren’t an
to Ask Self-Questions shows cient
how readers. The Standards
Mrs. Macadangdang focus on teaching
teaches students
The Standards to use
emphasize enduse
that students in themselves
reader factorsbuttoare essential for reading comprehen-
phonics and
her third graders to use the questioning other word-identification strategies
strategy. comprehend to increasingly
decode un- sion, and
complex fiction and nonfiction
they direct teachers to differentiate instruction be-
causegocapable readers need less practice to become fluent
in the Classroom vignettes that illustrate how

familiarlearning
Teachers also support students’ words about
and oncomprehen-
ensuring that students readmore
texts. To learn fluently.
about the Standards, to http://www
.corestandards.org/ELA-Literacy, readers
your state’s educa- students do. To learn more about the
than struggling
sion strategies in other ways; The
Figure feature Common
8–5 suggests Core activi-
several State Standards: Reading Fluency or check fluency Standards, go to http://www.corestandards.org/ELA-
tional standards website.
provides additional
ties for each strategy. For example, information.
second graders practice Literacy, or check your state’s educational standards website.
classroom teachers use specific procedures to

address Common Core State Standards.
Teachers use these features to ensure that students meet grade-level standards.
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M10_TOMP0191_07_SE_C08_pp250-289.indd 269 13/10/15 3:15 PM

x PREFACE
INSTRUCTIONAL SUPPORT
Balance is key to teaching reading and writing effectively: balancing reading instruction
with writing, balancing explicit instruction with practice, and balancing instruction with
262 PART 2 Components of Literacy Development
assessment so that teachers use the results of assessment to inform their instruction. Know-
ing how to balance the teaching of reading and writing strategies—when, why, and how—is
also vital. These features, many of which are supported by authentic classroom scenarios,
diagrams with the big ideas highlighted, but students often analyze the text to deter-
mine the big ideas and then create their own graphic organizers.
Drawing Inferences
illustrate the balanced approach to literacy instruction:
Readers seem to “read between the lines” to draw inferences, but what they actually do
is synthesize their background knowledge with the author’s clues to ask questions that
point toward inferences. Keene and Zimmermann (2007) explain that when readers
draw inferences, they have “an opportunity to sense a meaning not explicit in the text,
but which derives or flows from it” (p. 145). Readers make both conscious and
unconscious inferences about characters in a story and its theme; the big ideas in a news-
Chapter-Opening Vignettes
paper, magazine article, or nonfiction book; and the author’s purpose in a poem (Pressley,
2002a). They may not be aware that they’re drawing inferences, but when they wonder
why the author included this or omitted that information, they probably are.
Students often have to read a picture-book story or an excerpt from a chapter of a
novel two or three times in order to draw inferences because at first they focus on lit-
As a signature feature of this text, chapter-opening classroom stories describe how effective
eral comprehension, which has to precede higher level thinking. Very capable
students draw inferences on their own as they read, but other students don’t notice
opportunities to make them. Sometimes students do draw inferences when prompted
teachers integrate reading and writing instruction to maximize students’ learning.

by the teacher, but it’s important to teach students how to draw inferences so that
they can think more deeply when they read independently.
Teachers begin by explaining what inferences are, why they’re important, and
how inferential thinking differs from literal thinking. Then they teach these four
steps in drawing inferences:
1. Activate background knowledge about topics related to the
text.
Teach Kids to Be Strategic

2. Look for the author’s clues as you read.
Teach Kids to 3. Ask questions, tying together background knowledge and
the author’s clues.
BE STRATEGIC 4. Draw inferences by answering the questions.
Teachers can create charts to make the steps more visible as
This revised feature will be invaluable in the classroom. Spe-
Reader Factors
students practice making inferences; Figure 8–3 shows an infer-
Teach students to apply comprehension factor strategies: ence chart a seventh grade class developed as they read and ana-
cific guidelines list the cognitive and metacognitive strategies

Activate background knowledge lyzed The Wretched Stone (Van Allsburg, 1991). The story, told
Connect in diary format, is about a ship’s crew that picks up a strange,
Determine importance glowing stone on a sea voyage; the stone captivates the sailors
students need to learn and then explain what to check for to

Draw inferences and has a terrible transforming effect on them. After reading
Evaluate the story and talking about what they understood and what
Monitor confused them, students began making the chart. First, they
ensure students are applying them effectively.

Predict
completed the “background knowledge” column. The students
Question
Repair
thought about what they needed to know to understand the
Set a purpose story: the meaning of the word wretched, sailors, the author/
Summarize illustrator Chris Van Allsburg, and the fantasy genre because
Visualize fantasies are different from other types of stories. Then they
270 reread the story, searching for clues that might affect the mean-
PART 2 Components of Literacy Development
Students learn to use each strategy and make posters to
highlight their new knowledge. They apply strategies as ing. They noticed that the ship captain’s name was Hope, the
Minilesson Minilessons
they read and use self-stick notes to record their strategy island was uncharted, and the sailors who could read recovered
use. Monitor students’ growing use of strategies during faster, and they wrote these clues in the second column. Next,
independent reading activities, and if they struggle, they thought about questions they had about the story and
reteach the strategies, making sure to name them and wrote them in the third column of the chart. Finally, the
model their use. TOPIC: Teachingteacher reread
Students the book
to Ask one more time; this time, students lis-
Self-Questions
GRADE: Third Gradetened more confidently, recognizing clues and drawing the
TIME: Three 30-minute periods These popular step-by-step features model a clear and
Mrs. Macadangdang (the students call her Mrs. Mac) introduced questioning by talking about why people ask
questions and by asking questions about stories they were reading. She encouraged the third graders to ask
concise instructional procedure for teaching literacy strat-
egies and skills, and they’re intended to serve as ready-to-
questions, too. They made a list of questions for each chapter of Chang’s Paper Pony (Coerr, 1993), a story set
in the California gold rush era, as she read it aloud, and then they evaluated their questions, choosing the
ones that focus on the big ideas and that help them understand the story better. Now all of her students can
use tools for your classroom teaching.

generate questions, so she’s ready to introduce the questioning strategy.
1 Introduce the Topic

Mrs. Mac reads the list of comprehension strategies posted in the classroom that they’ve learned to use
and explains, “Today, we’re going to learn a new thinking strategy—questioning. Readers ask themselves
questions while they’re reading to help them think about the book.” She adds “Questioning” to the list.
2 Share Examples
Booklist
The teacher introduces The Josefina Story Quilt (Coerr, 1989), the story of a pioneer family going to Califor-
Complex Texts
nia in a covered wagon. She reads aloud the first chapter, thinking aloud and generating questions about
Booklists
GRADE FICTION
the story. Each time she asks a question, NONFICTION
she places in a pocket chart a sentence strip on which the ques-
tion
K has already been written.
dePaola, Here
T. (1978).
wagon? Who is Josefina?
are theforquestions:
Pancakes breakfast. Why
New isYork:
Faith excited? Aliki.
Why are
Harcourt.Can a chicken be a pet? Can Josefina do anythingJenkins,
useful? S.,
Why
theyMygoing
(1989).
is Faith
& Page
in a covered
five senses. New York: HarperCollins.
crying?What do you do with a tail
R. (2003).
Well-written children’s books can serve as mentor texts
to support the development of literacy and advance
Haley, G. E. (1988). A story, a story. New York: Aladdin Books. like this? Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
3 Provide
1 Information
Arnold, T. (2006). Hi! Fly guy. New York: Cartwheel Books. Hodgkins, F. (2007). How people learned to fly. New York:
Mrs. Mac explains, “Questions
Atwater, R. (2011). really turn your
Mr. Popper’s thinking
penguins. on!Little,
Boston: I know it’s important to think while I’m reading
HarperCollins.
children’s fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and

because it helps Brown.
me understand. I like to ask questions about things I think are important
Pfeffer, W. (2004). and
Fromthings
seed tothat
pumpkin. New York:
don’t make sense to me.” They reread the questions in the pocket chart and HarperCollins.
talk about the most helpful
2–3 MacLachlan,
ones. Many students P. (2005).
thought Sarah, plain
the question aboutand
thetall. New York:
covered Aliki. (1986).but
wagon was important, A medieval feast. New York: HarperCollins.
as they continue
Scholastic. Floca, B. (2009). Moonshot: The flight of Apollo 11. New
reading, they’ll learn that Josefina does indeed do something useful—she turns out to be a “humdinger of
White, E. B. (2006). Charlotte’s web. New York: HarperCollins. York: Atheneum.
a watch dog” (p. 54)! Then Mrs. Mac reads aloud the second chapter, stopping often for students to generate
writing. Throughout the text, Booklists identify grade-
appropriate literature for your classroom use or for stu-
4–5 Lin, G. (2011). Where the mountain meets the moon. Lauber, P. (1996). Hurricanes: Earth’s mightiest storms. New
questions. The students write their questions on sentence strips and add them
Boston: Little, Brown.
to the pocket chart.
York: Scholastic.
Thayer, E. L. (2000). Casey at the bat: A ballad of the republic Montgomery, S. (2009). Quest for the tree kangaroo. New
4 Guide Practice
dents’ independent reading. These lists are vetted in
sung in the year 1888. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. York: Sandpiper.
The following day, Mrs. Mac reviews the questioning strategy, and students reread the questions for Chap-
6–8 Frost, R. (1993). “The road not taken.” In The road not Douglass, F. (2007). Narrative of the life of Frederick
ters 1 and 2. Then the and
taken students
other form
poems.pairs, get copies
Mineola, of the
NY: Dover book, and read the
Books. next two
Douglass, chaptersslave.
an American of TheNew York: Book Jungle.
every edition to ensure currency.

Yep, L.together,
Josefina Story Quilt generating (25th
(2000). Dragonwings questions as theyed.).
anniversary read. They writeSteinbeck,
New their questions onTravels
J. (2002). small with
self- Charlie: In search of
York: them
stick notes and place HarperinTrophy.
the book. Mrs. Mac monitors students, noticingAmerica. New York:
which ones need Penguin Books.
additional
practice. Then the class comes together to share their questions and talk about the chapters they’ve read.
On the third day, they read the last two chapters and generate more questions.
The Common Core State Standards challenge teachers to provide a balance of

5 Assess Learning
instruction and scaffolding so students learn to read and comprehend complex texts.
As she monitors the students, Mrs. Mac makes a list of those who need more practice generating questions,
Teachers ensure that students are actively engaged with books they’re reading, and
Student Artifacts
and she’ll work with them as they
theyread anothermore
provide book support
together. when students are reading more complex texts. In the vi-
gnette, Ms. Ali demonstrated how teachers teach students about challenging texts and
then gradually release responsibility to them to apply what they’ve learned about
comprehension when they’re reading independently.
Nothing illustrates connected teaching and learning better than models of children’s
Prerequisites for Comprehension
work. To that end, this text is peppered with examples of students’ writing projects and
For students to comprehend a text, they must have adequate background knowledge,
understand most words in a text, and be able to read fluently. When any of these pre-
requisites for comprehension are lacking, students aren’t likely to understand what
other work products to help you learn to recognize grade-appropriate literacy

