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Robert C. Brears
Editor

The Palgrave
Encyclopedia of
Urban and
Regional Futures
The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Urban and
Regional Futures
Robert C. Brears
Editor

The Palgrave
Encyclopedia of Urban
and Regional Futures

With 418 Figures and 143 Tables

Editor
Robert C. Brears
Our Future Water
Christchurch, New Zealand

ISBN 978-3-030-87744-6 ISBN 978-3-030-87745-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-87745-3
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022
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Preface

The Palgrave Encyclopedia of Urban and Regional Futures provides readers

(practitioners, academics, researchers, etc.) with expert interdisciplinary
knowledge on how urban centers and regions in locations of varying climates,
lifestyles, income levels, and stages development are creating synergies and
reducing trade-offs in the development of resilient, resource-efficient, envi-
ronmentally friendly, liveable, socially equitable, integrated, and technology-
enabled centers and regions. In particular, the Palgrave Encyclopedia of
Urban and Regional Futures provides chapters, authored by subject matter
experts, on interdisciplinary policies, best practices, lessons learnt, technolo-
gies in various stages of development, and case studies of urban centers and
regions that aim to decouple economic growth from resource consumption,
enhance resilience to climatic extremes, invest in low/zero carbon and smart
technologies, lower emissions, reduce economic disparities, improve quality
of life, and protect ecosystems and the services they provide for humans and
nature.

Christchurch, New Zealand Robert C. Brears

December 2022 Editor

v
Acknowledgments

First, I wish to thank Ruth Lefevre and Rachael Ballard for being visionaries
who enable Major Reference Works like mine to come to fruition. Second,
I wish to thank Anusha Cherian for being an excellent project coordinator.
Third, I wish to thank Mum, who has a great interest in the environment and
has supported me in this journey.

