The Palgrave Handbook of African

Women's Studies 1st ed. 2021 Edition

Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso Toyin Falola
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Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso
Toyin Falola
Editors

The Palgrave
Handbook
of African
Women’s
Studies
The Palgrave Handbook of African Women's
Studies
Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso • Toyin Falola
Editors

The Palgrave Handbook of

African Women's Studies

With 54 Figures and 20 Tables

Editors
Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso Toyin Falola
Department of Political Science Department of History
and Public Administration University of Texas at Austin
Babcock University, IIishan-Remo Austin, TX, USA
Ogun State, Nigeria

ISBN 978-3-030-28098-7 ISBN 978-3-030-28099-4 (eBook)

ISBN 978-3-030-28100-7 (print and electronic bundle)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28099-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
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This Handbook is dedicated to our daughter
and granddaughter, respectively
Smart and Strong African Women of the
Future:
Betsega Candace Aanu Yacob-Haliso
Simone Sade Friesen
Preface

This definitive Palgrave Handbook of African Women’s Studies is designed to be one

of the few reference books of its kind, bringing together knowledge, scholarship,
analyses, and debates on African women’s themes and issues. It unearths, critiques,
reviews, analyses, theorizes, synthesizes, and evaluates African women’s historical,
social, political, economic, local, and global lives and experiences. The chapters in
this volume question the gendered roles and positions of African women and the
structures, institutions and processes of policy, politics, and knowledge production
that continually construct and reconstruct African women and the study of them.
Thus, the Handbook enlarges the scope of the field, challenges its orthodoxies, and
engenders new subjects and approaches.
Its four-fold emphasis throughout is debunking erroneous and misleading myths
about African women’s roles and positions; bringing their previously marginalized
stories – herstories – to relief; centering these stories in the disciplinary studies of
various aspects of Africa; and ultimately (re)writing the history of African peoples
and societies with these herstories and provide a more complete and accurate
account. The Handbook uniquely emphasizes connecting the past and present of
women’s lives, activism, and scholarship, as well as identifying linkages and trends
to inform present understanding, explanation, and future studies.
Whereas most existing reference works have covered the African region without
gendering the discourse, and others have explored the positions of women in specific
national, regional, and sociopolitical contexts, there is almost no up-to-date reference
text that focuses uniquely on African women as a category, and that simultaneously
thoroughly covers the very broad range of issues that affect them, in one text. While
questioning the existing structures of knowledge production that frame women’s
lives and scholarship about women in Africa, the Handbook also advances new ways
of teaching and learning about African women, a marked departure from previous
efforts. Given the historical academic marginalization of African women in the
representation and writing of the history of the continent as well as in the subjects
of the humanities and social sciences, The Palgrave Handbook of African Women’s
Studies is an important and groundbreaking contribution to the corpus of knowledge
on women generally, on Africa specifically, and on African women more directly.

vii
viii Preface

The detailed, rigorous, and up-to-date analyses in this complete Handbook,

undertaken from multiple theoretical, methodological, and transdisciplinary
approaches, will be vital in charting new directions for the study of African
women and will reverberate in future studies, generating contemporary debates
and fields of study.

IIishan-Remo Ogun, Nigeria Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso

Austin, TX, USA Toyin Falola
October 2021
Acknowledgments

The Palgrave Handbook of African Women’s Studies was initially conceived as a

single volume and part of a series of more than 20 Handbooks that Toyin Falola
created, proposed and was commissioned to produce for Palgrave Macmillan Pub-
lishers. In partnering on this particular Handbook, our goals initially seemed quite
simple: curate and update current studies of African women in one place, in an
accessible format. In implementing the germinal idea, we have made every effort to
bring the project into conversation with the current state of the field and to actively
transcend it.
It has been a truly spectacular, joyous, and yet humbling experience to serve as
editors-in-chief of this important volume bringing together the finest scholars and
scholarship in the field. The most important fact is that this has been entirely a
collective effort, opening yet new vistas of collaboration in the scholarly movement
of decolonizing the academy, and building bridges between North and South, Africa
and the Rest, and one generation of scholars and others. Scholars based in every
corner and region on the African continent are represented, including many others
based in three other continents. We most sincerely thank all the authors of chapters in
the Handbook for accepting our invitation to collaborate. Our contributors to the
Handbook volume bought into the ambitious and expansive vision we pitched to
them, authored extremely competent chapters in the volume, volunteered to take on
topics that were difficult to assign, recommended specific subject or sub/regional
experts from their networks, proposed topics, contributed syllabi for the postscript,
and constantly gave words of encouragement. Our interactions with each were
vibrantly varied, sometimes tense, according to our dynamic personalities, but
always collegial, and we always found a feminist space of mutual understanding
and empathy.
Many of our authors encountered significant life-altering events during the course
of their involvement with the project yet remained unwavering in their commitment.
In one instance, one of our authors had a serious accident that left her with brain
injuries, including loss of memory, and yet, through her period of difficult recovery
informed us she had seen our email reminders, and she would honor her commit-
ment. And she did, delivering a brilliant chapter. Before the Handbook was com-
pleted, Pamela Adaugo Nwakanma’s chapter, titled “Women, Entrepreneurship, and
Economic Development in Africa” (Chap. ▶ 83) won the Kauffman Foundation
Award for the Best Graduate Student Paper on inclusion and entrepreneurship. It was
ix
x Acknowledgments

awarded through the American Political Science Association Class and Inequality
section at the 2019 annual meeting. We were so happy for her! Our profound
appreciation goes to our friends who out of no time devoted time to read and give
critical and valuable feedback on the lengthy Handbook Introduction: Agnes Atia
Apusigah, Jarpa J. Dawuni, Grace Ese-osa Idahosa, Omotola Adeyoju Ilesanmi,
Pamela Adaugo Nwakanma, and Oluwatoyin Oluwaniyi.
The section editors on the Handbook were absolutely phenomenal not only in
conducting the academic task of managing the submissions to their respective
sections, but going beyond this to doing the feminist labor of mentoring and
nurturing less-experienced authors to completion. Thank you so much, Agnes Atia
Apusigah (Development Processes), Franca Attoh (Gender-Based Violence), Elsada
Diana Cassells (Politics), Anene Ejikeme (Women’s Movements), Oluwatoyin
O. Oluwaniyi (Conflict and Peace), Sharon Adetutu Omotoso (Creativity, Arts,
and Performance), and Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso (Researching Women; Politics;
Re-writing Histories; Culture & Society).
We are most grateful to our editors at Palgrave Macmillan for the tremendous
enthusiasm on this project which propelled and motivated us greatly. Megan
Laddusaw, Shaun Vigil, and Meagan Simpson were our commissioning editors,
along with Michael Hermann in the Major Reference Works team. Their faith in
us allowed bringing this work to life, especially as a Major Reference Work in the
unique Online First publishing format which made the chapters immediately avail-
able to a global audience soon as each was ready. Shruti Datt was our absolutely
fantastic first project manager at Springer whose clarity, focus, patience, commit-
ment, organization, timeliness, excellent communication skills, and deft juggling of
the many tasks on this project made our job so smooth for almost 3 years. We have
been equally fortunate to work with Divya Rajakumar, who took over from Shruti
and saw the project to completion. Thanks to Divya for making sure we did not lose
momentum and for top-quality project management skills. We also acknowledge and
appreciate the detailed review of four anonymous reviewers whose critical insights
and questions were constructive.
Studies on African women have always been a passion of both of us editors of this
volume. As students of the history and politics of African societies, the centrality of
women’s issues to our different subjects has been front and center in our scholarship.
Toyin Falola’s early work on Yoruba market women and power1 opened up debates
and provoked critical response. His earlier work included articles such as those on
prostitution in Ibadan2 and on Swahili women.3 Falola has also partnered with many
established and emerging women scholars to publish books especially focused on
African women including Women’s Roles in Sub-Saharan Africa and Women, Gen-
der and Sexualities in Africa (w. Nana Akua Amponsah), The Power of Gender, the
Gender of Power: Women’s Labor, Rights and Responsibility in Africa (w. Bridget
Teboh), Gender, Sexuality and Mothering in Africa (w. Bessie House-Soremekun),
and Gendering Knowledge in Africa and the African Diaspora: Contesting History
and Power (w. Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso), among many other books, articles, and
other essays on the subject. Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso first conducted field research
with women from various parts of Africa living in Nigeria for her Masters’
Acknowledgments xi