M10_TOMP0191_07_SE_C08_pp250-289.indd 270
they’re reading. Teachers can ameliorate readers’ difficulties through differentiated
13/10/15 3:15 PM
instruction.
development.
BACKGROUND KNOWLEDGE. Having both world knowledge and literary knowl-
edge is a prerequisite because they provide a bridge to a new text (Braunger & Lewis,
2006). When students don’t have adequate background knowledge, they’re likely to
find the text very challenging, and it’s doubtful that they’ll be successful. Teachers use
prereading activities to build students’ background knowledge—both their under-
standing of the topic and their familiarity with the genre; first they determine whether
students need world or literary knowledge and then provide experiences and informa-
Chapter 10, Organizing for Instruction

tion to develop their schema. They use a combination of experiences, visual represen-
tations, and talk to build knowledge. Involving students in authentic experiences such
as taking field trips, participating in dramatizations, and examining artifacts is the best
way to build background knowledge, but photos and pictures, picture books, websites,
Five instructional approaches—guided reading, basal reading programs, literature focus

units, literature circles, and reading and writing workshop—provide concrete methods for
M10_TOMP0191_07_SE_C08_pp250-289.indd 258 teaching reading and writing. Chapter 10 digs into these approaches, illustrating how 13/10/15 3:15 PM

PREFACE xi
to plan for and manage each of them and determine which approaches are most appro-
priate for your students.
Compendium of Instructional Procedures

Part Four of this text is a bank of step-by-step, evidence-based teaching procedures, popu-
lar because of their value as a classroom resource.
Literacy Portraits
Literacy Portraits features in the text draw your attention to five children—Rhiannon,
Rakie, Michael, Curt’Lynn, and Jimmy—who are students in Ms. Janusz’s second grade
class. They’re introduced in the openers to Parts One and Two, and the Literacy Portraits
features provide direct links to video case studies so you can track these children’s reading
and writing development through their second grade year.
Embedded Classroom Videos

Look for play button icons located in navigation bars below interior chapter photos;
clicking on these play buttons in REVEL will enable you to review videos that exemplify
concepts covered in each chapter. Captions below the photos draw your attention to the
focus of each video.
DIVERSE LEARNERS
No two students are alike. Children come to school with different background knowledge,
language experiences, and literacy opportunities; they also differ in the way they learn and
in the languages they speak. Throughout this text, and in these features in particular, I
address the vast diversity of students and what it means to differentiate instruction to meet
individual students’ literacy needs:
Classroom Interventions CHAPTER 8 Promoting Comprehension: Reader Factors 265
remember what they’ve just read and what they do when they
Classroom
These features present information on topics such as run into difficulty. Students also write about their thinking on
small self-stick notes and place them in their books, next to text
that stimulated their thinking. Later, students share their notes
INTERVENTIONS
dysfluency, phonics mismatches, vocabulary in content area

Strategic Readers
during a discussion about how they monitor their reading.
Struggling students often complain that they don’t under-
stand what they’re reading. Comprehension difficulties are
Predicting
texts, revising writing, and comprehension strategies. These
due to a variety of problems, but one of the most common
is that students don’t read strategically (Cooper, Chard, &
Readers make thoughtful “guesses” or predictions about what
Kiger, 2006). They read passively, without using compre-
will happen or what they’ll learn in the book they’re reading.
suggestions for classroom intervention detail specific ways
hension strategies to think about what they’re reading.
These guesses are based on what students already know about Unless they learn to thoughtfully engage in the reading
the topic and genre or on what they’ve read thus far. Students process, it’s unlikely that students who struggle with com-
to assist struggling readers and writers.

often make a prediction before beginning to read and several prehension will improve very much.
others at pivotal points in a text—no matter whether they’re The good news is that teachers can help struggling
reading stories, nonfiction books, or poems—and then as they students become more thoughtful and strategic readers
read, they either confirm or revise their predictions. Predictions by teaching them to use comprehension strategies
about nonfiction are different than for stories and poems; here (Allington, 2012). The most important strategies for strug-
students are generating questions about the topic that they gling readers are activating background knowledge, deter-
mining importance, summarizing, questioning, visualizing,
would like to find answers to as they read.
and monitoring.
When teachers share a big book with young children using
As teachers teach comprehension strategies, they ex-
Nurturing English Learners

shared reading, they prompt children to make predictions at plain each strategy, including how, when, and why to use
the beginning of the book and again at key points during the it, and they make the strategy visible by demonstrating
reading. They model how to make reasonable predictions and how to use it during minilessons, interactive read-alouds,
use think-alouds to talk about their predictions. and guided reading lessons. They use think-alouds to
show that capable readers are active thinkers while
Throughout the text, expanded chapter sections focus on ways

they’re reading. Students participate in small-group and
Questioning partner activities as they practice using the strategy and
Readers ask themselves questions about the text as they read verbalize their thinking. At first, teachers provide lots of
support, and they withdraw it slowly as students become
to scaffold students who are learning to read and write at the

(Duke & Pearson, 2002). They ask self-questions out of curios-
responsible for using the strategy independently. Once
ity, and as they use this strategy, they become more engaged
students have learned to apply two or three strategies,
with the text and want to keep reading to find answers (Harvey
they begin to use them together. Integrating strategy use
same time they’re learning to speak English. These sections

& Goudvis, 2007). These questions often lead to making pre- is important because capable readers don’t depend on a
dictions and drawing inferences. Students also ask themselves single comprehension strategy; instead, they have a reper-
questions to clarify misunderstandings as they read. They use toire of strategies available that they use as needed while
provide in-depth guidance for planning instruction that this strategy throughout the reading process—to activate back-
ground knowledge and make predictions before reading, to en-
gage with the text and clarify confusions during reading, and to
they’re reading (Allington, 2012).
addresses the needs of culturally and linguistically diverse evaluate and reflect on the text after reading.
Traditionally, teachers have been the question-askers and students have been the
question-answerers, but when students learn to generate questions about the text,
students. their comprehension improves. In fact, students comprehend better when they gener-
ate their own questions than when teachers ask questions (Duke & Pearson, 2002).
Many students don’t know how to ask questions to guide their reading, so it’s impor-
tant to teach them how to do so. Teachers model generating questions and then en-
courage students to do the same. Tovani (2000) suggests having students brainstorm a
list of “I wonder” questions on a topic because they need to learn how to generate
questions; in the vignette at the beginning of the chapter, for example, Ms. Ali’s sixth
graders brainstormed questions before they began reading Joey Pigza Loses Control
(Gantos, 2005).
The questions students ask shape their comprehension: If they ask literal ques-
tions, their comprehension will be literal, but if students generate inferential, critical,
and evaluative questions, their comprehension will be higher level. Question-
Answer-Relationships (QAR) (Raphael, Highfield, & Au, 2006) is an effective way to

Differentiated
INSTRUCTION
Fifth Graders Vary in Knowledge

About Comprehension
This Differentiated Instruction feature highlights three students from Ms. Reid’s fifth grade
class who vary in their knowledge about comprehension and how they use reader and text fac-
tors. Ms. Reid is currently teaching a literature focus unit on Number the Stars (Lowry, 2011), a
story about bravery set during World War II, and the students are examining the novel’s struc-
ture. As you read, think about what these students understand about reading comprehension and
Differentiated Instruction
how you’d personalize instruction for them while addressing grade-level standards.
Because teachers need to recognize individual students’ progress

Meet Crystal, a Struggling Fifth Grader
and personalize learning, this edition includes three features that
T
welve-year-old Crystal, the tallest student in Ms. Reid’s class, wishes she were shorter.
Even though she yearns to fit in, she’s a confident performer. She writes song lyrics
that she calls “poems—but not the kind that rhyme,” and then performs them at the
zero in on nine students whose cultural backgrounds and literacy
progress differ. Differentiated Instruction features appear in Chap-
school talent show. She also makes her own clothing using her mom’s sewing machine. “The fun
part,” Crystal says, “is adding rhinestone decorations.” She wears her own clothing almost every
day to school and to family events.
This girl is an athlete! Crystal loves to play sports. “I’m Reader Factors ters 4, 8, and 11 to showcase the developmental differences you
might see in beginning readers and writers, readers and writers
the only girl on the Panther football team, and that’s really
Crystal isn’t comfortable talking about comprehension strate-
cool, but basketball is my favorite,” Crystal explains. Her mom
gies. “I don’t really like talking about my brain,” she explains,
and dad show their support by attending all of her games.
but with prompting, Crystal says that she makes predictions
who are learning comprehension strategies, and older readers

Crystal lives with her mom and dad and her little brother
“because you have to know the beginning to understand
and sister, and she’s attended the same school, beginning with
what’s happening later in the book.” She says she makes pic-
a preschool program. She claims to read lots of books, but she
tures in her mind, because description is the most important
can’t name any books she’s read recently “because I never
look at the title of the book I’m reading.” Even though school
is challenging for her, Crystal plans to go to college and
part of a story. She can’t name any other strategies even
though there’s a list of comprehension strategies hanging in and writers who differ greatly in their achievement levels. In
addition, many of the featured students are learning English at
the classroom.
become a hairdresser. “I’m really good at doing hair, you
When Crystal has trouble reading, she skips over the
know,” she explains.
“hard” word and tries to keep reading. Even if that strategy
Crystal describes herself as a good reader, but she’s very
the same time they’re becoming literate.

doesn’t work, she keeps reading whether the words make
concerned about reading aloud in class. “I’m not good at
sense or not. “The most important thing is to never give up,”
reading aloud because I don’t know how to pronounce all the
she says. She’s not familiar with the term “context clues” and
words, and that’s the most important part of reading,” she
doesn’t have other ideas for dealing with unfamiliar words.
explains. Crystal defines “comprehension” as getting all the
“Here’s what I do: I just keep reading until I get to the end,”
words right, and she says that knowing every single word is
she announces proudly.
what makes you a good reader.
274
ASSESSMENT RESOURCES
Although summative assessment is often a part of a formal whole-school program, teachers
often use formative assessment measures to monitor and evaluate students’ achievement. I
offer a variety of authentic assessment examples in this text so you’ll learn how to plan for
assessment that really measures what’s intended, glean useful information about student
progress, and personalize instruction to meet students’ needs. Assessment requires teachers
to engage in all four steps of the instruction–assessment cycle—plan for, monitor, evaluate,
and reflect on students’ literacy progress plus their own effectiveness; this link with instruc-
CHAPTER 5 Cracking the Alphabetic Code 177
tion is crucial to ensure that all students are successful.

phonics and root words; they’re useful for all students, not just those using this
spelling program.
Kids Spell. This website offers a variety of spelling games for K–8 students, in-
cluding Spellasaurus, Cast a Spell, and Defender.
Chapter 3, Assessing Literacy Development

Puzzle Maker. Teachers and students can turn spelling lists into a variety of
games at this free site.
Spelling City. This website allows teachers and students to type in spelling lists
and use them to make spelling tests, flash cards, and word-search games. A variety
of other spelling games are also available.
This chapter is placed early in the text to lay the groundwork for assessing students in line with
Spelling Wizard. At the Scholastic website, search for the Spelling Wizard at the
Homework Hub. At this activity center, students type in their spelling words and
backward design, ensuring that you know how you’re going to measure literacy progress as you
the website turns them into spelling-scramble and word-search games.
Assessing Students’ Spelling

set literacy goals. Information in this chapter also addresses how to use student performance to
The choices students make as they spell words are important indicators of their
knowledge of both phonics and spelling. For example, a student who spells phoneti-
els might spell the word as MONYE or MONIE. Teachers classify and analyze the inform instructional planning and how to prepare students for high-stakes achievement tests.
cally might spell money as MUNE, and others who are experimenting with long vow-
words students misspell in their writing to gauge their level of spelling development
ASSESSMENT TOOLS
How to Determine a Student’s Stage of Spelling Development