vii
 List of Topics
Adapting Cities to Climate Change
Adapting to a Changing Climate Through
Nature-Based Solutions
Age-Friendly Future Cities
Amsterdam’s Pathway to Climate Neutrality:
Creating an Enabling Environment
Applying Smart Frameworks to Arctic Cities
Artificial Urban Wetlands
At the Intersection and Looking Ahead
Augmented Reality: Robotics, Urbanism, and the
Digital Turn
Bag-of-Words Model: Sustainability Lacks
Influencers
Behavioral Science Informed Governance for
Urban and Regional Futures
Beyond Knowledge: Learning to Cope
with Climate Change in Cities
Big Data for Smart Cities and Inclusive Growth
Bioregionalism
Blue-Green Cities: Achieving Urban Flood
Resilience, Water Security, and Biodiversity
Building Community Resilience
Building Energy: How Building Efficiency Can
Be Improved in Government Facilities
Building Resilient Communities Over Time
Butterfly Gardening in Colombo, Sri Lanka:
Approach to Biodiversity Conservation,
Monitoring, Education, and Awareness in
Urbanizing Habitats
Carbon Neutral Adelaide
Carbon Sequestration Through
Building-Integrated Vegetation
The Centrality of Ellensburg
The Challenges for Wildland-Urban Interfaces
(WUI) in Metropolitan Areas: Reducing Fire
Risk, Providing Employment Opportunities,
and Preserving Natural Habitat
Challenges of Delivering Regional and Remote
Human Services and Supports
Changing Paradigms in Urban Planning
2000–2020
Children, Urban Vulnerability, and Resilience
Circular Cities
Circular Economy and the Water-Food Nexus
Circular Economy Cities
Circular Water Economy
Cities in Nature
City Financing and Social Urbanism in Latin
America: The Importance of Good Fiscal
Management
City Visions: Toward Smart and Sustainable
Urban Futures
Climate Change and Surface Water Resources in
Sri Lanka
Climate Gentrification
Climate Resilience in Informal Settlements: The
Role of Natural Infrastructure
Climate-Induced Relocation
Climate-Resilient Technologies and Innovations
for Sustainable Agriculture, Improved
Landscape, and Food Security
Closing the Loop on Local Food Access Through
Disaster Management
Collaborative Climate Action
Collective Emotions and Resilient Regional
Communities
ix
x List of Topics
Collectively Adapting to Sea-Level Rise Through
Disaster Response, Commons Management,
and Social Mobilization
Community Engagement and Climate Change:
The Value of Social Networks
and Community-Based Organizations
Community Engagement for Urban and Regional
Futures
Community in a Changing Climate: Shaping
Urban and Regional Futures
Community Vulnerability to Extractive Industry
Disasters
Computational Urban Planning
Concepts, Approaches, and Methodologies
for Ecological Flood Resilience Assessment: A
Review
Conceptualizing the Urban Commons
Connecting Urban and Regional Innovation
Ecosystems to Enhance Competitiveness
Crops and Panels: A Farm Model with Trade-offs
in the Water-Energy-Food Nexus
Digital City Modeling and Emerging Directions
in Public Participation in Planning
Digital Twin and Cities
Digitalization, Urbanization, and Urban-Rural
Divide
Disaster Risk in Informal Settlements and
Opportunities for Resilience
Disruptive Mobility: Sharing Electric
Autonomous Vehicles (SEAVs) Reshape Our
Future Cities
Ecosystems Restoration and Habitats
Enhancement
Education for Inclusive and Transformative
Urban Development
The Elusive Quest for Affordable Housing:
Five Principles of a Comprehensive
Approach
Embedding Justice in Resilient Climate Change
Action
Emerging Concepts Exploring the Role of Nature
for Health and Well-Being
Environmental Education and Non-governmental
Organizations
Epidemiological Shifts in Urban Bangladesh
ESG in Real Estate Investment
European Green Deal and Development
Perspectives for the Mediterranean Region
Faith Communities as Hubs for Climate
Resilience
Feminist Planning and Urbanism: Understanding
the Past for an Inclusive Future
Financing: Fiscal Tools to Enhance Regional
Sustainable Development
Fisheries Crime and Ocean Resilience
Formulating Sustainable Foodways
for the Future: Tradition and Innovation
From Vulnerability to Urban Resilience
to Climate Change
Furthering the Sustainable Development Agenda
by Putting Urban Heritage and Value
Extraction at the Center
Future Foods for Urban Food Production
The Future of Reducing Urban Vulnerability with
Perspectives of Child Development in
Zimbabwe
Future of the City-Region Concept and Reality
Future of Urban Governance and Citizen
Participation
Future of Urban Land-use Planning in the Quest
for Local Economic Development
Gender Inequalities in Cities: Inclusive Cities
Getting Our Built Environments Ready for an
Aging Population
Global Homelessness: Neoliberalism, Violence,
and Precarious Urban Futures
Global Survey of Food Waste Policies
The Governance of Smart Cities
Governing for Food Security: A Cultural
Perspective
Green and Blue Infrastructure (GBI) in Urban
Areas
Green and Smart Cities in the Developing World
Green Belts
Green Cities
Green Cities in Theory and Practice
Green Cities: Implementing the Miyawaki
Method in Lahore, Pakistan
Green Cities: Nature-Based Solutions, Renaturing
and Rewilding Cities
Green Economy Policies to Achieve Water
Security
List of Topics
Green Infrastructure
Green Infrastructure in Metropolis Dimension:
Case Study of Llobregat River, Barcelona
Metropolitan Area
Growth, De-growth, and Nature-Based Solutions
Growth, Expansion, and Future of Small Rural
Towns
Guidelines for Water-Sensitive Informal
Settlement Upgrading in the Global South
Habitat Provisioning
Harare
Health and the City: How Cities Impact on Health,
Happiness, and Well-Being
Health and the Role of Nature in Enhancing
Mental Health
Healthy Cities
Hidden Enemy for Healthy Urban Life
Hidden Potential of Wastewater
Housing Affordability
Housing and Development
How Cities Can Be Resilient
How Cities Cooperate to Address Transnational
Challenges
Impact of Universities on Urban and Regional
Economies
Improving Social Equity and Community Health
and Well-Being in Low-Income Suburbs
and Regions
Increasing Young People’s Environmental
Awareness
Industrial Symbiosis
Innovation to Bring Nature-Based Solutions to
Life: Tales of Two Cities
Integrated Urban Green and Grey Infrastructure
Integrating Agriculture, Forestry, and Food
Systems into Urban Planning: A Key Step for
Future Resilient and Sustainable Cities
Integrating Sustainability into Construction
Project Management
Internationalization of Cities
The Interplay of Intersectionality
and Vulnerability Towards Equitable
Resilience
Land Use Planning Systems in OECD Countries
Lead Exposure in US Cities
Local and Regional Development Strategy
xi
Localizing Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs) Through Co-creation of Nature-Based
Solutions (NBS)
Low-Carbon Transport
Mainstreaming Blue Green Infrastructure
in Cities: Barriers, Blind Spots, and Facilitators
Making of Smart and Intelligent Cities
Managing Africa’s Urban Flooding Challenges
from the Bottom Up: A View from Ghana
Managing the Risk of Wildfire Where Urban
Meets the Natural Environment
Master Planned Estates and the Promises
of Suburbia
The Mediatized City
Meeting SDG6: Ensuring Safe Drinking Water for
All in Rural India
Metropolitan Discipline: Management
and Planning
Moving Towards Sustainable, Liveable, and
Care-Full Urban Environments: Pre-schoolers’
Rights and Visions for Planning Just, Socially,
and Ecologically Integrated Cities
Multiple Benefits of Green Infrastructure
Multi-stakeholder Partnerships to Support
Climate Migrants in Fragile Cities
Nature-Based Solutions for River Restoration
in Metropolitan Areas
Need for Greenspace in an Urban Setting for
Child Development
Need for Nature Connectedness in Urban Youth
for Environmental Sustainability
Neither Rural Nor Urban: A Critical Review
of the Fringe Dynamics of Settlements
Neoliberalism and Future Urban Planning
Networking Collaborative Communities
for Climate-Resilient Cities
New Cities
New Forms of Shared Governance and
Local Action Plan in Socially Vulnerable
Settlements
The New Leipzig Charter: From Strategy to
Implementation
New Localism: New Regionalism
New Orbital Urbanization
Overcoming Barriers in Green Infrastructure
Implementation
xii
An Overview of the Relationship of the
Sustainable Development Goals and Urban
and Regional Development
Participatory Governance for Adaptable
Communities
Participatory Irrigation Management:
Barind Model – A New Sustainable
Initiative
Participatory Planning: A Useful Tool for the
Development of Sustainable Mega-City
Regions
Perception and Reality for Sustainable Irrigation
System with Micro-irrigation
Peri-urban Regions
Peri-urbanization
Personal Delivery Robots: How Will Cities
Manage Multiple, Automated, Logistics Fleets
in Pedestrian Spaces?
Philanthropy in Sustainable Urban Development:
A Systems Perspective
Planning for Food Security in the New Urban
Agenda
Planning for Peri-urban Futures
Planning Healthy and Livable Cities
Policies for a Just Transition
Policy and Practices of Nature-Based Solutions
to Build Resilience in Seoul, Korea
The Practice of Resilience Building in Urban
and Regional Communities
Pre-schoolers and Sustainable Urban Transport
Proptech: Issues for the Future
Public Awareness of and Participation
in Municipal Solid Waste Management
in Urban Areas of the Mekong River Delta,
Vietnam
Public Policies to Increase Urban Green
Spaces
Public Procurement for Regional and Local
Development
Public Space
Public-Private Partnerships: The Danish
Way of Turning Climate Change Measures into
Policies and Long-Term Commitments
Rainwater Harvesting for Water Security
in Informal Settlements: Techniques, Practices,
and Options
Regulation of Urban and Regional Futures
List of Topics
Residential Crowding in Urban Environments
Resilient Rural Electrification for the
Twenty-First Century
Resource Effectiveness in and Across Urban
Systems
Resource Recovery from Human Excreta
in Urban and Regional Settlements
Responsibility to Prepare and Prevent (R2P2):
Applying Unprecedented Foresight to
Addressing Unprecedented Climate Risks
Role of Disaster Relief Policy in Building
Resilient Coastal Regions in the
United States
Role of Nature for Ageing Populations
Role of Urban Agriculture Policy in Promoting
Food Security in Bulawayo,
Zimbabwe
Rural-Urban Continuum Settlements: Selected
Case Studies
Sanctuary Cities and Its Impact on Quality of Life
of Its Citizenry
Senegalese Ecovillage Network
Shrinking Towns and Cities
Small Towns in Asia and Urban Sustainability
Small Water Retention Measures in Haluzice
Gorge
Smart Agriculture and ICT
Smart City: A Universal Approach in Particular
Contexts
Smart Densification
Smart Grids to Lower Energy Usage and Carbon
Emissions: Case Study Examples from
Colombia and Turkey
Smart(er) Cities in the Time of Change
The Social and Solidarity Economy
Social Urbanism: Transforming the Built
and Social Environment
Soil Water Erosion Assessment for Conservation
Planning in a Data-Pour Contest
Solar Energy Communities in the Urban
Environment
The Source Waters of Tanga
Spatial Demography as the Shaper of Urban and
Regional Planning Under the Impact of Rapid
Urbanization
Spatial Justice and the Design of Future Cities
in the Developing World
List of Topics
Spatial Planning Under the Impact
of Urbanization and Rural Transformation
in Zimbabwe: A Review of Theories,
Philosophies, and Practices
The State of Extreme Events in India
Stewarding Street Trees for a Global Urban Future
Strategies for Liveable and Sustainable Cities:
The Singapore Experience
Strategies for Taming the City
Sustainability Competencies in Higher Education
Sustainability Transition and Climate Change
Adaption of Logistics
The Sustainable and the Smart City:
Distinguishing Two Contemporary Urban
Visions
Sustainable Cities via Urban Ecosystem
Restoration
Sustainable Community Masterplan
Sustainable Development and Responsible
Tourism: The Grijalva-Usumacinta Lower
River Basin
Sustainable Development Goals
Sustainable Development Goals and Urban Policy
Innovation
Sustainable Development Goals from an Urban
Perspective
Sustainable Development Goals in Relation to
Urban and Regional Development in Japan
Sustainable Urban Mobility
Systemic Innovation for Thrivable Cities
Theme Cities Networks
Toward a Sustainable City
Toward Smart Public Lighting of Future Cities
Towards a Social Capital Resilience Model
in Coping with Floods and Droughts: The Case
of Muzarabani, Zimbabwe
Transnational Crimes: Global Impact and
Responses
Transnational Migrants on the Margin
Transport Resilience in Urban Regions
Transportation and Land Use Integration: Shaping
Transportation Demand and Delivering
Transport Supply
Transportation and Mobility
Understanding Smart Cities Through
a Critical Lens
Understanding Urban Engineering
xiii
Understanding Women’s Perspective of Quality
of Life in Cities
Unpacking Cities as Complex Adaptive Systems
Urban and Regional Leadership
Urban Atmospheric Microbiome
Urban Climate Resilience
Urban Commons as a Bridge Between the Spatial
and the Social
Urban Densification and Its Social Sustainability
Urban Ecosystem Services and Sustainable
Human Well-Being
Urban Food Gardens
Urban Forestry in Sidewalks of Bogota, Colombia
Urban Futures: Pathways to Tomorrow
Urban Greening and Green Gentrification
Urban Health Paradigms
Urban Heat Islands
Urban Management in Bangladesh
The Urban Planning-Real Estate Development
Nexus
Urban Policy and the Future of Urban
and Regional Planning in Africa
Urban Resilience
Urban Resilience: Moving from Idealism
to Systems Thinking
Urban Structure and Its Impact on Mobility
Patterns: Reducing Automobile Dependence
Through Polycentrism
Urban Sustainability: Multifunctional and
Multipurpose Planning of Urban Space
Urban Well-Being
Urbanization, Planning Law, and the Future of
Developing World Cities
US Urban and Suburban Yardscaping
The Vegan Food Justice Movement
Voluntary Programs for Urban and Regional
Futures
Vulnerability to Food Insecurity Among the
Urban Poor in Sri Lanka: Implications for
Policy and Practice
Wadi Sustainable Agriculture Model, The
Walkable Access and Walking Quality of Built
Environment
Wash (Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene):
Infrastructure as a Measure of Sustainable
Development
Water Policy in the State of Tabasco
xiv List of Topics

Water Pollution and Advanced Water Treatment Water-Smart Cities

Technologies Weathering Change
Water Security and Its Role in Achieving SDG 6 Why Large Cities Won’t Survive the Twenty-First
Water Security and the Green Economy Century
Water Security, Sustainability, and SDG 6 Wildlife Corridors
Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Question Women in Urbanism, Perpetuating the Bias?
of Future Cities of the Developing World Youth and Public Transport
Watershed Sustainability: An Integrated River Zombie Subdivisions
Basin Perspective Zooming Regions into Perspective
About the Editor

Robert C. Brears is an international sectoral

expert on water for the UN’s Green Climate
Fund and the World Bank. He is the Editor in
Chief of the Palgrave Handbook of Climate Resil-
ient Societies and the Palgrave Encyclopedia of
Urban and Regional Futures. He is the author of
11 books, including the Palgrave Macmillan titles
The Green Economy and the Water-Energy-Food
Nexus, Blue and Green Cities: The Role of Blue-
Green Infrastructure in Managing Urban Water
Resources, Natural Resource Management and
the Circular Economy, Developing the Circular
Water Economy, Developing the Blue Economy,
and Financing Nature-based Solutions. He is the
founder of Our Future Water, which has knowl-
edge partnerships with World Bank, World Mete-
orological Organization, and UNEP initiatives.