dissertation almost two decades ago and has spent all her academic career since
conducting fieldwork and writing on women in this and various other domains. In
addition to the coedited book with Falola mentioned above, Olajumoke has
published (w. Mobolanle E. Sotunsa) Women in Africa: Contexts, Rights, Hege-
monies (2012) and Gender, Culture and Development in Africa (2017) as well as
articles in African Affairs, Journal of Peacebuilding and Development, and
elsewhere.
Above all, we are supremely grateful for our families – the Halisos, Falolas, and
extended others around the world, and our friends and colleagues, whose sacrifices,
prayers, words of wisdom, and well-wishes held us up in this and previous projects.
And we must acknowledge the work of the generations of African women – activists,
scholars, matriarchs, sisters, leaders, fighters, writers, non-conforming, and more –
whose tireless labor has made our vision and our dreams possible in this generation.
Olajumoke’s mom, Mrs. Doris Taiye Oyinloye, deserves special recognition and
appreciation, for being the embodiment of all the positive values associated with
African women as intelligent, strong, compassionate, creative, resilient, generous,
and spiritual beings.
For the shortcomings and any errors in this final product, authors of chapters and
editors of the Handbook take full responsibility for their work.
Thank you.

Babcock University Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso

The University of Texas at Austin Toyin Falola
March 2021 Editors

Notes

1. Falola, T. (1995). Gender, business, and space control: Yoruba market women
and power. In B. House-Midamba & F. K. Ekechi (Eds.), African market and
economic power: The role of women in African economic development (pp. 23–
40). Westport: Greenwood Press. Reprinted in Bretell, C. B., & Sargent, C. F.
(Eds.). (2017). Gender in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 200–214). New York:
Routledge.
2. Falola, T. (1984). Prostitution in Ibadan,1895–1950. The Journal of Business and
Social Studies, 6(2), 40–54.
3. Falola, T. (1996). Swahili women since the 19th century: Theoretical and empir-
ical considerations on gender and identity construction. Africa Today, 43(3),
251–268.
Contents

Volume 1

Section I Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 Introduction: Decolonizing African Women’s Studies . . . . . . . . . 3

Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso and Toyin Falola

Section II Research and Knowledge Production on Women

in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2 African Feminisms .................................... 47

Simidele Dosekun

3 Teaching Women’s Studies in Africa ...................... 65

Toyin Falola

4 Decolonizing the Curriculum on African Women and

Gender Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Grace Ese-osa Idahosa

5 Women and Indigenous Knowledge in Africa ............... 105

Chika Ezeanya Esiobu

6 African Indigenous Knowledge Systems and the

Empowerment of African Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Gloria Emeagwali

7 Women, Gender, and Knowledge Production in Anglophone

Africa and Its Diaspora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Jamaine M. Abidogun

8 Women, Gender, and Development in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

Nana Akua Anyidoho
xiii
xiv Contents

9 Feminist Legal Theory, Human Rights, and Culture

in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
L. Amede Obiora
10 Women, Gender, and Race in Post-Apartheid South Africa .... 197
Edith Dinong Phaswana
11 Researching Women and Gender in Africa: Present Realities,
Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Hibist Kassa
12 Postscript: Teaching Women’s Studies in Africa –
Sample Syllabi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso

Section III African Women and Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

13 Women, Gender, and Politics in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

Ramola Ramtohul
14 Women in Political Parties in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Antonia Taiye Okoosi-Simbine and Ndifon Neji Obi
15 Women in African Parliaments: Progress and Prospects . . . . . . . 335
Gretchen Bauer
16 Women in Judiciaries Across Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
J. Jarpa Dawuni
17 Women in Executive Political Leadership in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Oluyemi O. Fayomi, Odunayo P. Salau, Rosemary O. Popoola, and
Olalekan W. Adigun
18 Women in Local Government in Africa: Gender, Resistance,
and Empowerment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Nana Akua Amponsah and Janet Serwah Boateng
19 Women in/and the Security Sector in Africa ................ 413
Omotola Adeyoju Ilesanmi
20 Gender Equality Policies and African Women: A Comparative
Critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Kara Ellerby
21 Women, Quotas, and Affirmative Action Policies in Africa . . . . . 449
Adebusola Okedele
22 The State of LGBT Rights in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Zethu Matebeni
Contents xv

23 Women, Activism, and the State in North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479

Zahia Smail Salhi

24 Women of African Islands: Rights, Representation, and

Participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
Aleida Borges

25 New Trends in Women and Politics in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517

Aili Mari Tripp

Section IV African Women in Conflict and Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

26 Women’s Roles and Positions in African Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541

Oluwatoyin O. Oluwaniyi

27 Theorizing African Women and Girls in Combat: From National

Liberation to the War on Terrorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
Siphokazi Magadla

28 Gendered Experiences of Refugee and Displaced Women

in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso

29 Women, Terrorist Groups, and Terrorism in Africa .......... 603

Margaret Gonzalez-Perez

30 Women, Terrorism, and Media: Framing of Chibok and

Dapchi Schoolgirls’ Abduction Stories in Television . . . . . . . . . . 621
Helen Odunola Adekoya and Mary Leka Beredam

31 Women and Peace Processes in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639

Adeola Aderayo Adebajo

32 Women and Peacebuilding in Postconflict African States ...... 653

Tanya Ansahta Garnett

33 Women and Peace Education in Africa .................... 669

Funmilayo Idowu Agbaje

34 African Women and Peace Education: Field Experiences . . . . . . 687

Pamela Machakanja

35 DDR and the Education of Ex-Combatant Girls in Africa:

A Gendered Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
Esther Mojisola Beckley

36 Women and Transitional Justice Processes in Africa . . . . . . . . . . 721

Pamela Machakanja and Chupicai Manuel
xvi Contents

37 Women and Transitional Justice in Africa and Latin

America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso and Omonye Omoigberale
38 Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and Women’s Rights:
Africa in Global Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
Akissi Metonou
39 The United Nations and African Women in Peace,
Security, and Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Damilola Taiye Agbalajobi
40 UNSCR 1325 and African Women in Conflict and Peace ...... 813
Omotola Adeyoju Ilesanmi