Assessment Tools
1. Choose a Writing Sample
Teachers choose a student’s writing sample to analyze. In the primary grades, the sample should total
at least 50 words, in the middle grades 100 words, and in the upper grades 200 words. Teachers must Features throughout the text identify well-respected and widely
used assessment tools that measure literacy development. Teach-
be able to decipher most words in the sample to analyze it.
2. Identify Spelling Errors
Teachers read the writing sample to note the errors and identify the words the student was trying to
spell. If necessary, teachers check with the writer to determine the intended word.
3. Make a Spelling Analysis Chart

ers are responsible for knowing about these assessment choices,
when it’s appropriate to use them, and the kinds of screening or
Teachers draw a chart with five columns, one for each stage of spelling development.
4. Categorize the Spelling Errors

Teachers classify the student’s spelling errors according to the stage of development. They list each error
in one of the stages, ignoring proper nouns, capitalization errors, and grammar errors. Teachers ignore
poorly formed letters or reversed letterforms in kindergarten and first grade, but these are significant diagnostic information they impart.
errors when
196 olderPARTstudents make them. To
2 Components simplify the
of Literacy analysis, teachers write both the student’s error
Development
and the correct spelling in parentheses.
5. Tally the Errors
Snapshot Assessment Snapshots

Teachers count the errors in each column, and the one with the most errors indicates the student’s cur-
rent stage of development. ASSESSMENT
6. Identify Topics for Instruction Prosody Rubric
Teachers examine the student’s errors to identify topics for instruction.
Expression Monotone
1
Some
2 3
Reasonable
4
Expression
A variety of authentic assessment examples that portray
the literacy performance of individual students are pre-
expressiveness expressiveness matches
interpretation
✓
TEACHER’S NOTE
Jesse is a shy second grader, and
in the spring of the year, he’s
Phrasing Word-by-word
reading
Choppy reading Reasonable
chunking and
intonation
Effective
phrasing sented in most chapters. Teacher’s Notes accompany
each assessment example to illustrate how teachers gather
reading at grade level. On this
prosody rubric, Jesse scored a 3, ✓
indicating that he’s making good Loudness Very quiet Quiet voice Appropriate Volume matches
progress toward fluency. I plan to
information from each assessment and use the results to
voice volume interpretation
show Jesse how to read with more ✓

expression and encourage him to
read a little louder. Smoothness Frequent
extended pauses
or breakdowns
Some pauses
or breakdowns
A few pauses or
breakdowns
Smooth rhythm
guide further instruction.
✓
Pacing Very laborious Slow reading Uneven Appropriate

reading combination of conversational
fast and slow pace
reading
✓
xii use the Dolch list of 220 sight words and Fry’s list of 300 instant words, both of
which are widely available in professional books, such as Assessment for Reading
Instruction (McKenna & Dougherty Stahl, 2015), and online.
Speed. Teachers time students as they read an instructional-level passage aloud
and determine how many words they read correctly per minute. Teachers can use
the speeds listed in Figure 6–5 to compare their students’ reading speeds to na-
tional norms.
Prosody. Teachers choose excerpts for students to read from both familiar and
unfamiliar instructional-level texts. As they listen, teachers judge whether students
read with appropriate expression. Rubrics can also be used; the one presented in
Assessment Snapshot: Prosody Rubric shows how a second grade teacher scored a
student reading at grade level.
This assessment information is also useful for teachers as they make instructional
decisions.
Teachers use running records, informal reading inventories, and classroom texts
A00_TOMP0191_07_SE_CR_REV_FM_ppi-xxxii.indd 12 to document students’ reading fluency. Assessment Tools: Oral Reading Fluency
(Grades K–3) lists the tests that evaluate fluency—reading speed, in particular. Until 17/11/15 12:06 PM
students become fluent readers, it’s crucial that teachers regularly monitor their de-
PREFACE xiii
TECHNOLOGY TOOLS
Technology is changing the way we live and communicate; this change affects not only our use of technology but also
students’ ability to access and learn from it. In these two features, I introduce digital programs, products, or processes
that support students in learning to read and write:
Go Digital! letters carefully and including every letter in a word before they try to increase their
writing speed. Interactive writing is a useful procedure for examining young chil-
dren’s handwriting skills and demonstrating how to form letters legibly.
Many schools across the country are expecting teachers to GO DIGITAL! Keyboarding. Keyboarding is an essential 21st-century
engage students in digital learning. The Go Digital! features

literacy skill; most schools use tutorial programs to teach typing skills, begin-
ning with the location of the home keys and correct fingering on the keyboard.
Software programs as well as easy-to-use online keyboarding programs and games are
provide practical ideas and guidance for using specific pro- available for students of all ages. Students like these programs because they’re fun and
engaging:
grams and products that benefit students in using technology

Ainsworth Keyboard Trainer
All the Right Type
Garfield’s Typing Pal
and in developing new media skills.

Type to Learn
Typing Instructor for Kids
Typing Quick & Easy
Ultra Key
Students practice using the keys to write words and sentences in these programs, and
264 they receive
PART 2 Components feedback
of Literacy about their accuracy and speed. Students usually learn key-
Development
New Literacies
boarding in second or third grade, and this instruction is critical, because when they
don’t know how to keyboard, they use the inefficient hunt-and-peck technique and
New
their writing speed is very slow.
LITERACIES
Writer’s Voice
These features describe the research behind and the use of new Online Comprehension Strategies
The writer’s voice reflects the person doing the writing. It sounds natural, not
Websites are dynamic learningstilted. Pulitzer
contexts prize–winning
that create new challenges author
for and teacher
Repairing.Donald
ReadersMurray (2012) strategy
use the repairing said that a
to correct poor navi-
technologies and how they support the development of 21st-cen- readers because online texts writer’s
(Castek, Bevans-Mangelson,writers,
and unchanging, with a finiteknow
voice
differ from is the
print
their2006).
& Goldstone,
textsperson
voices will
Print
in the
in significant
emerge,
texts
well.of pages and with information
number
writing. As
ways students
gational gain experience as readers and
choices.
especially when they’re writing about topics they
are linear
As researchers learn more about online reading, it’s likely that they’ll
tury literacy strategies. Carefully researched, each featured tech-

identify additional ways students adapt traditional comprehension
arranged in predictable narrative, Asnonfiction,
studentsand develop theironline
poetic genres; writers’ voices, they learn to vary their tone when
strategies.
they’rewith
texts, in contrast, are multilayered, writing to entertain,
unlimited inform, or persuade. They also learn that some writing
multimodal informa-
Readers also learn comprehension strategies that address the
formslinks.
tion accessed through hypertext require a more informal or formal voice: Think about the difference when
nology identifies specific ways to prepare students for the reading

unique characteristics and complex applications of online texts (Coiro,
you’re writing
Students use these traditional an email
comprehension message
strategies and a business letter. Similarly, students’ voices are
to read
2003). Coauthoring is a comprehension strategy that readers use to im-
Web-based texts, but they usemorethemcasual
in newandwaysrelaxed when they’re
(Coiro & Dobler, 2007): writing for classmates than when they’re writ-
pose an organization on online texts (Leu, Kinzer, Coiro, & Cammack,
ing for adults.
and writing demands of 21st-century learning, including informa-
Activating Background Knowledge. Readers need to know 2004). Coiro and Dobler (2007) examined the strategies that sixth grad-
Doing lots of reading and writing helps students develop their voices. As they
about websites and how to navigate search engines to locate useful ers used for Internet reading and found that these students use a self-
read books and listen to the teacher read others aloud, students develop an awareness
ones. directed process of text construction: They make a series of decisions as
tion and communication technologies.

of voice. Teachers highlight the lyrical tone in Owl Moon (Yolen, 2007) and My
they move from one link to another, searching for information, and
Mamawhich
Predicting. Readers predict Hadlinksa Dancing
will be useful; (Gray, 2001), the lively spirit in Barn Dance! (Martin &
Heartotherwise,
they plan, predict, monitor, and evaluate with each navigational choice.
they get distracted or Archambault,
waste time finding1988),
their way and repetitive
back from un- sentences in The Napping House (Wood, 2005)
More than 30 years ago, Tierney and Pearson (1983) asserted that read-
productive links. and Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day (Viorst, 2009). As
ing is a composing process, and these strategies emphasize the interre-
students become aware of these techniques, they begin applying them in their own
Evaluating. Students determine the accuracy, objectivity, rele- latedness of reading and writing.
writing.
vance, and quality of information at websites, because some infor- It’s essential that teachers prepare students to use 21st-century
At the same time they’re examining authors’ voices in books they’re reading,
mation is erroneous or biased. technology. Students need to understand how print and Web-based
students do lots of informal writing to develop their own voices. They need to write
texts differ so they can adjust how they apply traditional comprehen-
Monitoring. Studentsevery day
monitor tonavigational
their become fluent. choices Keeping
and de- a personal journal is a good way to begin, or
sion strategies and learn ones to use for Internet texts.
cide whether the linksstudents write in reading logs on topics they choose or on topics the teacher
they’ve reached are useful.
provides. They can try writing from varied viewpoints to experiment with voice. For
example, if students retold “Goldilocks and the Three Bears” from Goldilocks’s view-
point, the tone would be quite different.
Monitoring
Readers monitor their understanding as they read, although they may be aware that
they’re using this strategy only when their comprehension breaks down and they have
to take action to solve their problem. Harvey and Goudvis (2007) describe monitor-
ing as the inner conversation that students carry on in their heads with the text as they
read—for example, expressing wonder, making connections, asking questions, react-
ing to information, drawing conclusions, and noticing confusions.
M08_TOMP0191_07_SE_CH06_pp182-215.indd 200 Monitoring involves regulating reader and text factors at the same time. 13/10/15
Readers 7:56 PM
often ask themselves these questions:

What’s my purpose for reading?
Is this book too difficult for me to read on my own?
Do I need to read the entire book or only parts of it?
What’s special about the genre of this book?
How does the author use text structure?
What is the author’s viewpoint?
Do I understand the meaning of the words I’m reading? (Pressley, 2002b)
Once students detect a problem, they shift into problem-solving mode to repair their
comprehension.
Teachers use think-alouds to demonstrate the monitoring strategy during mini-
lessons and when they’re reading aloud to students. They show that capable readers
ask themselves if they understand what they’re reading or if they realize that they don’t

Introducing
Pearson’s REVEL
REVEL. . . . learning reimagined. Reading has been the cornerstone of education since the
invention of the printing press. Yet even as technology has connected us and guaranteed us
a way to interact differently with the world, the means through
which learners and educators have had to interact with written text
has remained largely static. REVEL, a new learning experience
offered by Pearson, engages you in a new way to read, think, and
learn. REVEL allows you to interact with course material on
devices you use—laptops, tablets, and smartphones—anytime and
anywhere, and apply new learning and assessment strategies that
weren’t possible in the past with a printed textbook. Immersive
learning experiences enliven familiar and respected course content
with media interactives and assessments.
REVEL also is designed to make a measurable impact on
defined learner outcomes related to access, completion, compe-
tence, and progression. It’s the first product at Pearson to have an
efficacy framework built in from the very beginning. REVEL was developed over several
years and with more than 23,000 educators and students, and its key aspects—from features
to content to performance dashboard reporting—were guided by interactions with custom-
ers like you. The result is a new approach to digital learning that gives educators and stu-
dents precisely what they need—and nothing more. You can download a full efficacy report
at http://www.pearsonhighered.com/revel/educators/index.html.
REVEL reflects several learning design principles:
Effective learning experiences clearly communicate goals to learners. They feature content
that directly aligns with the stated objectives.
Embedding formative assessment has a positive impact on both learning and instruction.
Assessments allow instructors to gauge student comprehension frequently, provide
timely feedback, and address learning gaps along the way. When assessments are
implemented appropriately and with specific, timely feedback, they engage students in
the retrieval process, and this act of retrieving solidifies the original learning (Schecter,
Durik, Miyamoto, & Harackiewicz, 2011*).
At Pearson, we believe that learning is a life-changing opportunity and that education should
have a measurable impact on learners’ lives. It’s why we have spent so much time creating an
immersive new learning environment that will empower you to take an active role in your
own learning: engaging in familiar learning and eStudy tools (highlighting, note-taking, and
accessing a glossary when needed), utilizing interactives that make the content dynamic, and
participating in assessments that allow you to check your understanding at regular intervals.
By listening to instructors and students, by leveraging the best thinking and instructional
research and design, and by applying new learning and assessment strategies, Pearson cre-
ated REVEL. It’s meant to make learning a valued and personalized experience for you. It
is meant to prepare you for your future career.
*Schecter, O. G., Durik, A. M., Miyamoto, Y., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (2011). The role of utility value in achievement behavior: The
importance of culture. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(3): 303–317. doi: 10.1177/0146167210396380
xiv
A00_TOMP0191_07_SE_CR_REV_FM_ppi-xxxii.indd 14 18/11/15 9:53 AM

Support Materials for Instructors
Instructors can download the following resources at www.pearsonhigher.com/educators.