xv
Contributors

Ayodeji Adeniyi Deception Bay, QLD, Australia

Humera Afaq National University, San Diego, CA, USA
Kristin Agnello Department of Architecture and Planning, Norwegian Uni-
versity of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
Atharv Agrawal University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
S. Ahilan College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, Uni-
versity of Exeter, Exeter, Devon, UK
Iftekhar Ahmed School of Architecture and Built Environment, University
of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
Mubeen Ahmad School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The Univer-
sity of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Ahmad Ahsan Lahore University of Management Sciences, Lahore,
Pakistan
Meredian Alam Sociology and Anthropology Department, Universiti Bru-
nei Darussalam, Gadong, Brunei
Amani Alfarra Land and Water Division, Food and Agriculture Organiza-
tion of the United Nations, Rome, Italy
Jamal Alibou Department of Civil Engineering, Hydraulic, Environment
and Climate, Hassania School of Public Works, Casablanca, Morocco
Sara Alidoust School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University
of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Angélica Tanus Benatti Alvim Graduate Program in Architecture and
Urbanism, Mackenzie Presbyterian University, Sao Paulo, Brazil
P. Ambily Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technol-
ogy, Calicut, Kerala, India
Grace Andrews Masters Environmental Management, College of Humani-
ties, Arts and Social Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia
Jenna Andrews-Swann School of Liberal Arts, Georgia Gwinnett College,
Lawrenceville, GA, USA
xvii
xviii Contributors

T. Angert The Institute for Environmental Security and Well-being Studies,

Herzliya, Israel
Shyni Anilkumar National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode,
Kerala, India
Aikaterini Antonopoulou
Hadi Arbabi Department of Civil & Structural Engineering, The University
of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
Md. Arfanuzzaman Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United
Nations, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Felipe Armas Vargas Departamento de Ingeniería de Procesos e Hidráulica,
CBI, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México,
Mexico
S. Arthur Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
Hedda Askland University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
Ditjon Baboci Tirana, Albania
Guy Baeten Urban Studies, Malmö University, Malmö, Sweden
Elham Bahmanteymouri The University of Auckland, Auckland, New
Zealand
Nilesh Bakshi School of Architecture, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
M. Balasubramanian Centre for Ecological Economics and Natural
Resources, Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, Karnataka,
India
Zoran Balukoski School of Geography and Sustainable Communities, The
University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
Jonathan Banfield University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Kaya Barry Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Department of Culture and Learning, Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
Matthias Barth Leuphana University, Lüneburg, Germany
Prabal Barua Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Physical
and Mathematical Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
James A. Beckman University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
Sara Bice Crawford School of Public Policy, The Australian National Uni-
versity, Acton, ACT, Australia
School of Public Policy and Management, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
S. Birkinshaw University of Newcastle, Newcastle, UK
Contributors xix

Stefan Blachfellner The Bertalanffy Center for the Study of Systems Sci-
ence, Vienna, Austria
Bruno Blanco-Varela Department of Applied Economics, Faculty of Eco-
nomics, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago de Compostela,
Galicia, Spain
Tijana Blanusa Royal Horticultural Society, Wisley, UK
University of Reading, Reading, UK
Tinashe Bobo Town Planning Section, Harare City Council, Harare,
Zimbabwe
Cherice Bock Portland Seminary of George Fox University, Portland, OR,
USA
Antonija Bogadi Department of Urban and Spatial Planning and Research,
Technical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Simone Borelli Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), Rome, Italy
Candice Boyd University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Christopher T. Boyko Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Robert C. Brears Our Future Water, Christchurch, New Zealand
Maria Julieta Brezzo Institutional Relations and Events, Ciudades Globales –
CIGLO, Córdoba, Argentina
Katja Brundiers School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe,
AZ, USA
Valerio Alfonso Bruno Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
Center for European Futures, Naples, Italy
Centre for the Analysis of the Radical Right, Leeds, UK
Felipe Bucci Ancapi Department of Management in the Built Environment,
Faculty of Architecture and the Built Environment, Delft University of Tech-
nology, Delft, The Netherlands
Felix Bücken Institute of Geography, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück,
Germany
Paul Burton Cities Research Institute Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD,
Australia
Alessandro Busà School of Geography, Geology and the Environment,
University of Leicester, Leicester, UK
Judy Bush Lecturer in Urban Planning at University of Melbourne, Mel-
bourne, VIC, Australia
Gareth Butler Masters Environmental Management, College of Humanities,
Arts and Social Sciences, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia
xx Contributors

Andrew Butt RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Michael Buxton RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Mohammed Firoz C. Department of Architecture and Planning, National
Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala, India
Maléne Campbell Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University
of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
Julien Carbonnell Artificial Intelligence on Citizen Engagement, Democ-
racy Studio
M. Cavada School of Architecture, Imagination Lancaster, Lancaster Uni-
versity, Lancaster, UK
Rebecca Cavicchia Department of Urban and Regional Planning, BYREG –
Norwegian University of Life Science, Ås, Norway
Lauriane Suyin Chalmin-Pui Royal Horticultural Society, Wisley, UK
The University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
Deborah Nabubwaya Chambers Community Health, National University,
San Diego, CA, USA
Shenglin E. Chang National Taiwan University, Graduate Institute of Build-
ing and Planning, Taipei, Taiwan
Marianna Charitonidou Department of Art Theory and History, Athens
School of Fine Arts, Athens, Greece
School of Architecture, National Technocal University of Athens, Athens,
Greece
Department of Architecture, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Charles M. Chavunduka Department of Architecture and Real Estate, Uni-
versity of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Ambika Chawla Urban Climate Innovations, Washington, DC, USA
Fei Chen School of Architecture, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
Andrew Chigudu Department of Demography Settlement and Develop-
ment, Social & Behavioural Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare,
Zimbabwe
Halleluah Chirisa Population Services International Zimbabwe, Harare,
Zimbabwe
Innocent Chirisa Department of Demography Settlement and Development,
Social & Behavioural Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Chipo Chitereka Department of Social Work, University of Zimbabwe,
Harare, Zimbabwe
N. R. Chithra Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Tech-
nology, Calicut, Kerala, India
Contributors xxi

Marcyline Chivenge Department of Demography Settlement and Develop-

ment, Social & Behavioural Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare,
Zimbabwe
Suehyun Cho University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
Tanya Clark School of Behavioral Sciences, California Southern University,
Costa Mesa, CA, USA
M’Lisa Lee Colbert The Nature of Cities, Montreal, QC, Canada
Ramon Fernando Colmenares-Quintero Faculty of Engineering,
Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Medellín, Colombia
Elif Çolakoğlu Department of Security Sciences, Gendarmerie and Coast
Guard Academy, Ankara, Turkey
Michela Conigliaro Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
Sean Connelly University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
A. Contin Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Rachel Cooper Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Samantha Copeland Ethics and Philosophy of Technology, Delft University
of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
João Cortesão Landscape Architecture and Spatial Planning, Wageningen
University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Adriano Cozzolino Center for European Futures, Naples, Italy
Università degli Studi della Campania “Luigi Vanvitelli”, Caserta, Italy
Stewart Craine Village Infrastructure Angels, London, UK
Roberta Cucca BYREG – Norwegian University of Life Science, Ås,
Norway
Gary Cummisk Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA, USA
Paul Cureton ImaginationLancaster, Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Susan Cyriac Department of Architecture and Planning, National Institute of
Technology, Calicut, Kerala, India
Sebastien Darchen School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The Uni-
versity of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Curt J. Davis University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
D. Dawson University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
Evelyne de Leeuw Centre for Health Equity Training, Research and Evalu-
ation (CHETRE), UNSW Australia Research Centre for Primary Health Care
& Equity, South Western Sydney Local Health District, Ingham Institute,
Sydney, NSW, Australia
xxii Contributors

Healthy Urban Environments (HUE) Collaboratory, Maridulu Budyari Gumal

Sydney Partnership for Health, Education, Research and Enterprise SPHERE,
Sydney, NSW, Australia
Ingham Institute for Applied Medical Research, Liverpool, NSW, Australia
Valerio Della Sala Politecnico di Torino (Italy), Interdepartmental Research
Centre for Urban Studies (OMERO), Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona
(Spain), Turin, Italy
N. Delle-Odeleye Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, UK
Cheryl Desha Cities Research Institute, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD,
Australia
María Mercedes Di Virgilio Instituto de Investigaciones Gino Germani,
Universidad de Buenos Aires/ CONICET, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos
Aires, Argentina
Roshini Suparna Diwakar Mahila Housing Trust, New Delhi, India
Timothy J. Dixon School of the Built Environment, University of Reading,
Reading, UK
Michelle Duffy University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, Australia
Smart Dumba Department of Demography Settlement and Development,
Social & Behavioral Sciences, University Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Nick Dunn Lancaster University, Lancaster, UK
Jenna Dutton Senior Planner – Social Policy, City of Victoria and Research
Associate, Center for Civilization, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
Vupenyu Dzingirai Department of Community and Social Development,
University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Charity Edwards Monash University & University of Melbourne, Mel-
bourne, Australia
Huascar Eguino Fiscal Management Division, Inter-American Develop-
ment Bank (IDB), Washington, DC, USA
Theodore S. Eisenman Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional
Planning, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
Christina R. Ergler School of Geography, University of Otago, Dunedin,
New Zealand
Oscar Escolero Departamento de Dinámica Terrestre y Superficial, Instituto
de Geología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México,
Mexico
Javier Esquer Graduate Sustainability Program, Industrial Engineering
Department, University of Sonora, Hermosillo, Mexico
G. Everett University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
Contributors xxiii