Section V Women and Gender-Based Violence (GBV)

in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833

41 Violence Against Women in North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835

Loubna H. Skalli
42 Sexual Offences in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
Lillian Artz and Shelly Daphné D’Cruz
43 Violence Against LGBT(QI) Persons in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
Lefatshe Anna Moagi and Azwihangwisi Helen Mavhandu-Mudzusi
44 Girls, Sexuality, and Gender-Based Violence in Africa ........ 891
Arit Oku
45 Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in Africa: Patriarchy
and Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
Oghoadena Clementina Osezua and Aimiulimhe Emily Edobor
46 Women in African Prisons .............................. 927
Abidemi Omolara Fasanmi
47 Women, Trafficking, and Forced Prostitution in Africa . . . . . . . . 941
Franca Attoh
48 Non-state Actors and Violence Against Women in Africa . . . . . . 955
Maryam Omolara Quadri
49 Violence and Women’s Health in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
Taiwo M. Williams
50 Alternative Rites of Passage and Other Responses to Female
Genital Mutilation/Cutting in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
Damaris S. Parsitau and Ruth A. Aura
Contents xvii

51 The Response to Gender-Based Violence in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . 1011

Peace A. Medie

Volume 2

Section VI (Re)Writing African Women's Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1023

52 A History of African Women from Origins to 800 CE: Bold

Grandmas, Powerful Queens, Audacious Entrepreneurs . . . . . . . 1027
Christine Saidi

53 A History of African Women from 800 CE to 1900: Bold

Grandmas, Powerful Queens, Audacious Entrepreneurs . . . . . . . 1045
Christine Saidi

54 African Women and the Atlantic Slave Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1059

Nemata Blyden

55 Women in Pre-colonial Africa: East Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1073

Nakanyike B. Musisi

56 Women in Pre-colonial Africa: West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1099

Cyrelene Amoah-Boampong and Christabel Agyeiwaa

57 Women in Pre-colonial Africa: Southern Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1113

Lefatshe Anna Moagi and Butholezwe Mtombeni

58 Women in Colonial East Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1133

Susan Mbula Kilonzo and Jethron Ayumbah Akallah

59 North African Women and Colonialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1151

Zahia Smail Salhi and Meriem Bougherira

60 Women and Colonialism in West Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1169

Gift Uchechi Ntiwunka and Chibuzor Ayodele Nwaodike

61 Women and Colonialism: Southern Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185

Butholezwe Mtombeni

62 Women and Colonialism Across Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1203

Oluwakemi Abiodun Adesina

63 Writing Nigerian Women’s Political History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1219

Toyin Falola

64 Writing Nigerian Women in the Economy, Education, and

Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235
Toyin Falola
xviii Contents

65 Gender, Authority, and Identity in African History: Heterarchy,

Cosmic Families, and Lifestages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257
Christine Saidi, Catherine Cymone Fourshey, and
Rhonda M. Gonzales
66 Colonialism and Gender in Africa: A Critical History . . . . . . . . . 1275
Funmilayo Idowu Agbaje
67 Women, Colonial Resistance, and Decolonization: Challenging
African Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1295
Yolande Bouka
68 African Women’s Letters as Intellectual History and
Decolonial Knowledge Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1315
Athambile Masola
69 Challenges of Writing African Women’s Histories . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329
Egodi Uchendu and Zara Emmanuel Kwaghe

Section VII Women's Movements in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1345

70 Women, Social Movements and Political Activism in

North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347
Moha Ennaji
71 The Arab Spring and Women’s Movements in North Africa . . . . 1365
Valentine M. Moghadam and Alice Verticelli
72 Rural Women Farmers’ Grassroots Networks in Africa . . . . . . . 1383
Tsehai Berhane-Selassie
73 African Women's Movements and Struggles over Land . . . . . . . 1403
Robin L. Turner
74 LGBTI+ Organizations in Southern and East Africa: Fighting
for Equal Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1421
Anene Ejikeme
75 LGBTI+ Organizations in West Africa and North Africa:
Fighting for Equal Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437
Anene Ejikeme
76 The “Subalternity” of Women in Social Movements and African
Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1453
Khanyile Mlotshwa
77 The African Diaspora and Women’s Struggles in Africa . . . . . . . 1473
Amanda Coffie
78 The United Nations and African Women’s Movements . . . . . . . . 1491
Adebusola Okedele
Contents xix

79 African Women’s Movements and the African Union . . . . . . . . . 1509

Melinda Adams

Section VIII African Women and Development Processes ...... 1523

80 African Women’s Formal and Informal Labor:

A Comparative History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1527
Lyn Ossome
81 Women and Community Development in Rural Africa:
Deconstructing Dominant Narratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1543
Agnes Atia Apusigah and Florence Naah Bamora
82 Women, Land, and Law in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1565
Patience Munge Sone
83 Women, Entrepreneurship, and Economic Development
in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1583
Adaugo Pamela Nwakanma
84 Women in Agriculture in Contemporary Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1601
Manase Kudzai Chiweshe and Sandra Bhatasara
85 African Women in University Management and Leadership . . . . 1619
Grace Ese-osa Idahosa
86 African Women, Technology, and ICTs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1639
Olivia A. T. Frimpong Kwapong
87 Women, Poverty, and Empowerment in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1657
Bernadette Mukhwana Wanjala
88 Women’s Empowerment and Women’s Health in Africa . . . . . . . 1681
Ngozi Nwogwugwu
89 Women and Development Policies in African States . . . . . . . . . . 1701
Amaka Theresa Oriaku Emordi
90 Women, Climate Change, and Sustainable Development
in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1717
Ngozi Nwogwugwu
91 Gender Budgeting in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1733
Oluwabunmi O. Adejumo
92 Gender and Migration in North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1749
Souad Belhorma
93 Women, Migration, and Development in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1767
Felicia Esinam Pufaa and Agnes Atia Apusigah
xx Contents

94 African Diaspora Women and African Development . . . . . . . . . . 1785

Oluyemi O. Fayomi, Oluwayemisi A. Adepoju, and
Grace T. Adebayo
95 African Women and Globalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1805
Akosua K. Darkwah

Volume 3

Section IX African Women's Creativity, Arts, and

Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821

96 Women and Art in Africa: A Historical View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1825

Monica Blackmun Visoná
97 African Women in African Arts: Making Art for Change . . . . . . 1845
Adérónké Adésolá Adésànyà
98 African Women in African Arts: Activists, Cultural Brokers, and
Boundary Breakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1871
Adérónké Adésolá Adésànyà
99 African Women Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1899
Delphine Fongang
100 Women and North African Literatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1919
Gibson Ncube
101 African Women and African Oral Literatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1937
Mobolanle Ebunoluwa Sotunsa
102 African Women and Theatre for Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1955
Vicensia Shule
103 Nollywood and Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1973
Ezinwanyi E. Adam
104 African Women Hip-Hop Artists Representing Transnational
Identities: Y3 Fr3 Me Rebel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1993
Msia Kibona Clark
105 African Women in Sports: A Critical Analysis of Selected Media
Discourses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2011
Jimoh Shehu
106 African Women’s Internet Discourses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2029
Touria Khannous
107 Women, Social Media, and Culture in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2045
Onyinyechi Nancy Nwaolikpe
Contents xxi

108 African Women and the Mass Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2063

Sharon Adetutu Omotoso

Section X African Women, Culture, and Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2081