They enter the author or title of this book, select this particular edition of the book, and
then click on the “Resources” tab to log in and download these textbook supplements:
Instructor’s Resource Manual and Test Bank

The Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank includes chapter-by-chapter materials with learning
outcomes, suggested readings, discussion questions, in-class activities, and guidance on how
to use the vignettes meaningfully in your instruction. You’ll also find a bank of multiple-
choice and essay questions.
PowerPoint Slides
The PowerPoint slides specifically designed for this text expand concepts and clarify chapter
ideas to help instructors create a lecture or classroom activity that will engage students and
share important chapter concepts.
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xv

Acknowledgments
Many people helped and encouraged me as I developed and revised this text; my heartfelt
thanks go to each of them. First, I want to thank my students over the years at California
State University, Fresno, the University of Oklahoma, and Miami University, who taught
me while I taught them, and the Teacher Consultants in the San Joaquin Valley Writing
Project and the Oklahoma Writing Project, who shared their expertise with me. Their
insightful questions challenged and broadened my thinking. I will always be grateful to the
teachers who welcomed me into their classrooms, showed me how they created a balanced
literacy program, and allowed me to learn from them and their students. In particular, I
want to express my appreciation to Kimberly Clark, Whitney Donnelly, Stacy Firpo,
Laurie Goodman, Lisa Janusz, Susan McCloskey, Kristi McNeal, Carol Ochs, Gay Ockey,
Pam Papaleo, Holly Reid, Jenny Reno, Kacey Sanom, Troy Wagner, Darcy Williams, and
Susan Zumwalt. I also want to recognize Van Vang for the excellent artwork he rendered
for this text.
To my editors and the production team at Pearson Education, I offer my heartfelt
thanks. A special thank you to Linda Bishop; I value your insightful approach to my books
and your nurturing manner. I also want to express my appreciation to Meredith Fossel, my
acquisitions editor, for her support, and I extend my unflagging gratitude to Susan McNally
and Karen Mason, who have moved this text through the maze of production details. And
to Melissa Gruzs, who has again cleaned up my manuscript and proofread the typeset text:
I’m grateful for your careful attention to detail.
Finally, I want to thank the professors and teaching professionals who reviewed my text
for their insightful comments that informed my development of this revision: Stan Barrera,
IV, Louisiana State University; Frannie Franc, The College of New Jersey; Kristi Kallio,
Mooresville (NC) Graded School District; Sharla Snider, Texas Woman’s University;
Christine Tate, Granite State College; and Amy W. Thornburg, Queens University of
Charlotte. I sincerely appreciate your guidance.
Gail E. Tompkins
xvi

Brief Contents
PART one
Literacy in the 21st Century 1
1 Becoming an Effective Literacy Teacher 4
2 The Reading and Writing Processes 36
3 Assessing Literacy Development 70
PART two
Components of Literacy Development 103
4 The Youngest Readers and Writers 106
5 Cracking the Alphabetic Code 142
6 Developing Fluent Readers and Writers 182
7 Expanding Academic Vocabulary 216
8 Promoting Comprehension: Reader Factors 250
9 Promoting Comprehension: Text Factors 290
PART three
Organizing for Instruction 325
10 Organizing for Instruction 328
11 Differentiating for Success 366
12 Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum 398
PART f our
Compendium of Instructional Procedures 435
xvii


Table of Contents
PART one
Literacy in the 21st Century 1
chapter 1
Becoming an Effective Literacy Teacher 4
PLAN: Preview the Learning Outcomes 4
Principle 1: Effective Teachers Understand How Students Learn 6
Behaviorism 6
Constructivism 6
Sociolinguistics 8
Information Processing 10
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 1.1 11
Principle 2: Effective Teachers Support Students’ Use of the Cueing Systems 11
The Phonological System 12
The Syntactic System 13
The Semantic System 13
The Pragmatic System 14
Principle 3: Effective Teachers Create a Community of Learners 14
Characteristics of a Classroom Community 15
How to Create the Classroom Culture 16
Principle 4: Effective Teachers Adopt a Balanced Approach to Instruction 16
Principle 5: Effective Teachers Address Standards 19
The Common Core State Standards 19
Principle 6: Effective Teachers Scaffold Students’ Reading and Writing 21
Modeled Reading and Writing 22
Shared Reading and Writing 23
Interactive Reading and Writing 23
Guided Reading and Writing 23
Independent Reading and Writing 24
Principle 7: Effective Teachers Organize for Instruction 24
Guided Reading 25
Basal Reading Programs 25
Literature Focus Units 25
Literature Circles 25
Reading and Writing Workshop 25
Principle 8: Effective Teachers Differentiate Instruction 28
xix

xx TABLE OF CONTENTS
Principle 9: Effective Teachers Link Instruction and Assessment 29

The Instruction–Assessment Cycle 30
Classroom Assessment Tools 31
High-Stakes Tests 31
REVIEW: Teaching Reading and Writing 32
✓ Evaluate & Reflect 32
References 33
chapter 2
The Reading and Writing Processes 36
VIGNETTE: The Reading Process in Action 36
The Reading Process 39
Stage 1: Prereading 41
Stage 2: Reading 42
Stage 3: Responding 44
Stage 4: Exploring 46
Stage 5: Applying 47
The Writing Process 48
Stage 1: Prewriting 48
Stage 2: Drafting 50
Stage 3: Revising 51
Stage 4: Editing 52
Stage 5: Publishing 55
The Writer’s Craft 58
Ideas 58
Organization 58
Voice 59
Word Choice 59
Sentence Fluency 59
Conventions 59
Presentation 60
Reading and Writing Are Reciprocal Processes 61
Comparing the Two Processes 61
Classroom Connections 61
Literacy Strategies 63
Reading Strategies 63
Digital Reading Strategies 63
Writing Strategies 64
Strategy Instruction 64
REVIEW: Teaching the Reading and Writing Processes 66
References 67

TABLE OF CONTENTS xxi
chapter 3
Assessing Literacy Development 70
VIGNETTE: Mrs. McNeal Does Second-Quarter Assessments 70
Classroom Assessment 75
Step 1: Planning for Assessment 75
Step 2: Monitoring Students’ Progress 75
Step 3: Evaluating Students’ Learning 78
Step 4: Reflecting on Students’ Learning 79
Diagnostic Tests 80
Determining Students’ Reading Levels 81
Diagnosing Students’ Strengths and Weaknesses 86
High-Stakes Testing 91
Problems With High-Stakes Testing 92
Preparing for Standardized Tests 93
The Politics of High-Stakes Testing 96
Portfolio Assessment 96
Collecting Work in Portfolios 97
Involving Students in Self-Assessment 97
Showcasing Students’ Portfolios 99
REVIEW: Assessing Literacy Development 99
References 101
PART two
Components of Literacy Development 103
chapter 4
The Youngest Readers and Writers 106
VIGNETTE: K–3 Students’ Literacy Development 106
Nurturing Children’s Oral Language Development 111
Oral Language Activities 111
Learning a Second Language 112
The Link Between Oral Language and Literacy 113
Assessing Children’s Oral Language 114
Fostering an Interest in Literacy 114
Concepts About Print 114
Concepts About Words 115

xxii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Concepts About the Alphabet 116

Assessing Children’s Concepts About Written Language 119
How Children Develop as Readers and Writers 120
Stage 1: Emergent Reading and Writing 120
Stage 2: Beginning Reading and Writing 121
Stage 3: Fluent Reading and Writing 123
Instructional Practices 130
Morning Message 130
Shared Reading 133
Language Experience Approach 134
Interactive Writing 136
Manuscript Handwriting 137
Writing Centers 138
REVIEW: Teaching the Youngest Readers and Writers 139
References 140
chapter 5
Cracking the Alphabetic Code 142
VIGNETTE: First Grade Phonics Instruction 142
Phonemic Awareness 146
Phonemic Awareness Strategies 147
Teaching Phonemic Awareness 147
Assessing Children’s Phonemic Awareness 154
Why Phonemic Awareness Is Important 155
Phonics 155
Phonics Concepts 156
Teaching Phonics 160
Assessing Students’ Phonics Knowledge 165
The Role of Phonics in a Balanced Literacy Program 166
Spelling 166
Stages of Spelling Development 166
Teaching Spelling 171
Weekly Spelling Tests 175
Assessing Students’ Spelling 177
The Controversy About Spelling Instruction 178
REVIEW: Assisting Students in Cracking the Alphabetic Code 179
References 180

TABLE OF CONTENTS xxiii
chapter 6
Developing Fluent Readers and Writers 182
Plan: Preview the Learning Outcomes 182
VIGNETTE: High-Frequency Words 182
Reading Fluency 186
Automatic Reading 186
Reading Speed 193
Prosody 194
Assessing Reading Fluency 195
Writing Fluency 198
Automatic Writing 198
Writing Speed 199
Writer’s Voice 200
Assessing Writing Fluency 201
MONITOR: Check Your Understanding 202
Dysfluent Students 202
Older Dysfluent Readers 203
Older Dysfluent Writers 204
Obstacles to Fluency 206
REVIEW: Developing Fluent Readers and Writers 212
References 213
chapter 7
Expanding Academic Vocabulary 216
VIGNETTE: The Word Wizards Club 216
Academic Vocabulary 220
Three Tiers of Words 220
Levels of Word Knowledge 222
Word Consciousness 223
Word-Study Concepts 225
Multiple Meanings of Words 225
Synonyms: Words With Similar Meanings 227
Antonyms: Words That Mean the Opposite 227
Homonyms: Words That Confuse 228
Root Words and Affixes 229
Etymologies: Word Histories 232
Figurative Meanings 233
Teaching Students to Unlock Word Meanings 236
Word Walls 236
Explicit Instruction 238
Word-Study Activities 238
Word-Learning Strategies 241

xxiv TABLE OF CONTENTS
Incidental Word Learning 243

The Role of Oral Language 244
Assessing Students’ Vocabulary Knowledge 245
REVIEW: Expanding Students’ Academic Vocabulary 247
References 248
chapter 8
Promoting Comprehension: Reader Factors 250
VIGNETTE: Ms. Ali Teaches Comprehension Strategies 250
What Is Comprehension 255
Reader and Text Factors 256
Text Complexity 256
Prerequisites for Comprehension 258
Comprehension Strategies 259
Activating Background Knowledge 260
Connecting 261
Determining Importance 261
Drawing Inferences 262
Evaluating 263
Monitoring 264
Predicting 265
Questioning 265
Repairing 266
Setting a Purpose 266
Summarizing 266
Visualizing 266
Comprehension Skills 267
Teaching Students About Reader Factors 268
Explicit Instruction 269
Developing Comprehension Through Reading 273
Assessing Reader Factors 278
Motivation 281
Teachers’ Role 281
Students’ Role 282
How to Engage Students 283
Assessing Motivation 284
Comparing Capable and Less Capable Students 285
REVIEW: Teaching About Reader Factors 287
References 288