Caroline Fabianski La Seyne sur Mer, France

Francesco Femia The Center for Climate and Security, an Institute of the
Council on Strategic Risks, Washington, DC, USA
Melisha Shavindi Fernando Faculty of Science, Horizon Campus, Malabe,
Sri Lanka
Carmen Zuleta Ferrari Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
Carla Sofia Ferreira Research Centre for Natural Resources, Environment
and Society (CERNAS), Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Agrarian
Technical School, Coimbra, Portugal
Department of Physical Geography and Bolin Centre for Climate Research,
Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
Navarino Environmental Observatory, Messinia, Greece
António Ferreira Research Centre for Natural Resources, Environment and
Society (CERNAS), Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Coimbra Agrarian
Technical School, Coimbra, Portugal
Daniel Fischer School of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Tempe,
AZ, USA
Wesley Flannery Urban Planning, School of Natural and Built Environment,
David Keir Building, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK
Claudia Fonseca Alfaro Institute for Urban Research, Malmö University,
Malmö, Sweden
Mariana Fonseca Braga ImaginationLancaster, Lancaster Institute for the
Contemporary Arts (LICA), Lancaster University, Lancaster, Lancashire, UK
Julien Forbat University of Geneva, Institute of Global Health, Geneva,
Switzerland
Martin Franz Institute of Geography, Osnabrück University, Osnabrück,
Germany
Robert Freestone School of Built Environment, University of New South
Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Frances Furio School of Behavioral Sciences, California Southern Univer-
sity, Costa Mesa, CA, USA
Tatiana Gallego Lizon Washington, DC, USA
Emilio Garcia The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
Birgit Georgi UIA Expert/Strong Cities in a Changing Climate, Egelsbach,
Germany
Daniela Getlinger Graduate Program in Architecture and Urbanism, Mac-
kenzie Presbyterian University, Sao Paulo, Brazil
xxiv Contributors

David J. Gilchrist University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia

Brendan Gleeson Monash University & University of Melbourne, Mel-
bourne, Australia
V. Glenis University of Newcastle, Newcastle, UK
Moritz Gold Sustainable Food Processing Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Zurich,
Switzerland
Eugenio Gómez Reyes Departamento de Ingeniería de Procesos e
Hidráulica, CBI, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Ciudad
de México, Mexico
Megan Gordon University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George,
BC, Canada
Alexa Gower Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Sonia Graham School of Geography and Sustainable Communities, The
University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia
Institut de Ciència I Tecnologia Ambientals (ICTA), Universitat Autònoma de
Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Danielle Griego Center for Augmented Computational Design in Architec-
ture, Engineering and Construction, D-BAUG, ETH Zurich, Zurich,
Switzerland
Kai Michael Griese Hochschule Osnabrück University of Applied Sciences,
Osnabrück, Germany
Carl Grodach Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Bern Grush Urban Robotics Foundation, Toronto, Canada
Medhisha Pasan Gunawardena Biodiversity Educational Research Initia-
tive, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Faculty of Science, Horizon Campus, Malabe, Sri Lanka
Hector Manuel Guzman Grijalva Sustainability Graduate Program, Uni-
versity of Sonora, Hermosillo, México
Jochen Hack Technical University of Darmstadt, Section of Ecological
Engineering, Institute of Applied Geosciences, Darmstadt, Germany
Perrine Hamel Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore, Singapore
Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Technological University, Singa-
pore, Singapore
Ben Harris-Roxas School of Population Health, University of New South
Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Wolfgang Haupt Leibniz-Insitute for Research on Society and Space,
Erkner, Germany
Contributors xxv

Naomi Hay Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia

Fatime Barbara Hegyi Joint Research Centre – European Commission,
Seville, Spain
Hayley Henderson Research Fellow at Crawford School of Public Policy,
Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Michael Henderson Ramboll Ltd and Oxford Brookes University, London,
UK
Cole Hendrigan University of Wollongong and Wollongong City Council,
Wollongong, NSW, Australia
Andreas Hernandez Marymount Manhattan College, New York, NY, USA
Victoria Herrmann The Arctic Institute – Center for Circumpolar Security
Studies, Washington, DC, USA
Halima Hodzic Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO), Rome, Italy
Karen Horwood The Leeds Planning School, Leeds Beckett University,
Leeds, UK
Mette Hotker RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Karin Huber-Heim Circular Economy Forum, Austria, Vienna, Austria
Raisa Binte Huda Department of Geography and Environment, University
of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Dan Xuan Thi Huynh School of Economics, Can Tho University, Can Tho,
Vietnam
Ligocka Ilona Ministry of Climate and Environment, Warsaw, Poland
Tanya Gottlieb Jacobsen State of Green, Copenhagen, Denmark
Bhanye Johannes Department of Community and Social Development,
University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Katrina Johnston-Zimmerman THINK.urban, Philadelphia, PA, USA
Kirsty Jones Crawford School of Public Policy, The Australian National
University, Acton, ACT, Australia
Alain Jordà Local Development Expert, Manresa, Barcelona, Spain
Gaurav Joshi University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Anuja Joy National Institute of Technology Calicut, Kozhikode, Kerala,
India
Mahjabin Kabir Adrita Department of Geography and Environment, Uni-
versity of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Zahra Kalantari Department of Physical Geography and Bolin Centre for
Climate Research, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
xxvi Contributors

Navarino Environmental Observatory, Messinia, Greece

Department of Sustainable Development, Environmental Science and Engi-
neering, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
Eleni Kalantidou Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Tinashe Natasha Kanonhuhwa Department of Demography Settlement and
Development, Social & Behavioral Sciences, University Zimbabwe, Harare,
Zimbabwe
L. Kapetas 100 resilient Cities Project, New York, USA
Thomas Karakadzai Department of Demography Settlement and Develop-
ment, Faculty of Social & Behavioral Sciences, University of Zimbabwe,
Harare, Zimbabwe
Abdulrazak Karriem University of the Western Cape, Cape Town, South
Africa
Hewa Thanthrige Ashan Randika Karunananda Biodiversity Educational
Research Initiative, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Rosemary Kasimba Department of Demography Settlement and Develop-
ment, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
J. O. Kawira County Government of Laikipia, Laikipia, Kenya
Jon Kellett University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
Vlada Kenniff Long Island University, Brookville, NY, USA
Jeffrey Kenworthy Curtin University Sustainability Policy Institute, Curtin
University, Perth, WA, Australia
Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Ganesh Keremane Adelaide, South Australia
Tien Dung Khong School of Economics, Can Tho University, Can Tho,
Vietnam
Teng Chye Khoo National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
F. I. Kihara The Nature Conservancy, Nairobi, Kenya
Lorenzo Kihlgren Grandi City Diplomacy Lab, Columbia Global Centers |
Paris, Paris, France
C. Kilsby University of Newcastle, Newcastle, UK
Jinhee Kim Centre for Health Equity Training, Research and Evaluation
(CHETRE), UNSW Australia Research Centre for Primary Health Care &
Equity, South Western Sydney Local Health District, Ingham Institute, Syd-
ney, NSW, Australia
Michael Koh Centre for Liveable Cities, Ministry of National Development,
Singapore, Singapore
Contributors xxvii

Victoria Kolankiewicz Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, Uni-

versity of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Weichang Kong The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Mrudhula Koshy Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trond-
heim, Norway
Maria Kottari School of Transnational Governance, European University
Institute, Florence, Italy
Daniel Kozak Universidad de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de
Investigaciones CientÃficas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
Teresa Kramarz University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada

Tamara Krawchenko University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada

Peleg Kremer Department of Geography and the Environment, Villanova
University, Villanova, PA, USA
V. Krivtsov The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, UK

Arvind Kumar India Water Foundation, New Delhi, India

Gerard Kuperus University of San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
Sigrid Kusch-Brandt Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural
Engineering, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Management, University of
Applied Sciences Ulm, Ulm, Germany
Ndarova Audrey Kwangwama Department of Architecture and Real Estate,
University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Oliver Lah Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy, Ber-
lin, Germany
Urban Electric Mobility Initiative (UEMI) a UN-Habitat Action Platform,
Berlin, Germany
Khee Poh Lam National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

J. Lamond University of the West of England, Bristol, UK

Martin Larbi Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana
Alexander Laszlo The Bertalanffy Center for the Study of Systems Science,
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Lucie Laurian School of Planning and Public Affairs, The University of
Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
Alison Lee Centre for Liveable Cities, Ministry of National Development,
Singapore, Singapore
xxviii Contributors