109 African Women Traditional Chiefs and Rulers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2085

Lynda R. Day
110 Women, Islam, and the State in North Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2101
Fatima Sadiqi
111 Women, Islam, and the Law: Womanism, Shari’a, and Human
Rights in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2117
Hauwa Ibrahim
112 Representations of North African Women and African Islamic
Religion in El Saadawi’s Zeina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2133
Khatija Bibi Khan
113 Women and Christianity in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2151
Sunday Didam Audu and Emmanuel Orihentare Eregare
114 Women and African Traditional Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2169
Itohan Mercy Idumwonyi and Osamamen Oba Eduviere
115 Womb Wisdom to Cosmic Wisdom: Women and African
Spiritualities in Africa and the Diaspora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2187
Oluwatoyin Vincent Adepoju
116 The Role of Religion and Faith Actors in Violence Against
Women and Girls in Africa: Challenges, Tensions,
and Promise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2209
Damaris S. Parsitau and Ruth A. Aura
117 Gender, Motherhood, and Parenting in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2233
Lucille Nonzwakazi Maqubela
118 Women in African Marriages: Voice, Visibility, and Value . . . . . 2253
Augusta Olaore and Prince Agwu
119 Widows, Widowhood, and Society in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2269
Abidemi Fasanmi and Sandra Ayivor
120 African Queer Women Tackling Erasure and Ostracization:
Love, Lust, and Lived Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2287
Tiffany Kagure Mugo
121 Gender, Disability, and Human Rights in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2307
Zahara Nampewo
xxii Contents

122 African Women and HIV and AIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2323

Krista Johnson
123 Girls’ Sexuality Between Agency and Vulnerability . . . . . . . . . . . 2339
Deevia Bhana
124 African Young Women and Alcohol and Substance Abuse . . . . . 2353
Cecilia S. Obeng and Barnabas Obeng-Gyasi
125 Women and Girls’ Education in Africa: Changes and
Continuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2375
Florence Kyoheirwe Muhanguzi
126 Women in Universities in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2393
Nana Yaw Boampong Sapong and Priscilla Owusu Amoako
127 Girl-Child, Health, and Education in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2409
Taiwo M. Williams
128 Women in Pastoral Societies in Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2425
Blessing Nonye Onyima
129 Gender, Migration, and African Cultures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2447
Olaocha Nwadiuto Nwabara
130 African Women, Culture, and Society in Contemporary
African Novels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2469
Ezinwanyi E. Adam
131 Culture, Rights, and African Women’s Futures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2487
Sylvia Bawa

Section XI Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2503

132 Conclusion: Charting Future Paths for African Women’s

Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2505
Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso and Toyin Falola
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2519
About the Editors

Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso is Professor of Political Sci-

ence at Babcock University, Nigeria, where she has
taught since 2002. She has published ten books and
dozens of articles and book chapters on international
relations, gender studies, and comparative politics. Pro-
fessor Yacob-Haliso is coeditor of the Rowman &
Littlefield book series, Africa: Past, Present & Pros-
pects, and the Journal of Contemporary African Studies,
among others. She serves on the editorial board of
African Affairs, Journal of International Women’s Stud-
ies, Peace Studies and Practice, Journal of Interna-
tional Politics and Development, and so on. For her
research, Olajumoke has been awarded grants and fel-
lowships of the American Council of Learned Societies
(ACLS), African Studies Association (ASA), Carnegie
Africa Diaspora Fellowship Program (CADFP), Inter-
national Development Research Centre (IDRC), Univer-
sity for Peace Africa Program (UPEACE), Council for
the Development of Social Science Research in Africa
(CODESRIA), American Political Science Association
(APSA), and others. Professor Yacob-Haliso has been
visiting scholar to universities in Africa, Europe, and the
United States, including Rhodes University,
South Africa, the Graduate Institute of International
and Development Studies, Switzerland, Boston Univer-
sity, USA, and many others. Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso is
incoming co-chair (2020–2023) of the Feminist Theory
and Gender Studies (FTGS), Section of the International
Studies Association (ISA), and currently Dean of the
Veronica Adeleke School of Social Sciences at Babcock
University, Nigeria.

xxiii
xxiv About the Editors

Toyin Falola, Professor of History, University Distin-

guished Teaching Professor, and the Jacob and Frances
Sanger Mossiker Chair in the Humanities, the Univer-
sity of Texas at Austin. He is an Honorary Professor,
University of Cape Town, and Extraordinary Professor
of Human Rights, University of the Free State,
South Africa. He had served as the General Secretary
of the Historical Society of Nigeria, the President of the
African Studies Association, Vice-President of
UNESCO Slave Route Project, and the Kluge Chair of
the Countries of the South, Library of Congress. He is a
member of the Scholars’ Council, Kluge Center, and the
Library of Congress. He is a Fellow of Clare Hall,
Cambridge University, a Fellow of the Historical Soci-
ety of Nigeria, and a Fellow of the Nigerian Academy of
Letters. He has received over 30 lifetime career awards
and 14 honorary doctorates. Palgrave Macmillan in
2016 released a book on him by Abdul Karim Bangura,
Toyin Falola and African Epistemologies, and another
was published by Carolina Academic Press in 2019,
Falolaism: The Epistemologies and Methodologies of
Africana Knowledge. Falola has published over a hun-
dred and fifty books, some of his latest including the
Palgrave Handbook of African Oral Traditions and
Folklore, the Palgrave Handbook of Islam in Africa,
and the Palgrave Handbook of African Education and
Indigenous Knowledge.
Section Editors

Agnes Atia Apusigah

Department of Development Education Studies
Faculty of Education
University for Development Studies
Tamale-NR, Ghana

Franca Attoh
Department of Sociology
University of Lagos
Akoka-Yaba, Nigeria

xxv
xxvi Section Editors

Elsada Diana Cassells

City University of New York
New York, NY, USA

Anene Ejikeme
Trinity University
San Antonio, TX, USA

Oluwatoyin O. Oluwaniyi
Department of History and International Studies
College of Humanities
Redeemer’s University
Osun State, Nigeria
Section Editors xxvii

Sharon Adetutu Omotoso

Women’s Research and Documentation
Center (WORDOC)
Institute of African Studies
University of Ibadan
Ibadan, Nigeria

Olajumoke Yacob-Haliso
Department of Political Science
and Public Administration
Babcock University
IIishan-Remo Ogun State, Nigeria
About the Authors

Jamaine M. Abidogun Professor Emeritus, History.

Jamaine M. Abidogun has a Ph.D. in Curriculum and Instruction and African and
African-American Studies from the University of Kansas. Her research is on histor-
ical and contemporary cultural and education interactions in the USA, Africa, and
Diaspora. She is Fulbright Research Scholar (2004–2005, 2013–2014) and a federal
consultant, US Embassy, Nigeria. She served as Editor-in-Chief of the African
Journal of Teacher Education, University of Guelph, and is a member of Fulbright
Academy and Mid-America Alliance for African Studies. Her recent publications
include Africa and the Diaspora: Intersectionality and Interconnections, coeditor
S. Recker (Palgrave 2021); Palgrave Handbook of African Education and Indige-
nous Knowledge, coeditor T. Falola (Palgrave 2020); and African Science Educa-
tion: Gendering Indigenous Knowledge in Nigeria (Routledge 2018).