TABLE OF CONTENTS xxv
chapter 9
Promoting Comprehension: Text Factors 290
VIGNETTE: Reading and Writing About Frogs 290
Text Factors of Stories 294
Formats of Stories 294
Narrative Genres 295
Elements of Story Structure 299
Narrative Devices 304
Looking at the Text Factors in a Story 306
Text Factors of Nonfiction 306
Nonfiction Genres 306
Expository Text Structures 308
Nonfiction Features 308
Looking at the Text Factors in a Nonfiction Book 311
Text Factors of Poetry 311
Formats of Poetry Books 311
Poetic Forms 313
Poetic Devices 316
Looking at the Text Factors in a Book of Poetry 317
Teaching About Text Factors 317
Minilessons 318
Comprehension Strategies 318
Reading and Writing Activities 319
Assessing Text Factors 320
REVIEW: Facilitating Students’ Comprehension of Text Factors 320
References 321
PART three
chapter 10
VIGNETTE: A Yearlong Author Study 328
Conducting Guided Reading Lessons 332
Components 332
Reading Strategies 333
Instructional Materials 334
Applying the Reading Process 334

xxvi TABLE OF CONTENTS
Managing Guided Reading 334

Teaching With Basal Reading Programs 335
Components 335
Instructional Materials 337
Managing a Basal Reading Program 339
Teaching With Literature Focus Units 340
Steps in Developing a Unit 341
Units Featuring a Picture Book 343
Units Featuring a Novel 343
Units Featuring a Genre 343
Units Featuring an Author 345
Managing Literature Focus Units 346
Orchestrating Literature Circles 346
Key Features of Literature Circles 346
Implementing Literature Circles 350
Using Literature Circles With Young Children 351
Managing Literature Circles 352
Implementing Reading and Writing Workshop 353
Reading Workshop 354
Writing Workshop 359
Applying the Writing Process 361
Managing a Workshop Classroom 362
REVIEW: Organizing for Instruction 363
References 364
chapter 11
Differentiating for Success 366
VIGNETTE: Classroom Interventions 366
Ways to Differentiate Instruction 371
Grouping for Instruction 372
Tiered Activities 374
Struggling Readers and Writers 384
Struggling Readers 384
Struggling Writers 385
High-Quality Instruction 385
Interventions 389
REVIEW: Differentiating Literacy Instruction 394
References 395

TABLE OF CONTENTS xxvii
chapter 12
Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum 398
VIGNETTE: Third Graders’ Multigenre Projects 398
Learning Tools 402
Reading to Learn 403
Writing to Learn 405
Demonstrating Learning 408
Reports 409
Essays 411
Poems 411
Multigenre Projects 413
Content Area Textbooks 415
Textbook Features 415
Making Textbooks More Comprehensible 416
Learning How to Study 418
Why Aren’t Content Area Textbooks Enough? 421
Thematic Units 421
How to Develop a Unit 422
A First Grade Unit on Trees 425
A Fourth Grade Unit on Desert Ecosystems 425
A Sixth Grade Unit on Ancient Egypt 426
REVIEW: Reading and Writing Across the Curriculum 433
References 434
PART f our
Compendium of Instructional Procedures 435
Anticipation Guides 436 Interactive Writing 447
Book Talks 437 KWL Charts 448
Choral Reading 438 Language Experience Approach 450
Cloze Procedure 439 Learning Logs 452
Collaborative Books 440 Making Words 454
Double-Entry Journals 441 Minilessons 455
Exclusion Brainstorming 442 Open-Mind Portraits 456
Grand Conversations 443 Possible Sentences 457
Hot Seat 444 Prereading Plan 458
Interactive Read-Alouds 445 Question-Answer-Relationships 460

xxviii TABLE OF CONTENTS
Quickwriting 461 Sketch-to-Stretch 473

RAFT 463 Story Boards 474
Readers Theatre 464 Story Retelling 476
Reading Logs 465 Sustained Silent Reading 478
Revising Groups 466 Tea Party 479
Rubrics 468 Think-Alouds 480
Running Records 470 Word Sorts 481
Semantic Feature Analysis 471 Word Walls 483
Shared Reading 472
Glossary 487
Index 493


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no related content on Scribd:
Auf die Borsten im Gesichte von brasiliensis hat A l l e n aufmerksam
gemacht (Monogr. Bats N. Am. Bull. U. St. Nat. Mus. 43, 1893). Er
sagt (S. 165): „The face is naked over the dorsal surface except in
the space between the median border of the auricle and the nostril
where a number of long 3 mm to 4 mm stout bristles are found“, und
er macht dazu die Anmerkung: „The bristles about the nostrils have
been neglected in describing species of Nyctinomus. They are
conspicuous in N. brasiliensis, while almost absent in N. plicatus“.
Die Borsten auf den Wülsten der Oberlippe werden im Texte nicht
erwähnt, in den Abbildungen (Fig. 1 u. 2, Taf. XXXII) sind sie
dagegen richtig angedeutet. Das gleiche gilt für die Felder an den
Füssen (daselbst Fig. 4, 5 u. 6).
12. Nyctinomus africanus Dobs.
1 Exemplar von Keren, Bogos, NO Afrika (Stuttgart). Neben

zahlreichen Borsten anderer Art ähnliche wie bei brasiliensis spärlich
unterhalb der Nasenlöcher sowie etwas seitlich von ihnen,
ebensolche, z. Th. sehr lange, Borsten oberhalb der Nase. — Am
Unterkiefer vereinzelt. Manche von diesen Borsten an der Spitze
ähnlich denen von brasiliensis aufgefasert. — Haare an den Füssen
locker stehend, am oberen Ende wenig, aber deutlich, verbreitert.
13. Nyctinomus cestonii (Savi)
1 Exemplar aus Italien (Stuttgart), sehr ausgeblasst, was die

genauere Untersuchung erschwert. Borsten, ähnlich denen (Fig. 26,
Taf. X) von brasiliensis, bemerkte ich nur auf den seitlichen
Abschnitten der etwas gewulsteten Oberlippe. — Haare an den
Füssen stehen ziemlich dicht, Enden wenig verbreitert. [47]
14. Nyctinomus gracilis (Natt.)
1 Exemplar von Panama (Stuttgart). Am Kopfe sind nur einige helle,

ziemlich kurze, etwas abgeplattete Borsten auf den Falten der
Oberlippe möglicherweise als Vertreter der Spatelhaare zu
betrachten.—An den Füssen die gewöhnliche Anordnung, aber die
einzelnen Härchen sind wie bei brasiliensis nur im ganzen etwas
abgeplattet und nicht am Ende verbreitert.
Molossus Geoffr.
1. Molossus rufus Geoffr. und M. rufus obscurus (Geoffr.)
Tafel XI, Fig. 8, Tafel X, Fig. 29
Art und Unterart verhalten sich in Bezug auf das Vorkommen von
Spatelhaaren ganz übereinstimmend. Untersucht wurden von M.
rufus: 3 Exemplare von Peru (2 Stuttgart), 1 von Surinam (dsgl.) und
1 von Jamaica (dsgl.); von M. rufus obscurus: 1 von Central Peru
(Stuttgart), 3 von Surinam (dsgl.), 1 von Cuba und 1 von Tobago
(Antillen).
Etwas unterhalb der Nasenlöcher bis nahe zum Mundrand ein meist
scharf begrenztes, annähernd dreieckiges oder trapezoides Feld,
sehr dicht bestanden mit Spatelhaaren vorwiegend mittlerer, aber
auch geringerer Ausbildung, letztere Formen besonders an den
seitlichen Rändern des Feldes und in seinem unteren Theile, wo die
Länge der einzelnen Haare grösser wird. Sonst am Kopfe keine
Spatelhaare. — Felder an den Füssen locker bestanden mit Haaren
von wenig ausgeprägter bis annähernd mittlerer Form.
G e r v a i s (Expéd. de Castelnau, Zool. Mammif. 57, Paris 1855) hat
das Feld an der Schnauze bei M. rufus und rufus obscurus bemerkt
und kennzeichnet seine gröberen Verhältnisse ganz zutreffend: „…
la supérieure [sc. lèvre] est garnie au-dessous du nez de poils
sétiformes très courts et en brosse.“
D o b s o n (PZS. 1876, 709; auch Catal. 1878, 410) giebt für M.

rufus Folgendes an: „… the nasal apertures … separated by a
considerable interval (w h i c h i s c o v e r e d w i t h s h o r t
e r e c t h a i r s d i l a t e d a t t h e i r e x t r e m i t i e s 25) from the
margin of the lip …“ Auffallend bleibt es, dass diese und ähnliche
Beobachtungen an noch einigen Molossus-Arten im Vereine mit den
Angaben der früheren Autoren, die ihm sicher bekannt waren,
D o b s o n nicht anregten, den Gegenstand weiter zu verfolgen, und
dass er diese eigentümliche Haarform nicht wenigstens einer
Erwähnung in der vortrefflichen allgemeinen Schilderung der
Fledermausorganisation, die er seinem Catal. 1878 vorausschickt,
werth gefunden hat.
2. Molossus nasutus Spix
1 Exemplar von Guatemala (Stuttgart). Am Kopfe Spatelhaare, meist

wenig ausgeprägter Form, nur auf einem Felde zwischen Nase und
Mundrand ähnlich wie bei vorigen, aber in weiterer Ausdehnung, und
ebenfalls sehr dicht gedrängt. — Haare an den Füssen am Ende nur
wenig verbreitert.
D o b s o n (PZS. 1876, 711, auch Catal. 1878, 414) erwähnt das

Feld an der Schnauze: „… the wide space between the nostrils and
the margin of the upper lip occupied by a quadrilateral patch of
thickly spread short hairs …“
3. Molossus abrasus (Temm.)
Tafel XI, Fig. 9
4 Exemplare von Surinam (3 Stuttgart). Obere Ränder der

Nasenlöcher wulstig und mit warzigen Vorsprüngen, vereinigen sich
nach abwärts zu einer medianen Leiste. Letztere dicht besetzt mit
wenig ausgeprägten, nur bei éinem Exemplare mittlerer Form sich
nähernden, Spatelhaaren, die vereinzelt auch noch auf die
medialsten Theile des oberen Nasenlochrandes übergreifen. Sonst
am Kopfe keine Spatelhaare. — Felder an den Füssen locker
behaart, Haare verhältnissmässig dunkel, denen am Gesichte sehr
ähnlich, z. Th. ziemlich lang, namentlich am äusseren Rande des
Feldes der fünften Zehe. [48]
D o b s o n (PZS. 1876, 712; Catal. 1878, 415) sagt über die Haare
an der Schnauze: „… the upper margin of the nasal disk thus formed
on each side is finely and evenly toothed, a n d t h e i n t e r n a s a l
ridge covered with short spoon-shaped hairs,
similar to those forming a broad patch between
t h e n o s t r i l s a n d u p p e r l i p i n M. rufus, b u t s t r i c t l y
l i m i t e d t o t h i s r i d g e ..“ 26. Ich bemerke dazu, dass für die mir
vorliegenden Exemplare gerade dieser Art der Ausdruck
„löffelförmige Haare“ kaum gerechtfertigt erscheint, doch kann ja an
D o b s o n s Exemplaren die Form besser ausgebildet gewesen sein.
4. Molossus perotis (Wied)
Tafel XI, Fig. 10
1 Exemplar von Surinam (Stuttgart). Am Kopf ähnlich wie bei

vorigem wenig ausgeprägte Spatelhaare in geringer Zahl
ausschliesslich auf einem senkrechten leistenartigen Felde zwischen
den Nasenlöchern, auch jederseits oben auf ihren Rand
übergreifend. — Haare an den Füssen am Ende wenig verbreitert.
B u r m e i s t e r (Syst. Übers. Thiere Brasil. I. Säugeth. 66, Berl.