Steffen Lehmann School of Architecture, University of Nevada, Las Vegas,

NV, USA
Carlos Leite School of Architecture and Urbanism, Mackenzie Presbyterian
University, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Social Urbanism Center, Insper´s Arq.Futuro Cities Lab, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Caitlin Anthea Lewis Architecture Planning and Geomatics, University of
Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
Nora Libertun de Duren Inter-American Development Bank, Washington,
DC, USA
Jade Lindley Law School and Oceans Institute, The University of Western
Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
Yan Liu School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of
Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
Adam Loch Centre for Global Food and Resources, School of Economics
and Public Policy, Faculty of the Professions, University of Adelaide, Ade-
laide, SA, Australia
Aynaz Lotfata Department of Geography, Chicago State University, Chi-
cago, IL, USA
Pavel Luksha Global Education Futures, Moscow, Russia
Mengxing Ma Department of Social Work, University of Melbourne, Mel-
bourne, VIC, Australia
Department of Geography, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
Danielle MacCarthy Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, Northern Ireland,
UK
Shamiso Hazel Mafuku Department of Architecture and Real Estate, Uni-
versity of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Kamilia Mahdaoui Hassania School of Public Works, Casablanca, Morocco
Israa H. Mahmoud Laboratorio di Simulazione Urbana Fausto Curti,
Department of Architecture and Urban Studies, Politecnico di Milano,
Milan, Italy
David Mainenti Palmer iSchool of Library and Information Studies, Long
Island University, Brookville, NY, USA
Innocent Maja Faculty of Law, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Soumaya Majdoub Research Group Interface Demography, Department of
Sociology, VUB Free University of Brussels, Brussels, Belgium
Brussels Center for Urban Studies (BCUS), Brussels, Belgium
Brussels Interdisciplinary Research Centre for Migration and Minorities
(BIRMM), Brussels, Belgium
Contributors xxix

George Makunde George Makunde Institute, Harare, Zimbabwe

Eleanor Malbon University of New South Wales, Kensington, NSW,
Australia
Wendy W. Mandaza-Tsoriyo Department of Rural and Urban Develop-
ment, Great Zimbabwe University, Harare, Zimbabwe
Manfredo Manfredini School of Architecture and Planning, The University
of Auckland, Shanghai University, Auckland, New Zealand
Elton Manjeya Department of Architecture and Real Estate, University of
Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Jonathan Manns Rockwell, London, UK
UCL, London, UK
Patrick M. Marchman American Society of Adaptation Professionals/
Climigration Network, Kansas City, MO, USA
Age Mariussen University of Vaasa, Vaasa, Finland
Cecilia Marocchino Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), Rome, Italy
Andresa Ledo Marques Graduate Program in Architecture and Urbanism,
Mackenzie Presbyterian University, Sao Paulo, Brazil
Institute of Urban Design and Planning, Leibniz Universität, Hannover,
Germany
Martha Marriner State of Green, Copenhagen, Denmark
Stephen Marshall Bartlett School of Planning, University College London,
London, UK
Natalia Martsinovich Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield,
Sheffield, UK
Nesbert Mashingaidze Department of Rural and Urban Development, Great
Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe
Jeofrey Matai Department of Architecture and Real Estate, University of
Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Abraham R. Matamanda Department of Urban and Regional Planning,
University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
Marina Matashova Andorra-LAB, Forward Consulting Group, Barcelona,
Spain
Brilliant Mavhima Department of Architecture and Real Estate, University
of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Patience Mazanhi Department of Demography Settlement and Develop-
ment, Social & Behavioral Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare,
Zimbabwe
xxx Contributors

Chad J. McGuire Department of Public Policy, University of Massachusetts,

Dartmouth, MA, USA
Matthew H. McLeskey Department of Sociology, University at Buffalo,
State University of New York, Buffalo, NY, USA
Wendy McWilliam School of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Environ-
ment, Society and Design, Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand
Ojilve Ramón Medrano Pérez CONACYT-Centro del Cambio Global y la
Sustentabilidad, A.C. (CCGS), Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico
Asma Mehan Senior Researcher, CITTA Research Institute, Faculty of
Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
Mahziar Mehan School of Urban Planning, Faculty of Fine Arts, University
of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
Prakhar Mehta Digital Transformation: Bits to Energy Lab Nuremberg,
School of Business, Economics and Society, Friedrich-Alexander University
Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU), Nuremberg, Germany
Lorena Melgaço Department of Human Geography, Lund University, Lund,
Sweden
D. Mendoza Tinoco University of Coahuila, Coahuila, Mexico
Julián Andrés Mera-Paz Faculty of Engineering, Universidad Cooperativa
de Colombia, Popayán, Colombia
Magnus Højberg Mernild State of Green, Copenhagen, Denmark
Jessica Ostrow Michel School for Environment and Sustainability, Univer-
sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
Yoko Mochizuki UNESCO, Paris, France
Itumeleng Mogola C40 Cities, Benoni, South Africa
Mohsen Mohammadzadeh School of Architecture and Planning, Auckland
University, Auckland, New Zealand
Abinash Mohanty Council on Energy, Environment and Water (CEEW),
New Delhi, India
Mehri Mohebbi Transportation Equity Program, University of Florida
(UFTI), Gainesville, FL, USA
Anne Mook University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
Eugenio Morello Laboratorio di Simulazione Urbana Fausto Curti, Depart-
ment of Architecture and Urban Studies, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Charlotte Morphet Women and Planning research bursary, Planning, Hous-
ing and Human Geography, The Leeds Planning School, Leeds Beckett
University, Leeds, UK
Nicky Morrison Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
Contributors xxxi

Sina Mostafavi TU Delft, Delft, The Netherlands

Edmos Mtetwa Department of Social Work, University of Zimbabwe,
Harare, Zimbabwe
Tinashe Natasha Mujongonde-Kanonhuwa Department of Rural & Urban
Planning, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Manasi R. Mulay Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Shef-
field, UK
Grantham Centre for Sustainable Futures, Sheffield, UK
Richard Müller Sustainable Development Institute/Institut udrzatelneho
rozvoja, Nitra, Slovakia
Yvonne Munanga Department of Architeture and Real Estate, University of
Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Dalia Munenzon College of Architecture, Texas Tech University, Lubbock,
TX, USA
Nora Munguia Graduate Sustainability Program, Industrial Engineering
Department, University of Sonora, Hermosillo, Mexico
Solomon Muqayi Department of Governance and Public Management, Uni-
versity of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Cassandra Murphy Department of Psychology, Maynooth University, May-
nooth, Ireland
Teagan Murphy University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
Brendan Murtagh Urban Planning, School of Natural and Built Environ-
ment, David Keir Building, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK
Walter Musakwa Future Earth and Ecosystem Services Research Group,
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Johannesburg,
Johannesburg, South Africa
Tafadzwa Mutambisi Department of Rural and Urban Planning, University
of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Chipo Mutonhodza Department of Rural and Urban Development, Great
Zimbabwe University, Masvingo, Zimbabwe
Valeria Muvavarirwa Department of Demography Settlement and Devel-
opment, Social & Behavioral Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare,
Zimbabwe
Jean Nacishali Nteranya Department of Geology, Faculty of Sciences,
Université Officielle de Bukavu (UOB), Bukavu, Democratic Republic of
Congo
Anupam Nanda University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
Luzma Fabiola Nava CONACYT-Centro del Cambio Global y la
Sustentabilidad, A.C. (CCGS), Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico
xxxii Contributors

International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg,

Austria
Celeste Nava Jiménez División de Ciencias Económico Administrativas,
Campus Guanajuato, Universidad de Guanajuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
Thilini Navaratne Department of Business Economics, Faculty of Manage-
ment Studies and Commerce, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda,
Sri Lanka
Roselin Ncube Women’s University in Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe
S. Ncube Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK
Etienne Nel University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
David Nichols Faculty of Architecture, Building and Planning, University of
Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Alejandro Nuñez-Jimenez Sustainability and Technology Group, D-MTEC,
ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University, Cam-
bridge, MA, USA
Gloria Nyaradzo Nyahuma-Mukwashi Department for International
Development (DFID), Harare, Zimbabwe
E. O’Donnell University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
G. O’Donnell University of Newcastle, Newcastle, UK
Narteh F. Ocansey Water Resources, Freelance, Accra, NA, Ghana
Yukyung Oh King’s College London, London, UK
Carolina G. Ojeda Doctorado en Arquitectura y Estudios Urbanos,
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Providencia, Santiago de Chile,
Chile
Departamento de Historia, Facultad de Comunicaciones e Historia,
Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
Hasan Volkan Oral Faculty of Engineering, Department of Civil Engineer-
ing (English), Istanbul Aydın University, Istanbul, Turkey
P. Ortiz International Metropolitan Institute, Madrid, Spain
International Metropolitan Institute, Washington, DC, USA
G. Osei Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, UK
Laura Patricia Otero-Durán Urban Development Institute, Bogotá,
Colombia
Maria Pafi Urban Planning, School of Natural and Built Environment, David
Keir Building, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, UK
F. Pascale Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, UK
Another random document with
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 Monas St.; Anthophysa Bory (Fig. 37, 13).
(b) One flagellum, usually the
longer, turned backwards Bodonidae
Bodo St. (Fig. 38).
C. Flagella 2, equal and similar Amphimonadidae
Amphimonas Duj.; Diplomita K. (Fig. 37, 10);
Rhipidodendron St. (Fig. 37, 14).
D. Flagella 3 Trimastigidae
Dallingeria K. (Fig. 37, 6); Costia Leclercq.
E. Flagella 4 or more: mostly parasitic
in Metazoa Polymastigidae
Trichomonas Donne; Tetramitus Perty (Fig. 37, 7);
Hexamitus Duj.; Lamblia Blanchard.
F. Flagella numerous, sometimes
constituting a complete ciliiform
investment, and occasionally
accompanied by an undulating
membrane: parasitic in Metazoa.
(a) Flagella long: nucleus single:
parasitic in insects Trichonymphidae
Dinenympha Leidy; Joenia Grassi; Pyrsonympha
Leidy; Trichonympha Leidy; Lophomonas St.;
Maupasia Schew.
(b) Flagella short, ciliiform,
uniformly distributed: nuclei
very numerous, all similar:
parasitic in Amphibia Opalinidae
Opalina Purkinje and Valentin (Fig. 41).