Adérónké Adésolá Adésànyà is an artist, art historian, a cartoonist, poet, peace

practitioner, and professional mediator and conciliator. Adesanya studies and teaches
ancient to modern African art and contemporary art/artists of Africa and the African
Diaspora. Her publications in peer-reviewed essays, chapter in books, monographs,
and edited volumes include Migrations and Creative Expressions in Africa and the
African Diaspora (2008); Etches on Fresh Waters (2008); Carving Wood, Making
History: The Fakeye Family, Modernity and Yoruba Woodcarving (2012), Art
Parody and Politics (2013), and Akinola Lasekan: Cartooning, Art and Nationalism
at the Dawn of a New Nigeria (2020).

Ezinwanyi E. Adam was Resident Research Fellow at the West African Research
Center (WARC), Fann Residence, Dakar, Senegal, in 2016. She has won many
fellowships including Catalyst Fellowship of the University of Edinburgh (2019),
Cadbury Fellowship of the University of Birmingham (2015), and 2015/2016
ACLS-AHP Postdoctoral Fellowship of the American Council of Learned Societies,
New York, and grants from Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), Pretoria
(2017 and 2015) and Africa Institute of South Africa (AISA), Pretoria (2017 and
2014). Dr. Adam is passionately committed to achieving excellence in her chosen
disciplines: comparative and African literature, gender and women’s studies, and
xxix
xxx About the Authors

postcolonial and cultural studies, and is currently working on a book manuscript on

contemporary African women’s issues.

Melinda Adams studies gender and politics in Africa. Her work focuses on
women’s political representation, particularly in the executive branch, the diffusion
of gender equity initiatives, and domestic and regional women’s movements. Her
research has been published in numerous journals, including Politics & Gender,
International Feminist Journal of Politics, Governance, and Politics, Groups and
Identities.

Adeola Aderayo Adebajo (Ph.D.) is Senior Lecturer in the Department of Political

Science, Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ijebu Ode, Ogun State, Nige-
ria. Her areas of research are peace and conflict studies, gender studies, and political
theory. She is a member of the International Political Science Association (IPSA),
Organization for Women in Science for the Developing World (OWSD), Nigerian
Political Science Association (NPSA), Society for Peace Studies and Practice, etc.
She is a reviewer of International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation in
Social Science (IJRISS). She is currently writing a book on human displacement
perspective of pastoralist-farmer conflict in Nigeria.

Grace T. Adebayo is a research assistant to Professor Oluyemi Oyenike Fayomi.

Her areas of research interest include migration and developmental issues. Grace
T. Adebayo has publications in edited books, conference proceedings, and peer-
reviewed journal articles. She attended the prestigious University of Lagos, Akoka,
Lagos, Nigeria, where she obtained the Bachelor of Science (Hons.) degree in
Political Science and went further to Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria,
where she obtained the Master of Science (Hons.) degree in International Relations.
Grace Taiwo Adebayo has attended conferences both locally and internationally.

Oluwabunmi Opeyemi Adejumo is a faculty member of Obafemi Awolowo

University and a research fellow, and an alumnus of the Institute of Housing and
Urban Development Studies, Erasmus University, Netherlands. She holds a Ph.D.
(Economics) from Obafemi Awolowo University and is currently a scholar at the
same university. She is an active member of the Inter-University Sustainable Devel-
opment Research Programme (IUSDRP), Germany, and has participated as an
associate editor for some of IUSDRP encyclopedia series on sustainable develop-
ment goals. Her research interest includes labor, gender, and development issues.

Helen Odunola Adekoya Helen started out as a pioneer broadcaster at Kogi State
Broadcasting Corporation before going into academics in year 2000. Her research
interest is in Development Communication and Advertising. With over 20 years
About the Authors xxxi

working experience at the tertiary level, Helen has served as an active member of
various research committees and has also attended many local and international
conferences. To her credit, Helen has supervised ten Ph.D. works, many M.Sc.
dissertations, and undergraduate research projects. She is an associate member of
the Advertising Practitioner Council of Nigeria, including other local and interna-
tional academic associations in Mass Communication.

Oluwayemisi A. Adepoju is currently a Ph.D. student. Her Doctorate program is in

International Relations, while her areas of specialization are gender studies, peace
and conflict resolution, and development studies.
She teaches Nigerian government and politics, introduction to international
relations and citizenship education at Westland University, Iwo, Osun State, as a
step toward her dream of being a professor in International Relations. As an
ambitious student, she is already on her path to achieve her dreams to be the
sound academic she has always wanted to be.

Oluwatoyin Vincent Adepoju is a scholar and publisher grounded in self-

education at the intersection of global verbal and visual arts, philosophies, and
spiritualities, complemented by degrees in literature.
His focus is on questions of ultimate meaning as these relate to the concrete
details of lived experience.

Oluwakemi Abiodun Adesina was educated at the University of Ibadan (Nigeria),

where she obtained her B.A. (Hons.), M.A., and Ph.D. degrees in History. She is a
2013 Fellow of the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS). Her research
interests are gender and women’s history. She is a member of Board of the Interna-
tional Federation for Research in Women’s History (IFRWH) and the Women’s
Research and Documentation Centre (WORDOC), Ibadan, Nigeria. She is the author
of “State and Cross-Border Sex Trade in Colonial and Post-Colonial Nigeria” in
Susan Dewey, Isabel Crowhurst, and Chimaraoke Izugbara (Eds.) Routledge Inter-
national Handbook of Sex Industry Research.

Olalekan W. Adigun is a political analyst and researcher based in Lagos, Nigeria.

He has served as political adviser, public affairs specialist, and program officer to
several civic organizations dedicated to youth and women participation in electoral
processes. He is passionate about social movements, political violence, electoral
participation, and youth/women in politics. He obtained his B.Sc. (Political Science)
at the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, and M.Sc. (Political Science) at the
University of Lagos. He is currently pursuing a Doctorate degree in Electoral Studies
at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. Olalekan’s previous works have been
published in reputable academic journals.
xxxii About the Authors

Funmilayo Idowu Agbaje is a researcher and an expert in the fields of gender,

security, peacemaking, peace-building, conflict management, negotiation, and social
sector management. She has published academic papers on traditional instruments
and processes of peacemaking in Africa; colonialism and the shaping of gender in
Africa; colonial society: gender, class, and culture; African feminism and peace-
making, and contemporary issues in gender, insurgency, and post-conflict
peacebuilding in Africa, among others. She has been a recipient of national and
international scholarships, grants, and awards. She is a member of several academic
and professional societies.

Damilola Taiye Agbalajobi is a political scientist and gender specialist. Her areas
of research interest are politics of development, gender and women studies, and
international relations. She has ongoing research on nude protest as part of an
evolving social movement action in Nigeria. The centrality of her study consists
partly in the plan to interrogate this much-marginalized social act within the broader
context of processes directed at deepening democracy and expanding the boundaries
of development in Nigeria.

Prince Agwu is a lecturer and research associate in the Department of Social Work
and the Health Policy Research Group, University of Nigeria. He holds a First Class
in Social Work and a Master’s in Social Policy and Social Work. He has published in
several refereed journals. Prince is a member of the Editorial Board of the Interna-
tional Journal of Public Health and covers areas in social policy and social deter-
minants of health. He is a part of several donor-funded studies and a lead
investigator. Currently, he is the communication focal person for the Africa Health
Observatory Platform, Nigeria.

Christabel Agyeiwaa is currently a Ph.D. student in History at the University of

California, Santa Barbara. In 2019, she was awarded an M.Phil. degree in History by
the University of Ghana, Legon. Her M.Phil. dissertation is entitled “Women as
Agents of Change: A Case Study of Women in Cape Coast (1877–1957).” Her
concentration is on African history, with broader research interests on women and
gender history.