1854) sagt über diese Art: „… die Hinterzehen sind kräftig,
besonders die erste und letzte, welche die s t e i f e n H ä k c h e n 26
tragen …“ Auch erwähnt er (ebendort) die „mittlere stark behaarte
Längsschwiele“ an der Schnauze, ohne jedoch etwas über die Form
der Haare zu sagen. Vielleicht aber ist die früher citirte Angabe über
das Vorkommen von „hakenförmig aufwärts gebogenen Borsten“ auf
den Lippen des Genus Dysopes (= Molossus und Nyctinomus)
überhaupt (ebendort S. 66) auch speciell auf diese Art zu beziehen.
Cheiromeles Horsf.
Cheiromeles torquatus Horsf.
Tafel XI, Fig. 11 u. 11 a–d, Tafel X, Fig. 6, 20, 21 a–e, 22, 23, 24 u.
25
1 Exemplar in Spiritus von Java, ausserdem 1 ausgestopftes und 1

trockener Balg von Bórneo (SO u. W). Wie schon früher bemerkt,
macht der Körper dieses interessanten Thieres auf den ersten
Anblick den Eindruck völliger Nacktheit, thatsächlich aber ist die
derbe schwartenartige Haut, wenn wir von der Flugmembran
absehen, überall in verschiedenem Maasse, doch immer spärlich,
behaart. Am dichtesten stehen die Haare auf Brust und Bauch, aber
auch der Rücken ist nicht ganz nackt, wie D o b s o n (Catal. 1876,
178; Catal. 1878, 406) angiebt, sondern trägt auf seiner chagrinartig
rauhen Oberfläche in regelmässiger Vertheilung einzeln und in sehr
weiten Zwischenräumen stehende kurze Haare. Alle diese Haare
besitzen die früher geschilderte Structur (siehe Tafel X, Fig. 21). Das
Gleiche gilt auch für die meisten längeren Haare, die sich an
bestimmten Körperstellen finden, besonders neben den
Spatelhaaren und den ihnen verwandten Stacheln im Gesichte (Fig.
20, Taf. X) und, eine Art Krause bildend, um den Hals. Hier erreichen
diese Haare die grösste Länge, 1–2 cm.
Die Form des Kopfes, der abgeplattet und langgestreckt, dabei

zugleich sehr breit ist (wie man aus einem Vergleiche der Seiten- mit
der Vorderansicht auf Tafel XI, Fig. 11 u. 11 a ersehen kann), finde
ich unter den mir vorliegenden Abbildungen nur in der bei
Te m m i n c k (Monogr. Mammal. II, Pl. 66, Leiden 1835–41)
ziemlich naturgetreu wiedergegeben, doch ist auch hier im
Vergleiche zu dem Dresdener Spiritus-Exemplare die Breite zu
gering. In den ersten, nach einem getrockneten Balg entworfenen,
Abbildungen H o r s f i e l d s (Zool. Res. Lond. 1824, No. VIII, 2 Taf.,
Kopie der Oberansicht bei Te m m i n c k : Monogr. Mammal. I, Pl. 17.
Paris 1827), sind die Formen verschiedentlich verzerrt, und bei
D o b s o n (Catal. 1878, Pl. XXI, Fig. 1 u. 1 a) erscheint der Kopf in
unnatürlicher Verkürzung und übertrieben hoch. Abweichend von
dem Verhalten der übrigen Molossiden sind bei Cheiromeles die
Ohren verhältnissmässig klein und durch einen weiten
Zwischenraum getrennt.
Die Schnauze trägt am äussersten Ende in der Mitte unterhalb der

Nasenlöcher ein scharf begrenztes Feld von der Gestalt eines
Dreiecks, dessen Basis dem Mundrande genähert und parallel ist
(Fig. 11 u. 11 a, Taf. XI). Es ist dicht mit Spatelhaaren der in Fig. 22
u. 23 auf Tafel X dargestellten [49]modificirten Form besetzt, und trotz
der Kürze der einzelnen Borsten, die noch nicht 1 mm frei
hervorragen, markirt es sich doch auf der sonst fast nackten Haut
am Spiritus- wie an den trockenen Exemplaren schon für die
Betrachtung mit blossem Auge sehr deutlich. Indessen ist weder im
Texte noch in den Abbildungen H o r s f i e l d s (Zool. Res. 1824),
Te m m i n c k s (Monogr. Mammal. II, 1835–41) und D o b s o n s
(Catal. 1876 u. Cat. 1878) dieses Feld berücksichtigt.
Ausserdem finden sich am Kopfe neben spärlichen Haaren, die

denen des Körpers gleichen (Fig. 20, Taf. X), noch in geringer Zahl
die derben bald kürzeren, bald längeren Borsten oder Stacheln, die
in Fig. 25 und 24 auf Tafel X abgebildet sind. Ein paar stehen einzeln
seitwärts von dem medianen Feld an der Vorderseite der Schnauze
(Fig. 11 a, Tafel XI), und weiter kann man längs des obern Randes
ihrer Seitenfläche vom Nasenloche bis gegen das Ohr hin etwa drei
bis vier kleine Gruppen von je zwei bis fünf Borsten unterscheiden.
Die Anordnung, wie sie die Figur 11 (Taf. XI) von dem
Spiritusexemplare von Java zeigt, ist an den beiden trockenen von
Bórneo fast genau dieselbe.
Diese Gruppen hat schon H o r s f i e l d gesehen. Er unterscheidet

(Zool. Res. 1824, No. VIII. Cheiromeles, 3. S.) genau „three small
fascicles of short, stiff bristles, conical and glandular at the base,
rigid and spinous at the point“. Auch in der Artdiagnose
berücksichtigt er diesen Charakter: „Rostrum conicum, sulcatum,
glandulis confertis setiferis in paribus tribus oppositis coronatum“.
Der Ausdruck „glandular at the base“ bezieht sich vermuthlich auf
das Grübchen, das die Haut, ähnlich wie an den Spatelhaaren, auch
am Grunde dieser Stacheln öfter bildet. Auch Te m m i n c k
(Monogr. Mammal. II, 349; Pl. 66, Fig. 3, 1835–41) erwähnt „de très
petits mammelons qui donnent naissance à quelques poils rares et
très courts“, D o b s o n (Catal. 1876 u. Cat. 1878) dagegen sagt
nichts darüber.
Vereinzelt stehen solche Stacheln auch auf dem Unterkiefer in

einiger Entfernung von der Medianlinie, und, merkwürdigerweise,
auch auf der Rückseite der Interfemoralmembran, während ich hier
bei den übrigen Molossiden vergeblich nach Spatelhaaren oder
gleichwerthigen Borsten suchte. Beide Standorte sind auch bei
H o r s f i e l d angegeben.
Die Füsse, deren Beschaffenheit nur am Spiritusexemplare klar zu

erkennen ist, sind derb fleischig, mit dicken Zehen, deren Haut
regelmässig quer gerunzelt ist (Taf. XI, Fig. 11 b). Die grosse Zehe
ist doppelt so breit wie die anderen und wie ein Daumen frei
beweglich. Auf der ganzen äusseren Fläche, nahe vom Grunde bis
zum Nagel, trägt sie einen Besatz von langen, weit vorragenden
Spatelhaaren, der bei der Betrachtung des Thieres sogleich ins
Auge fällt (Tafel XI, Fig. 11 b–d). H o r s f i e l d hat davon schon in
der ersten Beschreibung des Cheiromeles (Zool. Res. 1824. VIII, 6.
S.) eine ganz zutreffende Schilderung gegeben, der ich mich nur
anschliessen kann: „Together with the structure and position of the
thumb, a very peculiar character is afforded to the Cheiromeles by
an appendage or brush, consisting of bristly hairs, directed to one
side, and forming a regular series along the outer margin of the
thumb. At the extremity the hairs are long, and spread as a fan over
the nail; they gradually decrease in length as they approach the
base, preserving throughout the same direction. The separate hairs
are rigid, thicker at the base, then gradually attenuated, and
terminated by a hook.“ Ergänzend ist hierzu noch zu bemerken, dass
die einzelnen Haare an ihrem Ende nicht nur hakig gekrümmt,
sondern zugleich auch spatelförmig verbreitert sind. Die Form der
Endplatte ist meist von mittlerer Ausprägung, am besten bei den
kürzeren Haaren entwickelt. Mit der wachsenden Länge der Haare
wird die Abplattung und Erweiterung am Ende immer geringer bis zu
dem Grade der Fig. 11 auf Tafel X, und manchmal erscheint das
Ende auch gleichmässig zugespitzt. Die längsten Haare erreichen
bis 8–10 mm, aber auch die von mittlerer Ausbildung werden 2 mm
und darüber lang (Fig. 6, Taf. X). Die Richtung der Krümmung ist
durchweg plantar und proximal. Das einzelne Haar ist röthlich braun
gefärbt.
Der fünften Zehe fehlen Spatelhaare durchaus, im Gegensatze zu

dem Verhalten aller anderen Molossiden, dagegen finden sich wie
dort so auch bei Cheiromeles an den Nagelgliedern der zweiten bis
fünften Zehe einige längere Haare, die aber immer kürzer sind als
die bei Molossus und Nyctinomus und, anders wie bei diesen
Gattungen, vorwiegend an der ventralen Seite des Klauengliedes
entspringen. In der Structur gleichen sie sehr den Spatelhaaren der
ersten Zehe, sind aber heller. An der Spitze sind sie etwas
abgestumpft. H o r s f i e l d (Zool. Res. VIII, 6. S. 1824) bemerkt über
diese Haare wieder ganz richtig: „This character [d. i. der Haarbesatz
der grossen Zehe] must not be confounded with the long, solitary,
bristly hairs which, in Cheiromeles as well as in Nyctinomus, are
loosely scattered over the [50]fingers, and particularly over the
extremity, near the insertion of the claws.“ Die späteren Autoren
Te m m i n c k (Monogr. Mammal. II, 348, 1835–41) und D o b s o n
(Catal. 1876, 178; Catal. 1878, 406) schildern die Verhältnisse der
Behaarung an den Füssen lange nicht so eingehend und klar wie
Horsfield.
Die im Vorstehenden aufgeführten 19 Arten umfassen nur wenig