Volvocaceae
A. Cells usually isolated, separating after
fission or brood-formation. Usually
green (sometimes red), more rarely
colourless saprophytes Chlamydomonadidae
Chlamydomonas Ehrb.; Phacotus Perty; Polytoma Ehrb.;
Sphaerella Sommerf. (Fig. 43); Zoochlorella.
B. Cells multiplying in the active state by
radial divisions in the same plane
and usually incurving to form a
spherical colony, united in a
gelatinous investment, sometimes
traversed by plasmic threads Volvocidae
Gonium O.F.M.; Eudorina Ehrb.; Pandorina Bory (Fig. 45);
Stephanosphaera Cohn; Volvox L. (Fig. 44).

Fig. 37.—Various forms of Flagellata. 2, 6-8, 10, 13, 14, Protomastigaceae; 11,
12, Chrysomonadaceae; 9, Cryptomonadaceae; 1, 3, Euglenaceae; 4,
Pantostomata: note branched stalk in 13; branched tubular theca in 14;
 distinct thecae in 11; stalk and theca in 10. In 2, flagellate (a) and amoeboid
(b) phases are shown; in 5, flagellate (a) and Heliozoan (b) phases[116]; in 8
are shown two stages in the ingestion of a food particle (f); chr, plastoids;
c.vac, contractile vacuole; f, food particle; g, gullet; l, theca; nu, nucleus; p,
protoplasm; per, peristome; v.i, vacuole of ingestion. (From Parker and
Haswell, mostly from Bütschli's Protozoa.)

The modes of nutrition are threefold: the simplest forms live in liquids
containing decaying organic matter which they absorb through their
surface ("saprophytic"): others take in food either Amoeba fashion,
or into a vacuole formed for the purpose, or into a definite mouth
("holozoic"): others again have coloured plastids, green or brown or
yellow ("holophytic"), having the plant's faculty of manufacturing their
own food-supply. But we meet with species that show
chromatophores at one time and lack them at another; or, again, the
same individual (Euglena) may pass from holozoic life to saprophytic
(Paramoeba, some Dinoflagellates) as conditions alter.

Many secrete a stalk at the hinder end: by "continuous" formation of

this, without rupture at fission, a branching colony is formed
(Polyoeca). This stalk may have a varying consistency. In
Anthophysa (Fig. 37, 13) it appears to be due to the welding of
excrementitious particles voided at the hinder end of the body with a
gelatinous excretion; but the division of the stalk is here occasional
or intermittent, so that the cells are found in tufts at the apex of the
branches. A corresponding secretion, gelatinous or chitinous, around
the body of the cell forms a cup or "theca," within which the cell lies
quite free or sticking to it by its surface, or attached to it by a rigid or
contractile thread. The theca, again, may assume the form of a mere
gelatinous mass in which the cell-bodies may be completely
plunged, so that only the flagella protrude, as in Volvocidae,
Proterospongia (Fig. 75, p. 182), and Rhipidodendron (Fig. 37, 14).
Often this jelly assumes the form of a fan (Phalansterium), the
branching tubes of which it is composed lying for some way
alongside, and ultimately diverging. In Hydrurus, the branching jelly
assumes the form of a branching Confervoid.[117]
The cell-body may be bounded by an ill-defined plasmatic layer in
Chrysomonadaceae and some Protomastigaceae,[118] or it may form
a plasmatic membrane or "pellicle," sometimes very firm and tough,
or striated as in Euglenaceae, or it may have a separate "cuticle" (in
the holophytic species formed of cellulose), or even a bivalve or
multivalve shell of distinct plates, hinged or overlapping
(Cryptoglena, Phacotus, Dinoflagellates). The wall of the
Coccolithophoridae, a family of Chrysomonadaceae, is strengthened
by embedded calcareous spicules ("coccoliths," "cyatholiths,"
"rhabdoliths"), which in the most complex forms (cyatholiths) are like
a shirt-stud, traversed by a tube passing through the stem and
opening at both ends. These organisms[119] constitute a large
proportion of the plankton; the spicules isolated, or in their original
state of aggregation ("coccospheres," "rhabdospheres"), enter
largely into the composition of deep-sea calcareous oozes. They
occur fossil from Cambrian times (Potsdam sandstone of Michigan
and Canada), and are in some strata extremely abundant, 800,000
occurring to the mm. cube in an Eocene marl.

The Silicoflagellates have siliceous skeletons resembling that of

many Radiolaria, to which they were referred until the living
organism was described (see pp. 79, 86 f.).

The flagellum has been shown by Fischer to have one of two forms:
either it is whip-like, the stick, alone visible in the fresh specimen,
being seen when stained to be continued into a long lash, hitherto
invisible; or the whole length is fringed with fine ciliiform lateral
outgrowths. If single it is almost always protruded as a tugging organ
("tractellum");[120] the chief exceptions are the Craspedomonads,
where it is posterior and acts as a scull ("pulsellum"), and some
Dinoflagellates, where it is reversible in action or posterior. In
addition to the anterior flagellum there may be one or more posterior
ones, which trail behind as sense organs, or may anchor the cell by
their tips. Dallingeria has two of these, and Bodo saltans a single
anterior anchoring lash, by which they spring up and down against
the organic débris among which they live, and disintegrate it. The
numerous similar long flagella of the Trichonymphidae afford a
transition in the genus Pyrsonympha to the short abundant cilia of
Opalina, usually referred to the Ciliate Infusoria.

An undulating membrane occurs, sometimes passing into the

flagellum in certain genera, all parasitic, such as Trypanosoma (incl.
Herpetomonas), Trichomonas, Hexamitus, and Dinenympha.

In some cases the flagellum (or flagella) is inserted into a definite pit,
which in allied forms is the mouth-opening. The contractile vacuole is
present in the fresh-water forms, but not in all the marine ones, nor
in the endoparasites. It may be single or surrounded by a ring of
minute "formative" vacuoles or discharge into a permanently visible
"reservoir." This again may discharge directly to the surface or
through the pit or canal in which the flagellum takes origin (Euglena).

The "chromatophore" may be a single or double plate, or multiple.

[121] In the peculiar form Paramoeba the chromatophore may
degenerate and be reproduced anew. It often encloses rounded or
polygonal granules of uncoloured plasma, very refractive, known as
"pyrenoids." These, like the chromatophores, multiply by direct
fission. The "reserves" may be (1) fat-globules; (2) granules of a
possibly proteid substance termed "leucosin"; (3) a carbohydrate
termed "paramylum," differing slightly from starch (see p. 95); (4)
true starch, which is usually deposited in minute granules to form an
investment for the pyrenoid when such is present.

A strongly staining granule is usually present in the plasma near the

base of the flagellum. This we may term a "blepharoplast" or a
"centrosome" in the wider sense.

Fission is usually longitudinal in the active state; a few exceptions

are recorded. Encystment is not uncommon; and in the coloured
forms the cyst-wall is of cellulose. Division in the cyst is usually
multiple;[122] in the coloured forms, however, vegetative growth often
alternates with division, giving rise to plant-like bodies. Polytoma and
other Chlamydomonadidae multiply by "brood-formation" in the
active state; the blepharoplast, as Dangeard suggests, persisting to
continue the motion of the flagella of the parent, while the rest of the
plasm divides to form the brood. Conjugation has been observed in
many species. In some species of Chlamydomonas it takes place
after one or both of the two cells have come to rest, but in most
cases it occurs between active cells. We find every transition
between equal unions and differentiated sexual unions, as we shall
see in discussing the Volvocaceae.[123] The "coupled-cell" differs in
behaviour in the different groups, but almost always goes to rest and
encysts at once, whatever it may do afterwards.