Jethron Ayumbah Akallah holds a Ph.D. in History of Technology from Tech-

nical University of Darmstadt, Germany, and an M.A. (History) from Maseno
University, Kenya. His research focuses on water and sanitation technology in
Nairobi, with special interest in innovations within informal areas. Employing the
concepts of co-production and postcoloniality, he breaks away from the history of
technology that focuses on invention and origin by narrowing down to use,
meaning, and effect. Jethron lays emphasis on the need for researchers to
approach the Global South as a “technological space” rather than as “a source
of technological data.”
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
[264]

Op. cit. 1895, p. 399.

[265]

P. ent. Soc. London, 1880, p. iii.

[266]

Ent. Monthly Mag. xiii. 1877, p. 231.

[267]

Entomologist, xxiii. 1890, p. 92.

[268]

Mem. Ac. Washington, vii. 1895, 290 pp., 49 plates.

[269]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1878, p. 121, Pl. v.

[270]

Op. cit. 1889, pp. 1-40, 6 plates.

[271]

Walsingham, Op. cit., 1889. c. p. 21.

[272]

Ent. Zeit. Stettin, lvi. 1895, p. 233.

[273]

Op. cit. li. 1890, p. 261.

[274]

Ent. Zeit. Stettin, li. 1890, p. 263.

[275]

For details as to habits, etc., see Rambur, Ann. Soc. ent. France,
v. 1836, p. 577; and Graslin, op. cit. xix. 1850, p. 396.

[276]

Monograph of European Psychidae, Ann. Soc. ent. Belgique, xxv.

1881, p. 29, etc.

[277]

Heylaerts, op. cit. p. 55.

[278]

Zool. Anz. xx. 1897, p. 473. This is probably Apterona crenulella,

or one of its varieties.

[279]

Bull. U.S. Dep. Agric. Ent. x. 1887, p. 22.

[280]

Ann. New York Ac. viii. 1893, p. 54.

[281]

Kalender, Ent. Zeit. Stettin, xxxv. 1874, p. 203.

[282]

Ent. Tidskr. xvi. 1895, p. 116.

[283]

On larvae of Hepialidae, J. New York ent. Soc. iii. 1895, p. 69,

Plates III. IV.

[284]

Olliff, Australian Hepialidae, Entomologist, xxviii. 1895, p. 114.

[285]

Ent. Mag. xiii. 1876, p. 63; and xxiii. 1886, p. 164.

[286]

Weir, Entomologist, xiii. 1880, p. 249, plate; King, Ent. Record, vii.
1895, p. 111.

[287]

Bertkau, SB. Ver. Rheinland, xxxvi. 1879, p. 288; and Arch.

Naturg. xlviii. i. 1882, p. 362.

[288]

Zool. Anz. iii. 1880, p. 186.

[289]

It is much to be regretted that, as in so many other Lepidoptera, no

satisfactory agreement as to names has been attained; our British
A. testudo is variously styled Limacodes testudo (by Chapman and
most naturalists), Apoda limacodes (by Meyrick), or Apoda
avellana (Kirby, Catalogue of Moths). The family is called either
Limacodidae, Apodidae, Cochliopodidae, or Heterogeneidae.

[290]

See Chapman, Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1894, p. 345, Plate VII., for
our British species; for North American forms, Dyar, Life-histories
of the New York Slug-caterpillars (in progress, with numerous
plates), J. New York ent. Soc. iii. etc., 1895.

[291]

See Packard, P. Amer. Phil. Soc. xxxi. 1893, pp. 83, 108, Plates.
(He uses the term Cochliopodidae instead of Limacodidae); also
Dyar, as above.

[292]

Insects affecting the Orange, Washington, 1885, p. 143.

[293]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1894, p. 348.

[294]

Op. cit. 1876, p. 522; and 1877, p. 433.

[295]

P. Amer. Phil. Soc. xxxii. 1894, p. 275.

[296]

Revision of the Thyrididae; Hampson, P. Zool. Soc. London, 1897,

p. 603.

[297]

P. ent. Soc. London, 1891, p. xv.

[298]

This moth is known under several generic names—Psilura, Liparis,

Ocneria, Lymantria; there is now a very extensive literature
connected with it. A good general account by Wachtl may be found
in Wien. ent. Zeit. x. 1891, pp. 149-180, 2 Plates.

[299]

Wachtl and Kornauth, Mitt. forst. Versuchswesen Österreichs, Heft

xvi. 1893.

[300]

Crahay, Ann. Soc. ent. Belgique, xxxvii. 1893, p. 282.

[301]

Amer. Natural. xxix. 1895, p. 801.

[302]

Catalogue of Lepidoptera Heterocera, i. 1892.

[303]

Ann. Soc. ent. France (4), iv. 1864, p. 689.

[304]

P. Zool. Soc. London, 1892, p. 188.

[305]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1892, pp. 53-140; for criticism on the
nomenclature, see Rebel, Ent. Zeit. Stettin, liii. 1892, p. 247.

[306]

See Poulton, Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1884, p. 51; op. cit. 1892, p.
293; and Bateson, p. 213; Gould, p. 215.

[307]

Giraud, Ann. Soc. ent. France (4), v. 1865, p. 105; Fauvel, l.c. Bull.
p. liii.

[308]

For a table, see Meyrick, l.c.

[309]

Barrett, "Increasing Melanism in British Geometridae," Ent.

Monthly Mag. 1895, p. 198.

[310]

P. Zool. Soc. London, 1892, p. 192.

[311]

Although this term is widely used in North America, it is not in use

in England, though it may possibly have originated in Scotland.
See Slingerland, Bull. Cornell University Exp. Stat. 104, 1895, p,
555.
[312]

Fourth Rep. U.S. Ent. Commission, 1885, p. 3.

[313]

Insect Life, vi. 1894 p. 6.

[314]

See Chapman, The Genus Acronycta and its Allies, London, 1893.

[315]

Insects Injurious, etc., Ed. 1862, Boston, p. 437.

[316]

See Westwood, Tr. Zool. Soc. London, x. pp. 507, etc., for
discussion of this question and for figures; also E. Reuter, Act.
Soc. Sci. Fenn. xxii. 1896, p. 202.

[317]

Congr. Internat. Zool. ii. 1892, pt. 2, p. 180.

[318]

Ragonot, Ann. Soc. ent. France, 1890 and 1891; and Meyrick, Tr.
ent. Soc. London, 1890, p. 429.

[319]

Ent. Mag. xii. 1876, p. 210, and xvii. 1881, p. 249.

[320]

Zool. Jahrb. Syst. vi. 1892, p. 617.

[321]

Nat. Hist. Aquatic Insects, London, 1895.

[322]
For Bibliographic references connected with the divisions of
Pyralidae see Ragonot, Ann. Soc. ent. France (6), x. 1890, pp.
458, etc.

[323]

Monograph, by Ragonot, in Romanoff, Mem. Lep. vii. 1893.

[324]

Ent. Zeit. Stettin, 1878, p. 230.

[325]

Howard, Insect Life, vii. 1895, p. 402.

[326]

Monograph by Hampson, P. Zool. Soc. London, 1895, p. 897-974.

[327]

Disqué, Ent. Zeit. Stettin, li. 1890, p. 59. Cf. also Rebel, Zool.
Jahrb. Syst. xii. 1898, p. 3.