über ein Drittel der bis jetzt überhaupt bekannt gewordenen
Molossiden. Nach dem neuesten Verzeichnisse der Säugethiere von
T r o u e s s a r t (Catal. Mammal. Nov. Edit. 1898–99. T. I, 142–149,
T. II, Append. 1285–1286) und mit Einschluss der beiden von A. B.
M e y e r neu aufgestellten Nyctinomus sarasinorum (s. oben S. 16)
und astrolabiensis (desgl. S. 19) stehen den 14 von mir untersuchten
Nyctinomus-Arten 24, den 4 Species von Molossus 6 gegenüber,
von denen ich kein Exemplar zur Verfügung hatte.
Das Verhalten dieser Arten in Bezug auf den Besitz löffelförmiger
oder entsprechender Haare wird sich durch Prüfung des in den
Museen vorhandenen Materials mit Leichtigkeit feststellen lassen,
inzwischen mögen hier noch einige Notizen aus der Literatur Platz
finden, die das Vorkommen solcher Haare für mehrere Arten
wahrscheinlich machen, z. Th. sogar mit Sicherheit erweisen.
Dies gilt zunächst für Molossus temmincki (Lund), wie aus der
Bemerkung B u r m e i s t e r s 27 „die Lippen mit H a k e n b o r s t e n 28
gleichmässig zerstreut besetzt“ ganz klar hervorgeht.
Sodann ist Nyctinomus macrotis Gr. zu nennen, über den G r a y

(Ann. Nat. Hist. IV, 5–6, 1840) folgende Angaben macht: „The pads
of the great and little toes rather large, c o v e r e d w i t h w h i t e
hairs, which are curved and rather dilated at
t h e t i p “ 28. Und ferner: „.. muzzle bald, with a central longitudinal
and a transverse marginal ridge of close set short rigid hairs; upper
lip with an oblong tuft of black hairs under the nose ..“. Dass es sich
auch in der letzteren Bemerkung um Spatelhaare handelt, ist nicht
unwahrscheinlich, zumal auch in der Abbildung der oberen Parthie
des Kopfes dieser Species bei D o b s o n (PZS. 1876, 716, Fig. 3)
oberhalb der Nasenlöcher vom Zeichner kurze steife Borsten
angegeben sind, die wohl Spatelhaare vorstellen könnten.
Eine Anzahl weiterer, weniger bestimmter Äusserungen stelle ich

nach der Reihenfolge der Arten in T r o u e s s a r t s Catal. Mammal.
1898–99 hier noch kurz zusammen.
Molossus fluminensis Lat. „Des poils raides et courts occupent

l’espace de demi cercle qui sépare le nez de la lèvre supérieure“.
(L a t a s t e , Ann. Mus. Genov. 30, 661; vgl. Fig. 1, 660. 1891).
Vermuthlich entsprechen diese Haare dem Feld unterhalb der Nase
bei Molossus rufus, dem diese Art sehr nahe steht (L a t a s t e , l. c.
660).
M. bonariensis (Ptrs.). Die Abbildung bei P e t e r s (Mb. Akad. Berl.
1874, 234. Taf. Fig. 1) zeigt die kurzen Härchen an den
Verdickungen der Zehen sehr deutlich, eine Andeutung ist vielleicht
an der Schnauze zu erkennen (Fig. 2 daselbst). Im Texte wird nichts
darüber gesagt.
Nyctinomus orthotis H. Allen. „The face is occupied by a number of

stout bristles between the ears and the muzzle“ (A l l e n , Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus. XII, 638. 1889).
N. kalinowskii Thos. In der Abbildung bei T h o m a s (PZS. 1893, pl.

XXIX, Fig. 10) sind vorn an der Schnauze unterhalb der Nase kurze
steife Borsten angegeben. Im Texte nicht erwähnt.
N. acetabulosus (Comm.). „Face thinly sprinkled with short rigid

hairs, or rather bristles“. (S m i t h , Ill. Zool. S. Afr. Mammal. Dysopes
natalensis Smith [pl. 49] 1849).
N. setiger (Ptrs.). „Die breite wulstige, aber nicht quergefaltete

Oberlippe ist jederseits mit vier bis fünf Längsreihen kurzer
stachelförmiger dicker Borsten bekleidet, zwischen denen sparsame
feine kurze und längere Härchen hervortreten. Die Unterlippe zeigt
noch kürzere und schwächere sparsame Borsten und Haare“
(P e t e r s , Mb. Akad. Berl. 1878, 196; Taf. 1, Fig. 2–2 c). — Es
scheint sich bei N. setiger um ähnliche Borsten wie bei brasiliensis
zu handeln.
Hier wäre möglicherweise noch N. jugularis (Ptrs.) anzureihen, der

nach der Abbildung bei P e t e r s (M. B. Akad. Berl. 1881, 485, Taf.
Fig. 2) auf der Oberlippe und auf der Schnauze oberhalb der Nase
kurze Borsten besitzt. Doch ist die Synonymie der Art zweifelhaft.
P e t e r s hat sie 1865 aufgestellt [51](PZS. 468), D o b s o n 1876
(PZS. 734; auch Catal. 1878, 440) sie mit N. acetabulosus (Comm.)
identificirt, dem sich T r o u e s s a r t (Catal. Mamm. 1898–99, I, 149)
anschliesst. Dagegen hat noch 1881 P e t e r s (M. B. Akad. Berl.
483) dies nicht anerkannt, vielmehr N. jugularis mit dem später von
D o b s o n (PZS. 1876, 733) aufgestellten N. albiventer für identisch
erklärt. Ein Vergleich der Figuren bei P e t e r s (M. B. Akad. Berl.
1881, 485, Tafel, 1 a und 2 a) mit denen bei D o b s o n (Catal. 1878,
Pl. XXI, 5 u. 4) spricht mehr zu Gunsten der Auffassung von
P e t e r s . Einer vergleichenden Prüfung der vorhandenen
Exemplare beider Arten muss es vorbehalten bleiben, die Sache
klarzustellen.
Rechnen wir die zuletzt erwähnten 8–9 Arten den von uns
untersuchten hinzu, so würden wir bis jetzt Spatelhaare oder
stellvertretende Borsten bei etwas mehr als der Hälfte der bekannten
Molossiden im Gesicht anzunehmen haben. Für ziemlich sicher
können wir es halten, dass sie allen Arten von Molossus und
Nyctinomus an den Aussenseiten der ersten und fünften Zehe
zukommen, da die Verdickung dieser Zehen als allgemeiner
Charakter der beiden Gattungen aufgeführt wird (vgl. D o b s o n ,
Catal. 1878, 404), die verdickten Stellen aber bei allen untersuchten
Arten solche Haare tragen und durch die Anhäufung ihrer Bälge
verursacht sind.
Erst nach genauer Kenntniss des Verhaltens sämmtlicher Arten wird

es möglich sein, die Frage zu beantworten, ob diesen Haaren eine
B e d e u t u n g i n s y s t e m a t i s c h e r H i n s i c h t beizumessen
sei. Einiges lässt sich in dieser Beziehung indessen wohl schon aus
den hier beigebrachten Beobachtungen entnehmen, worauf ich,
vorbehaltlich der Controlle durch eingehendere an reicherem
Material anzustellende Prüfung, jetzt im Zusammenhange kurz
aufmerksam machen möchte.
Für jedes der drei Molossiden-Genera ist auch ein besonderes
Verhalten der Spatelhaare charakteristisch. Alle besitzen solche an
den Füssen, aber Cheiromeles, der auch im übrigen isolirter steht,
nur an der ersten Zehe, Molossus und Nyctinomus an der ersten und
fünften. Bei den von mir untersuchten Molossus-Arten sind
Spatelhaare am Kopf ausschliesslich auf die Region zwischen den
Nasenlöchern oder zwischen ihnen und dem oberen Mundrande
beschränkt 29, bei Nyctinomus sind sie oder die entsprechenden
Borsten fast immer auch über die seitlichen Parthieen der Oberlippe
verbreitet.
Was die Ausnahmen betrifft, so kann Nyctinomus gracilis, bei dem

ich solche Haare oder Borsten am Kopf überhaupt nicht mit
Sicherheit nachweisen konnte, hier ausser Betracht bleiben, da mir
von der Art nur éin Exemplar zur Verfügung stand, dessen Erhaltung
nicht besonders günstig war, so dass die Untersuchung eines
reicheren Materiales leicht zu anderen Ergebnissen führen könnte.
Von dieser Species also abgesehen, bilden Nyctinomus norfolcensis,
loriae und astrolabiensis eine Gruppe, für die bezeichnend ist, dass
die Haare in einfacher Reihe zwischen Nase und Mundrand
angeordnet und fast ausschliesslich auf diese Stelle beschränkt sind.
Hierin ähneln die drei Arten den von mir untersuchten Molossi, bei
denen nur nicht die Anordnung in einfacher transversaler Reihe
vorkommt.
Nun steht N. loriae dem norfolcensis sehr nahe (T h o m a s , Ann.

Mus. Genov. 38, 609, 1898), und dieser schliesst sich wieder
zunächst an die Untergattung Mormopterus Ptrs. an, die in
mehrfacher Hinsicht eine mittlere Stellung zwischen den übrigen
Nyctinomus-Arten und der Gattung Molossus einnimmt (D o b s o n ,
Catal. 1878, 441–442). Auch N. astrolabiensis steht zu diesen Arten
in näherer Beziehung (vgl. das von A. B. M e y e r oben S. 19
Bemerkte).
Unter den übrigen Nyctinomus-Arten ist die Anordnung, Menge und
Ausbildung der Spatelhaare sehr übereinstimmend bei plicatus,
sarasinorum und bivittatus, von denen letztere beiden auch im
übrigen gewissermaassen als celebensischer (A. B. M e y e r , oben
S. 17), bezw. afrikanischer (D o b s o n , Catal. 1878, 426) Vertreter
des plicatus zu betrachten sind.
N. pumilus und limbatus, zwischen denen nach D o b s o n (Catal.

1878, 429) nur geringfügige Unterschiede von kaum specifischem
Werthe bestehen, haben die Sonderung des Feldes unterhalb der
Nase in eine obere und untere Abtheilung gemeinsam.
Die Arten, denen Spatelhaare im Gesichte fehlen (africanus,

cestonii, gracilis [?], brasiliensis), lassen sich gegenwärtig wohl nicht
unter gemeinsamem Gesichtspunkte betrachten. [52]
Innerhalb des Genus Molossus bilden die Haare bei rufus, rufus
obscurus und nasutus eine scharf begrenzte compacte Gruppe
unterhalb der Nasenlöcher, bei abrasus und perotis nehmen sie ein
längliches leistenartiges Feld zwischen ihnen ein.
Mit Rücksicht auf die Bezahnung werden Molossus rufus (und rufus
obscurus) einerseits, abrasus und perotis andererseits
verschiedenen Untergattungen (Molossus Ptrs. und Promops Gerv.)
zugetheilt, und nasutus, der danach allerdings zu Promops gehört,
ist doch in anderer Beziehung „quite intermediate between M. rufus
and M. abrasus“ (D o b s o n , Catal. 1878, 415), so dass auch die
dem Subgenus Molossus entsprechende Anordnung der
Spatelhaare bei nasutus nichts Auffälliges hat.
Cheiromeles schliesst sich durch den Besitz des scharf begrenzten

dreieckigen Feldes modificirter Spatelhaare an der Schnauzenspitze
näher an Molossus als an Nyctinomus, und zu dieser Auffassung
führt auch die Betrachtung der Gesammtorganisation des
merkwürdigen Thieres (D o b s o n , Catal. 1878, 404).
Kann man, wie wir gesehen haben, mit ziemlicher Sicherheit

annehmen, dass j e d e m M o l o s s i d e n S p a t e l h a a r e
(wenigstens an den Füssen, wenn auch nur in rudimentärer Form)
zukommen, so bleibt die Frage, ob man diese merkwürdig geformten
Haare als einen a u s s c h l i e s s l i c h d e n M o l o s s i d e n
e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e n C h a r a k t e r betrachten dürfe. Ich
bemerkte schon am Eingange der Abhandlung, dass ich ausserhalb
der genannten Gruppe bei keiner Fledermaus solche gefunden
habe. Immerhin hätten bei der nothgedrungen cursorischen Prüfung
des reichen Materiales einzelne löffelförmige Haare der
Beobachtung entgehen können, und die Chiropteren-Sammlung des
Dresdener Museums weist natürlich auch manche Lücke auf, so
dass diesem Punkte besondere Aufmerksamkeit zu schenken sein
wird, ehe man ein abschliessendes Urtheil fällen darf.
Hierbei will ich besonders hervorheben, dass in der Dresdener