The life-history of many Flagellates has been successfully studied

by various observers, and has shed a flood of light on many of the
processes of living beings that were hitherto obscure. The first
studies were carried through by the patient labours of Drysdale and
Dallinger. A delicate mechanical stage enabled the observer to keep
in the field of view a single Flagellate, and, when it divided into two,
to follow up one of the products. A binocular eye-piece saved much
fatigue, and enabled the observers to exchange places without
losing sight of the special Flagellate under observation; for the one
who came to relieve would put one eye to the instrument and
recognise the individual Flagellate under view as he passed his hand
round to the mechanism of the stage before the first watcher finally
relinquished his place at the end of the spell of work. Spoon-feeding
by Mrs. Dallinger enabled such shifts to be prolonged, the longest
being one of nine hours by Dr. Dallinger.
 Fig. 38.—Bodo saltans. A, the positions assumed in the springing movements of
the anchored form; B, longitudinal fission of anchored forms; C, transverse
fission of the same; D, fission of free-swimming form; E1-E4, conjugation of
free-swimming with anchored form; E5, zygote; E6, emission of spores from
zygote; F, growth of spores: c.vac, contractile vacuole; fl.1, anterior; fl.2,
ventral flagellum; nu, nucleus. (From Parker's Biology, after Dallinger.)

The life-cycles varied considerably in length. It was in every case

found that after a series of fissions the species ultimately underwent
conjugation (more or less unequal or bisexual in character);[124] the
zygote encysted; and within the cyst the protoplasmic body
underwent brood-formation, the outcome of which was a mass of
spores discharged by the rupture of the cyst (Fig. 38). These spores
grow from a size too minute for resolution by our microscopes into
the ordinary flagellate form. They withstand the effects of drying, if
this be effected immediately on their escape from the ruptured cyst;
so that it is probable that each spore has itself a delicate cyst-wall
and an aplanospore, from which a single zoospore escapes. The
complex cycle, of course, comprises the whole course from spore-
formation to spore-formation. Such complete and regular "life-
histories," each characteristic of the species, were the final argument
against those who held to the belief that spontaneous generation of
living beings took place in infusions of decomposing organic matter.

Previous to the work of these observers it had been almost

universally believed that the temperature of boiling water was
adequate to kill all living germs, and that any life that appeared in a
closed vessel after boiling must be due to spontaneous change in its
contents. But they now showed that, while none of the species
studied resisted exposure in the active condition to a temperature of
138°-140° F., the spores only succumbed, in liquid, to temperatures
that might even reach 268° F., or when dry, even 300° F. or more.
Such facts explain the constant occurrence of one or more such
minute species in liquids putrefying under ordinary conditions, the
spores doubtless being present in the dust of the air. Very often
several species may co-exist in one infusion; but they separate
themselves into different zones, according to their respective need
for air, when a drop of the liquid is placed on the slide and covered
for examination. Dallinger[125] has made a series of experiments on
the resistance of these organisms in their successive cycles to a
gradual rise of temperature. Starting with a liquid containing three
distinct species, which grew and multiplied normally at 60° F., he
placed it under conditions in which he could slowly raise the
temperature. While all the original inmates would have perished at
142° F., he succeeded in finally producing races that throve at 158°
F., a scalding heat, when an accident put an end to that series of
experiments. In no instance was the temperature raised so much as
to kill off the beings, so that the increased tolerance of their
descendants was due not, as might have been anticipated, to
selection of those that best resisted, but to the inheritance of an
increased toleration and resistance from one generation or cycle to
another.

As we noted above (p. 40), the study of the Flagellates has been
largely in the hands of botanists. After the work of Bütschli in Bronn's
Thier-Reich, Klebs[126] took up their study; and the principal
monographs during the last decade have appeared in Engler and
Prantl's Pflanzenfamilien, where Senn[127] treats the Flagellates
generally, Wille[128] the Volvocaceae, and Schütt the "Peridiniales" or
Dinoflagellata;[129] while only the Cystoflagellata, with but two
genera, have been left to the undisputed sway of the zoologists.[130]

Among this group the majority are saprophytes, found in water

containing putrefying matter or bacteria. The forms so carefully
studied by Dallinger and Drysdale belong to the genera Bodo,
Cercomonas, Tetramitus, Monas, and Dallingeria. Many others are
parasites in the blood or internal cavities of higher animals, some
apparently harmless, such as Trichomonas vaginalis, parasitic in
man, others of singular malignity. Costia necatrix, infesting the
epithelial scales of fresh-water fish, often devastates hatcheries. The
genus Trypanosoma, Gruby, contributes a number of parasites,
giving rise to deadly disease in man and beast.[131] T. lewisii is
common in Rodents, but is relatively harmless. T. evansii is the
cause of the Surra disease of Ruminants in India, and is apparently
communicated by the bites of "large brown flies" (almost certainly
Breeze Flies or Tabanidae, Vol. VI. p. 481). T. brucei, transferred to
cattle by the Tsetse Fly, Glossina morsitans (see Vol. VI. Fig. 244, p.
513) in Equatorial Africa, is the cause of the deadly Nagana disease,
which renders whole tracts of country impassable to ox or horse.
Other Trypanosomic diseases of animals are, in Algeria and the
Punjab, "dourine," infecting horses and dogs; in South America, Mal
de Caderas (falling-sickness), an epidemic paralysis of cattle. During
the printing of this book, much additional knowledge has been
gained on this genus and the diseases it engenders. The
Trypanosomic fever recently recognised on the West Coast has
been found to be the early stage of the sleeping-sickness, that well-
known and most deadly epidemic of Tropical Africa. Through the
researches of Castellani, Nabarro, and especially Colonel and Mrs.
Bruce, we know now that the parasite T. gambiense is transferred by
an intermediate host, a kind of Tsetse Fly (Glossina palpalis).
Schaudinn's full study of a parasite of the blood corpuscles of the
Owl has shown that while in its intracorpuscular state it resembles
closely the malarial parasites in behaviour, and in its schizogenic
multiplication, so that it was considered an Acystosporidian, under
the name of Halteridium, it is really a Trypanosoma;[132] for the
accomplishment of successful sexual reproduction it requires
transference to the gut of a gnat (Culex). The germs may infect the
ovary, and give the offspring of the insect the innate power of
infecting Owls. Thus a new light is shed on the origin of the
Coccidiaceae, whose "blasts" in the insect host resemble
Trypanosoma in their morphology.

Fig. 39.—Morphology of Trypanosoma. a-f, Stages in development of

Trypanosoma noctuae from the active zygote ("ookinete"); b, first division of
nucleus into larger (trophic) and smaller (kineto-) nucleus; c, d, division of
smaller nucleus and its transformations to form "blepharoplast" and
myonemes; f, adult Trypanosoma; g, h, i, Treponema zeemannii of Owl; g,
Trypanosome form; h, Spirochaeta form; i, rosette aggregate. (After
Schaudinn.)

The human Tick fever of the Western United States and the epizootic
Texas fever are known to be due to blood parasites of the genus
Piroplasma (Babesia), of which the free state is that of a
Trypanosome. It appears certain that Texas fever, though due to Tick
bites, is not transferred directly from one beast to another by the
same Tick; but the offspring of a female Tick that has sucked an
infected ox contains Trypanosome germs, and will by their bites
infect other animals. It would seem probable that the virulence of the
Persian Tick (Argas persica) is due to similar causes. The Indian
maladies known as "Kala Azar" and "Oriental Sore" are
characterised by blood parasites, at first called after their discoverer
the "Leishman bodies," which have proved to be the effects of a
Piroplasma.

Trypanosoma is distinguished by the expansion of its flagellum into

an undulating membrane, that runs down the edge of the body, and
may project behind as a second lash. In this membrane run eight
fine muscular filaments, or myonemes, four on either surface, within
the undulating membrane; at their lower end they are all connected
with a rounded body, the "blepharoplast," which is here in its origin,
as well as in its behaviour in reproductive processes, a true modified
nucleus, comparable in some respects, as was first noted by
Plimmer and Rose Bradford,[133] with the micronucleus of the
Infusoria. Part of the segmentation spindle persists in the form of a
filament uniting the blepharoplast with the large true functional
nucleus (Fig. 39, a-f).

The blood of patients suffering from relapsing fever contains a fine

wriggling parasite, which was described as a Schizomycete, allied to
the bacteria, and hitherto termed Spirochaeta obermeieri. Schaudinn
has shown that this and other similar blood parasites are closely
allied to Trypanosoma; and since the original genus was founded on
organisms of putrefaction which are undoubtedly Schizomycetes,
Vuillemin has suggested the name Treponema. T. pallidum is found
in syphilitic patients, and appears to be responsible for their illness.
[134]

The Craspedomonadidae (often called Choanoflagellates, Fig. 40)

are a group whose true nature was elucidated some forty years ago
by the American zoologist, H. James-Clark. They are attached either
to a substratum, by a stalk produced by the base of the cell, or to
other members of the same colony; they are distinguished by the
protrusion of the cytoplasm around the base of the single flagellum
into a pellucid funnel,[135] in which the plasma is in constant motion,
though the funnel retains its shape and size, except when, as
sometimes happens, it is retracted.
 Fig. 40.—Various forms of Craspedomonadidae. 2, a, Adult cell; 2, b, longitudinal
fission; 2, c, the production of flagellulae by brood-formation; c, collar; c.vac,
contractile vacuole; fl, flagellum; l, theca; nu, nucleus; s, stalk. (After Saville
Kent.)