[328]

Classification; Meyrick, Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1886, p. 1.

[329]

P. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales (2), vi. 1881, p. 410.

[330]

Handbook Brit. Lep. 1895, p. 493.

[331]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1895, p. 495.

[332]

Zool. Anz. v. 1882. p. 262.

[333]

Ann. Soc. ent. France (4), x. 1870, p. 1, pl. vii.

[334]

For table of the larvae, according to number of feet and other

characters, see Sorhagen, Berlin. ent. Zeit. xxvii. 1883, pp. 1-8.

[335]

P. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales (2) vii. 1892, p. 593.

[336]

Durrant, Ent. Mag., xxxi. 1895, p. 107.

[337]

"The Yucca moth and Yucca Pollination," Rep. Missouri Botanical

Garden, 1892, pp. 99-158.

[338]

The maxillary tentacle is considered by Prof. J. B. Smith to be a

prolongation of the stipes, cf. antea, p. 309; also Insect Life, v.
1893, p. 161.

[339]

Chapman, Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1894, p. 366.

[340]

Walter, Jena. Zeitschr. Naturw. xviii. 1885. He did not distinguish

Eriocephala as a genus, as we have explained on p. 308.

[341]

Amer. Natural. xxix. 1895, pp. 636 and 803.

[342]

Wood, Ent. Mag. xxvi. 1890, p. 148.

[343]

See Chapman, Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1893, p. 255.

[344]

Osten Sacken, Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1884, p. 501, and Berlin. ent.
Zeitschr. xxxvii. 1892, p. 423, etc.

[345]

Osten Sacken has recently discussed the intermediate conditions,

and proposed the name "pseudholoptic" for some of them, Berlin.
ent. Zeitschr. xli. 1896, p. 367.

[346]

Girschner, Berlin. ent. Zeitschr. xxxi. 1887, p. 155.

[347]

It may be well to remark that this name was formerly applied to all
Diptera except Nemocera.

[348]

Zool. Anz. xvii. 1894, p. 35, and Ann. Nat. Hist. (6) xiii. 1894, p.
372; Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. lviii. 1895, p. 475.

[349]

Cf. Osten Sacken, Berlin. ent. Zeitschr. xxxviii. 1893; and Becher,
Wien. ent. Zeit. i. 1882, p. 49. For an account of the condition, with
diagrammatic figures, of the fly emerging from the pupa, cf.
Sasatti, J. Coll. Japan, i. 1887. p. 34, pl. vi.

[350]

It is frequently said that one sex of a single species may be

dimorphic in this respect, but we shall subsequently mention (in
Blepharoceridae) that this is not yet sufficiently established.
[351]

Fluernes Munddele, Copenhagen, 1881, 91 pp. 6 plates; Ent.

Tidskr. i. 1879, p. 150; Becher having given (Denk. Ak. Wien. xlv.
1882, p. 123) an interpretation different from that of Meinert, this
author set forth his general views in Zool. Anz. v. 1882, pp. 570
and 599.

[352]

The reader should not suppose that there are only two views as to
the Dipterous mouth, for actually there are several; our object is
here only to give a general idea of the subject.

[353]

Tr. Linn. Soc. London (2) v. 1892, p. 271.

[354]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1884, p. 497.

[355]

Osten Sacken, although making use of the terms tegula and

antitegula, suggested the propriety of using squama and
antisquama, as we have done.

[356]

Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. li. 1891, p. 55.

[357]

Brandt, Horae Soc. ent. Ross. xiv. 1878, p. vii.; xv. 1879, p. 20.
Brauer, Denk. Ak. Wien, xlvii. 1883, pp. 12-16. Künckel, C.R. Ac.
Paris, lxxxix. 1879, p. 491.

[358]

Blow-fly, 1895: in two vols. For Anatomy of Volucella, see Künckel

d'Herculais, Recherches sur l'org. des Volucelles, Paris, 1875 and
1881.
[359]

Tijdschr. Ent. xxxviii. 1895, pp. 65-100.

[360]

Denk. Ak. Wien, xlvii. 1883, pp. 1-100, pls. i.-v.

[361]

Since our brief and imperfect sketch of metamorphosis appeared

in Vol. V. of this series, Packard has treated the subject more fully
in his Text-book of Entomology, New York, 1898; and Pratt has
summarised the state of knowledge as to imaginal discs in
Psyche, viii. 1897, p. 15, etc.

[362]

Monograph of Oestridae, Verh. Ges. Wien, 1863, and other papers

op. cit. 1864, 1867, 1869; also Denk. Ak. Wien, xlii. 1880, xlvii.
1883.

[363]

Becher, Wien. Ent. Zeit. i. 1882, p. 49; for observation on

connecting forms see Brauer, Verh. Ges. Wien, xl. 1890, p. 272.

[364]

The palpi are said to be of only one segment in some genera of

Cecidomyiidae. The Cecidomyiidae are easily distinguished by the
minute size—body not more than a line long—and by there not
being more than six nervules at the periphery of the wing. Aëdes
(Culicidae) has also short palpi.

[365]

It is said by Schiner that in the anomalous genus Nemestrina the

palpi are of three segments.

[366]
For tables of the families of flies the student may refer to Loew,
Smithson-Misc. Coll. vi. Art. i. 1862; to Brauer, Denk. Ak. Wien, xlii.
1880, p. 110 (Orthorrhapha only); to Williston, Manual of N.
American Diptera, 1896; to Schiner, Fauna austriaca, Diptera,
Vienna, 1860, etc.

[367]

Berlin. ent. Zeitschr. xxxvii. 1892, p. 365, and xli. 1897, p. 365.

[368]

Tr. Amer. ent. Soc. iii. 1871, p. 345.

[369]

Bull. Soc. ent. France, 1893, p. lxxx.

[370]

Naturhist. Tidskr. (3) viii. 1874, p. 34, pl. xii.

[371]

Ann. Soc. ent. France (2) vii. 1849, p. 346.

[372]

Trans. New Zealand Inst. xxiii. 1890, p. 48.

[373]

Osten Sacken, Berlin. ent. Zeitschr. xxxvii. 1892, p. 442; and

Perris, Ann. Soc. ent. France (2) vii. 1849, p. 202.

[374]

See Guérin-Méneville, Ann. Soc. ent. France (2) iv. 1846; Bull. p.
8; and Nowicki, Verh. Ges. Wien, xvii. 1867, SB. p. 23.

[375]
For details as to the family cf. Osten Sacken, Berlin. ent. Zeitschr.
xl. 1895, p. 148; and for the larvae F. Müller, Arch. Mus. Rio-Jan.
iv. 1881, p. 47. The name "Liponeuridae" was formerly applied by
some authorities to this family, but it is now generally recognised
that Blepharoceridae is more legitimate.

[376]

Berlin. ent. Zeit. xxv. 1881, p. 61; and cf. Brauer, Wien. ent. Zeit. i.
1882, p. 1.

[377]

Natural History of Aquatic Insects, London, 1895, chap. ii.

[378]

Tr. Linn. Soc. Lond. (2) ii. 1884, p. 367.

[379]

For an extremely interesting account of Chironomus refer to Miall's

book, already cited, and, for the larva, to the valuable work of
Meinert on Eucephalous larvae of Diptera, Danske Selsk. Skr. (6)
iii. 1886, p. 436.