Sammlung die den Molossiden nächstverwandte Gattung Mystacina
Gr. (mit der einzigen Art tuberculata Gr.) nicht vertreten ist, und es
auch nicht gelang, sie von anderwärts für diese Untersuchung zu
erhalten. Es spricht aber manches, auch abgesehen von der nahen
systematischen Verwandtschaft, dafür, bei dieser Art am ehesten
solche Haare zu vermuthen.
Die Füsse der Mystacina (vgl. die eingehende Schilderung

D o b s o n s , PZS. 1876, 488) sind wie die der Molossi breit, mit
verdickter äusserer und innerer Zehe. Die langen gekrümmten
Haare werden als fehlend angegeben, dagegen scheinen nach der
Abbildung bei D o b s o n (PZS. 1876, 487, Fig. b.) die äusseren
Seiten der ersten und fünften Zehe mit kurzen Härchen besetzt zu
sein. Was das Gesicht betrifft, so finde ich bei G r a y (Zool. Voy.
Sulphur, Mammal. II. 23, 1843) eine vielleicht in diesem
Zusammenhange zu deutende Bemerkung: „Nose rather produced,
surrounded at the base with a series of short rigid bristles“.
Es wird sich also jedenfalls empfehlen, Mystacina in erster Linie auf

das Vorkommen löffelförmiger oder ähnlicher Haare genau zu
prüfen.
Sollte es sich durch weitere Untersuchungen endgiltig bestätigen,

dass das Vorkommen löffelförmiger und verwandter Haare auf die
Molossiden und etwa noch Mystacina beschränkt ist, so würde diese
Thatsache im Vereine mit anderen vielleicht zu erwägen geben, ob
nicht der Gruppe Molossi eine selbständigere Stellung im System,
als besondere Familie, anzuweisen sein möchte. [53]
1 D o b s o n , Monograph of the group Molossi: PZS. 1876, 712; die Stelle ist
wörtlich übernommen in desselben Autors Catal. Chiropt. Brit. Mus. Lond. 1878,
415. ↑
2 Von neueren Werken wurden eingesehen:
P a g e n s t e c h e r , Allgemeine Zool. IV, Berl. 1881,

W a l d e y e r , Atlas d. menschl. u. thier. Haare, Lahr 1884,
Vergl. Hist. d. Haussäugeth. Herausg. von E l l e n b e r g e r , Berl. 1887,
K ö l l i k e r , Handb. d. Gewebelehre d. Mensch. 1. Bd., Leipz. 1889,
M a u r e r , Die Epidermis u. ihre Abkömmlinge, Leipz. 1895,
Bronn’s Kl. u. Ord. d. Thierreichs. Fortg. von L e c h e . 6. Bd. V. Abth.
Säugethiere, Lf. 45 u. 46, Lpz. 1897,
G e g e n b a u r , Vergl. Anat. d. Wirbelth. 1. Bd., Leipz. 1898;
von ältern:
E b l e , Lehre von den Haaren, 2 Bde., Wien 1831,

E r d l , Vergl. Darstell. d. innern Baues d. Haare. Abh. math. phys. Cl. k.
Bayer. Ak. Wiss., München 1841,
L e y d i g , Lehrbuch d. Histologie d. Mensch. u. d. Thiere, Frankfurt 1857,
O w e n , Anat. of Vertebrat. Vol. III Mammals, London 1868,
H . M i l n e E d w a r d s , Leçons sur la Physiol. et l’Anat. compar. T. X.,
Paris 1872;
ausserdem:
Jahresber. über d. Fortschritte d. Anat. u. Physiol. Herausgegeb. von

H o f m a n n u . S c h w a l b e , Leipz. 1873–1893. N. F. herausg. von
Schwalbe, Jena 1897 ff.
3 S. besonders
K o l e n a t i , Beitr. Naturgesch. europ. Chiropteren. Allg. deutsche naturh.

Ztg. N. F. III, 13 ff., Dresden 1857,
K o c h , C., Das Wesentliche d. Chiropteren. Jahrb. d. Ver. f. Naturk. i.
Herzogth. Nassau, Heft 17 u. 18, Wiesbaden 1862–1863, 281 ff.,
M a r c h i , Sulla morfol. dei peli nei Chirotteri. Atti Soc. Ital. di Sc. nat. XV,
513 ff. 1872.
4 W a l d e y e r , Atlas 1884, 169. ↑

5 K o c h , l. c. 283–284. ↑
6 M a r c h i , l. c. 515 ff. ↑
7 M a r c h i , op. c. ↑
8 D o b s o n , Ann. a. Magaz. Nat. Hist. (4) XVI, 355–356, 1875, auch D o b s o n ,
Monogr. Asiat. Chiropt. London 1876, 11–12. ↑
9 K o l e n a t i , Allg. deutsche naturh. Zt. N. F. III, 16, 1857. ↑
10 K o l e n a t i , ibid. Taf. V, Fig. 7. ↑
11 K o l e n a t i , ibid. 17. ↑
12 d e M e i j e r e , Über die Haare d. Säugeth., besonders über ihre Anordnung.
Morph. Jahrb. XXI, 312–425. 1894. ↑
13 G e o f f r o y , Descr. de l’Égypte. (8o) H. N. XXIII, 153, 1828 (1. Ausgabe in fol.
1812). ↑
14 D o b s o n , PZS. 1876, 712; Catal. 1878, 415. ↑
15 O s b u r n , PZS. 1865, 62–63; auch D o b s o n , Catal. 1878, 438. ↑
16 Im Originale nicht gesperrt. ↑ a b c
17 Erst während der Drucklegung kam mir folgende Bemerkung W i n g e s (E
Mus. Lundii 1893, 84) zu Gesichte. „Comme les autres Chauves-souris, les
Molossines emploient le pied à peigner leur pelage; mais, au lieu de se servir
toujours des griffes du pied, elles se sont souvent contentées d’employer le bord
extérieur du pied, d’où a résulté que les poils situés le long des bords du 1er et du
5e orteil sont devenus des soies longues, raides, en partie crochues, et que la
peau des mêmes endroits s’est épaissie.“ Auf welche fremden oder eigenen
Beobachtungen W i n g e diese Angabe gründet, vermag ich nicht zu ersehen. Die
Bemerkung ist in einem Punkt auch jedenfalls nicht zutreffend. Unter den „Haaren
längs der Ränder der ersten und fünften Zehe“ können nur die spatelförmigen
verstanden sein, die aber ganz kurz sind, die Bezeichnung „soies longues“ passt
dagegen nur auf die längeren gekrümmten Haare, die, wie mehrfach erwähnt, nur
an den Endgliedern und zwar aller Zehen vorhanden sind. ↑
18 M a u r e r , Epidermis etc. 268, 1895. ↑
19 M a u r e r , ibid. 275: „Diese Gebilde erscheinen makroskopisch den Haaren
von Ornithorhynchus sehr ähnlich. Sie besitzen ein breites Endplättchen
lanzettförmig gestaltet, mit spitz ausgezogenem Ende. Daran schliesst sich ein
verdünnter langer Theil. In letzteren geht aber im Gegensatz zu den Befunden bei
Ornithorhynchus das breite Endplättchen ganz allmählich über.“
Ich selbst habe diese Haare an den im Dresdener Museum vertretenen Arten P.
cockerelli Rams. und doreyana Q. G. untersucht. Bei ersterer finde ich den
Übergang des verbreiterten Endabschnittes in den dünnen Theil ziemlich plötzlich
und den dünnen unteren Abschnitt selbst sehr kurz, so dass die Form des
vollständigen Haares annähernd der in W a l d e y e r s Atlas Taf. VIII, Fig. 100
gleicht. — Bei doreyana scheint das Haar im ganzen platt lanzettförmig zu sein, ob
sich nahe der Wurzel noch ein verdünnter Abschnitt findet, lasse ich
unentschieden. An ausgezogenen Haaren konnte ich nichts davon bemerken,
doch war der Schaft am unteren Ende regelmässig zerrissen. ↑
20 W a l d e y e r , Atlas 7, 1884. ↑
21 M a r c h i , Atti Soc. Ital. di Sc. nat. XV, 530–534, 1872. ↑
22 Im Originale nicht gesperrt. ↑ a b
24 Im Originale nicht gesperrt. ↑
25 Im Originale nicht gesperrt. ↑
27 B u r m e i s t e r , Syst. Übers. Thiere Brasil. I. Säugeth. 72, 1854. ↑
29Für M. temmincki würde das nach der vorher citirten Angabe B u r m e i s t e r s
nicht zutreffen. Diese Art gehört einer besonderen Untergattung, Myopterus
Geoffr. (= Molossops Ptrs.), an. ↑
[Inhalt]

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Literacy For The 21St Century A Balanced Approach Gail E Tompkins Download PDF Chapter

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Literacy for the 21st Century: A

Balanced Approach Gail E. Tompkins

Boston • Columbus • Indianapolis • New York • San Francisco

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Is Available on Request

REVEL PLUS LLV:

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Teaching reading and writing effectively is a great responsibil-

NEW TO THIS EDITION

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NEW Standards Check! At the end of each

the Standards the vignette teachers address while teaching

Common Core State Standards Boxes Look

out how to plan purposeful literacy lessons that during

align with state and national literacy standards.

NEW Standards in the Classroom In a number

in the Classroom vignettes that illustrate how

classroom teachers use specific procedures to

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teachers integrate reading and writing instruction to maximize students’ learning.

Teach Kids to Be Strategic

cific guidelines list the cognitive and metacognitive strategies

students need to learn and then explain what to check for to

ensure students are applying them effectively.

use tools for your classroom teaching.

1 Introduce the Topic

children’s fluency, vocabulary, comprehension, and

every edition to ensure currency.

The Common Core State Standards challenge teachers to provide a balance of

other work products to help you learn to recognize grade-appropriate literacy

Chapter 10, Organizing for Instruction

Five instructional approaches—guided reading, basal reading programs, literature focus

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Compendium of Instructional Procedures

Embedded Classroom Videos

Classroom Interventions CHAPTER 8 Promoting Comprehension: Reader Factors 265

dysfluency, phonics mismatches, vocabulary in content area

to assist struggling readers and writers.

Nurturing English Learners

Throughout the text, expanded chapter sections focus on ways

to scaffold students who are learning to read and write at the

same time they’re learning to speak English. These sections

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Fifth Graders Vary in Knowledge

Because teachers need to recognize individual students’ progress

who are learning comprehension strategies, and older readers

the same time they’re becoming literate.

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tion is crucial to ensure that all students are successful.

Chapter 3, Assessing Literacy Development

Assessing Students’ Spelling

How to Determine a Student’s Stage of Spelling Development

3. Make a Spelling Analysis Chart

4. Categorize the Spelling Errors

5. Tally the Errors

Snapshot Assessment Snapshots