[380]

Ann. Nat. Hist. (4) viii. 1871, p. 31.

[381]

Ibid. (6) xv. 1895, p. 133.

[382]

For metamorphoses of aquatic species of Ceratopogon, see Miall

and Meinert, already quoted: for examples of the terrestrial
species, and their illustrations, refer to Mik, Wien. ent. Zeit. vii.
1888, p. 183.
[383]

Monograph, Eaton, Ent. Mag. xxix. and xxx. 1893, 1894:

supplement op. cit. 1896, etc.

[384]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1895, p. 141.

[385]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1895, p. 479.

[386]

A Naturalist's Sojourn in Jamaica, London, 1853, p. 284.

[387]

Bull. Illinois Lab., iv. 1895, p. 193.

[388]

Miall's Aquatic Insects, 1895, p. 174.

[389]

"Studies," etc., Berlin. ent. Zeitschr. xxxi. 1887.

[390]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1897, p. 362.

[391]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1897, pp. 343-361.

[392]

Acta Univ. Lund. xxxiii. (2) No. 7, 1897.

[393]

"Studies," etc., Berlin. ent. Zeitschr. xxx. 1886, p. 153.

[394]

Osten Sacken, Berlin. ent. Zeitschr. xxxvii. 1892, p. 450.

[395]

Entomologist, xiv. 1881, p. 287. This observation has never, we

believe, been confirmed.

[396]

Ann. Soc. ent. France (2) v. 1847, p. 46.

[397]

Perris, in Ann. Soc. ent. France (2) v. 1847, p. 37, pl. i.

[398]

Ann. Soc. ent. France (5) i. 1871, Bull. p. lxvii.

[399]

Rep. Dep. Agric. Ent. Washington, 1886, p. 492.

[400]

Cf. Réaumur, Mem. v. 1740, p. 21; and Perris, Ann. Soc. ent.
France (4) x. 1870, p. 190.

[401]

Verh. Ges. Wien, xxx. 1880, p. 343.

[402]

Arch. Naturges. xli. i. 1875, p. 48.

[403]

Bull. Illinois Lab. iv. 1895.

[404]

Ent. Mag. xxiii. 1886, p. 51.

[405]

Ann. Soc. ent. France, ii. 1833, p. 492.

[406]

Wien. ent. Zeit. ii. 1883, pp. 11 and 24, pl. i.

[407]

Ent. Mag. xiv. 1878, p. 196.

[408]

For figures, etc., cf. Westwood, Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1876, p. 507,
pls. v. vi.

[409]

Verh. Ges. Wien, xix. 1869, p. 737, pl. xiii.

[410]

Tr. ent. Soc. London (3) i. 1862, p. 338, pl. xi.

[411]

Verh. Ges. Wien, xix. 1869, p. 941.

[412]

Ann. Soc. ent. France (4) x. 1870, p. 221.

[413]

SB. Ak. Wien, xci. 1885, p. 392.

[414]

Ent. Mag. xiv. 1877, p. 226; for a discussion of the subject see Mik,
Wien. ent. Zeit. xiii. 1894, p. 273.

[415]

Amer. Natural. xxviii. 1894, p. 35.

[416]

Perris, Ann. Soc. ent. France (4) x. 1870, p. 321, pl. 4; and
Laboulbène, op. cit. (5) iii. 1873, p. 50, pl. v.

[417]

Perris, Ann. Soc. ent. France (4) x. 1870, p. 354.

[418]

Ent. Meddelelser, ii. 1890, p. 213.

[419]

Frauenfeld, Verh. Ges. Wien, xx. p. 37, pl. iii.

[420]

For monograph of Pipunculidae, see Becker, Berlin. ent. Zeitschr.

xlii. 1897, pp. 25-100.

[421]

Ofv. Ak. Forh. xi. 1854, p. 302, pl. v., since confirmed by others,
see Giard, C.R. Ac. Sci. cix. 1889, pp. 79 and 708.

[422]

Natural History of Aquatic Insects, 1895, p. 198.

[423]

Ent. Zeit. Stettin, vi. 1845, p. 384, pl. i.

[424]

Ann. Soc. ent. France (6) iii. 1883, p. 23, pl. i.

[425]

Ent. Nachr. xviii. 1892, p. 13.

[426]
Ann. Soc. ent. France (4) x. 1870, p. 330.

[427]

See on this difficult subject, Becher, Wien. ent. Zeit. i. 1882, p. 49.

[428]

Loudon's Magazine, v. 1832, p. 302; P. ent. Soc. London, 1871, p.

x.

[429]

Baron von Osten Sacken informs the writer that this statement has
since been withdrawn by Portschinsky as being erroneous.

[430]

Ent. Amer. iii. 1887, p. 126.

[431]

J. Coll. Japan, i. 1886, pp. 1-46, plates i.-vi.

[432]

Souvenirs entomologiques, 1879, pp. 246-254.

[433]

A list of the Insects known to be attacked by Dipterous parasites

has been given by Brauer and Bergenstamm, Denk. Ak. Wien, lxi.
1895.

[434]

Berlin. ent. Zeit. xxx. 1886, p. 135.

[435]

Berlin. ent. Zeitschr. xxxi. 1887, p. 17.

[436]
Biol. Centralbl. vii. 1887, p. 521.

[437]

For an account of the habits of this fly, see Kirk, J. Linn. Soc. viii.
1865, pp. 149-156; and for a bibliographic list, Wulp, Tijdschr. Ent.
xxvii. 1884, p. xci. and pp. 143-150.

[438]

Preliminary Report on the Tse-tse Fly Disease, 1895.

[439]

P. Liverpool Soc. xxxiii. 1878, p. 13, note.

[440]

We may specially mention the monograph of Oestridae, published

in 1863 by the K. k. Zool.-Bot. Ges. Wien, and supplements in
Wien. ent. Zeit. v. vi. 1886, 1887; these include copious
bibliographic lists.

[441]

Riley, Insect Life, iv. 1892, p. 302.

[442]

See Blanchard, Ann. Soc. ent. France (7) ii. 1892, pp. 109, 154.

[443]

See Bigot, Ann. Soc. ent. France (6) ii. 1882, p. 21, Brauer,
Monograph, 1863, p. 51, and Wien. ent. Zeit. vi. 1887, p. 75.

[444]

Arch. Naturgesch. lviii. i. 1892, pp. 287-322, pls. xv. xvi.

[445]

Stein, Deutsche ent. Zeit. xxi. 1877, p. 297.

[446]

Abh. Ges. Halle, iv. 1858, p. 145.

[447]

Arch. Naturgesch. lix. i. 1893, p. 151.

[448]

SB. Ak. Wien. cv. 1896, Abtheil. i. p. 400.

[449]

Arch. Naturges. lviii. i. 1892, p. 287.

[450]

Horae Soc. ent. Ross. ii. 1863, p. 90.

[451]

Tr. ent. Soc. London, 1881, p. 360.

[452]

The best general description of the external anatomy of the flea is

to be found in Taschenberg, Die Flöhe, 1880. The morphology is
better elucidated, though still incompletely, in Wagner's valuable
"Aphanipterologische Studien," Horae Soc. ent. Ross. xxiii. 1889,
pp. 199-260, 5 plates, and op. cit. xxxi. 1897, pp. 555-594, 3
plates. Cf. also N. C. Rothschild, Nov. Zool. v. 1898, pp. 533-544,
3 plates.