The agitation of the flagellum determines a stream of water upwards

along the outer walls of the funnel; and the food-particles brought
along adhere to the outside of the funnel, and are carried by its
streaming movement to the basal constriction, where they are
swallowed by the plasma, which appears to form a swallowing
vacuole at that point. Longitudinal fission is the ordinary mode of
reproduction, extending up through the funnel. If the two so formed
continue to produce a stalk, the result is the formation of a tree-like
stem, whose twigs bear at the ends the funnelled cells, or "collar-
cells" as they are usually called. In Salpingoeca, as in so many other
Flagellates, each cell forms a cup or theca, often of most graceful
vase-like outline, the rim being elegantly turned back.
Proterospongia (Fig. 75, p. 182) secretes a gelatinous investment for
the colony, which is attached to solid bodies. In this species,
according to Saville Kent, the central members of the colony retract
their collar, lose their flagellum, become amoeboid, and finally
undergo brood-formation to produce minute zoospores. This is the
form which by its differentiation recalls the Sponges, and has been
regarded as a transition towards them; for the flagellate, nutritive
cells of the Sponges are provided with a collar, which exists in no
other group of Metazoa (see pp. 171, 181, and Fig. 70, p. 176). The
most recent monographer of the family is Raoul Francé, but James-
Clark and Saville Kent did the pioneering work.

Fig. 41.—Opalina ranarum. A, living specimen; B, stained specimen showing

nuclei; C, stages in nuclear division; D-F, stages in fission; G, final product
of fission; H, encysted form; I, young form liberated from cyst; K, the same
after multiplication of the nucleus has begun. nu, Nucleus. (From Parker's
Biology, after Saville Kent and Zeller.)

Of the life-history of the Trichonymphidae,[136] all of which are

parasitic in the alimentary canal of Insects, especially Termites or
White Ants (Vol. V. p. 356), nothing is known. Some of them have a
complete investment of motile flagella, like enormously long cilia,
which in Dinenympha appear to coalesce into four longitudinal
undulating membranes. Lophomonas inhabits the gut of the
Cockroach and Mole-cricket. The Opalinidae have also a complete
investment of cilia, which are short, and give the aspect of a Ciliate
to the animal, which is common in the rectum of Amphibia, and dies
when transferred to water. But despite the outward resemblance, the
nuclei, of which there may be as many as 200, are all similar, and
consequently this group cannot be placed among the Infusoria at all.
Opalina has no mouth nor contractile vacuole. It multiplies by
dividing irregularly and at intervals, resolving finally into 1-nucleate
fragments, which encyst and pass into the water. When swallowed
the cyst dissolves, its contents enlarge, and ultimately assume the
adult form.[137]
Maupasia has a partial investment of cilia, a single long flagellum
and mouth, a contractile vesicle, and a single simple nucleus. It
seems to find an appropriate place near the two above groups,
though it is free, and possesses a mouth.

Fig. 42.—Longitudinal Fission of Eutreptia viridis (Euglenaceae), showing

chloroplasts, nucleus, and flagella arising from pharynx-tube. (After Steuer.)

Among the Euglenaceae, Euglena viridis is a very common form,

giving the green colour to stagnant or slow-flowing ditches and
puddles in light places, especially when contaminated by a fair
amount of dung, as by the overflow of a pig-sty, in company with a
few hardy Rotifers, such as Hydatina senta (Vol. II. Fig. 106, p. 199)
and Brachionus. Euglena is about 0.1 mm. in length when fully
extended, oval, pointed behind, obliquely truncate in front, with a
flagellum arising from the pharyngeal pit. It shows a peculiar
wriggling motion, waves of transverse constriction passing along the
body from end to end, as well as flexures in different meridians.
Such motions are termed "euglenoid." The front part is colourless,
but under a low power the rest of the cell is green, owing to the
numerous chlorophyll bodies or chloroplasts. The outermost layer of
the cytoplasm shows a somewhat spiral longitudinal striation,
possibly due to muscular fibrils. The interior contains many
laminated plates of paramylum, and a large single nucleus. At the
front of the body at the base of the flagellum is a red "eye-spot" on
the dorsal side of the pharynx-tube or pit, from which the flagellum
protrudes. Wager has shown that this tube receives, also on its
dorsal side, the opening of a large vacuole, sometimes called the
reservoir, for into it discharges the contractile vacuole (or vacuoles).
The eye-spot is composed of numerous granules, containing the
vegetal colouring matter "haematochrome." It embraces the lower or
posterior side of the communication between the tube and the
reservoir. The flagellum has been traced by Wager through the tube
into the reservoir, branching into two roots where it enters the
aperture of communication, and these are inserted on the wall of the
reservoir at the side opposite the eye-spot. But on one of the roots
near the bifurcation is a dilatation which lies close against the eye-
spot, so that it can receive the light reaction. Euglena is an extremely
phototactic organism. It shows various wrigglings along the
longitudinal axis, and transverse waves of contraction and expansion
may pass from pole to pole.[138]

Among the Chrysomonadaceae the genus Zooxanthella, Brandt, has

already been described under the Radiolaria (p. 86), in the jelly of
which it is symbiotic. It also occurs in similar union in the marine
Ciliates, Vorticella sertulariae and Scyphidia scorpaenae, and in
Millepora (p. 261) and many Anthozoa (pp. 373 f., 396).

Of the Chlamydomonadidae, Sphaerella (Haematococcus, Ag.)

pluvialis (Fig. 43), and S. nivalis, in which the green is masked by
red pigment, give rise to the phenomena of "red snow" and "bloody
rain." The type genus, Chlamydomonas, is remarkable for the
variations from species to species in the character and behaviour of
the gametes. Sometimes they are equal, at other times of two sizes.
In some species they fuse immediately on approximation, in the
naked active state; in others, they encyst on approaching, and unite
by the emission of a fertilising tube, as in the Algal Conjugatae.
Zoochlorella is symbiotic in green Ciliata (pp. 153 f., 158), Sponges
(p. 175), Hydra (p. 256), and Turbellaria (Vol. II. p. 43).
 Fig. 43.—Sphaerella pluvialis. A, motile stage; B, resting stage; C, D, two modes
of fission; E, Sphaerella lacustris, motile stage. chr, Chromatophores; c.vac,
contractile vacuole; c.w, cell-wall; fl, flagella; nu, nucleus; nu', nucleolus;
pyr, pyrenoids. (From Parker's Biology.)

Of the Volvocidae, Volvox (Fig. 44) is the largest and most

conspicuous genus. Its colony forms a globe the size of a pin's head,
floating on the surface of ponds, drains, or even puddles or water-
barrels freely open to the light. It has what may be called a skeleton
of gelatinous matter,[139] condensed towards the surface into a
denser layer in which the minute cells are scattered. These have
each an eye-spot, a contractile vacuole, and two flagella, by the
combined action of which the colony is propelled. Delicate boundary
lines in the colonial wall mark out the proper investment of each cell.
The cells give off delicate plasmic threads which meet those of their
neighbours, and form a bond between them. In that half of the
hemisphere which is posterior in swimming, a few (five to eight)
larger cells ("macrogonidia" of older writers) are evenly distributed,
protruding as they increase in size into the central jelly. These as
they grow segment to form a new colony.
 Fig. 44.—Volvox globator. A, entire colony, enclosing several daughter-colonies;
B, the same during sexual maturity; C, four zooids in optical section; D1-D5,
development of parthenogonidium; E, ripe spermogonium; F, sperm; G,
ovum; H, oosperm. a, Parthenogonidia; fl, flagellum; ov, ovum; ovy, ovaries;
pg, pigment spot; sp, sperms; Spy, spermogonia dividing to form sperms.
(From Parker's Biology, after Cohn and Kirchner.)

The divisions are only in two planes at right angles, so that the
young colony is at first a plate, but as the cells multiply the plate
bends up (as in the gastrulation of the double cellular plate of the
Nematode Cucullanus, Vol. II. p. 136), and finally forms a hollow
sphere bounded by a single layer of cells: the site of the original
orifice may be traced even in the adult as a blank space larger than
exists elsewhere. Among the cells of the young colony some cease
to divide, but continue to grow at an early period, and these are
destined to become in turn the mothers ("parthenogonidia") of a new
colony; they begin segmenting before the colony of which they are
cells is freed. The young colonies are ultimately liberated by the
rupture of the sphere as small-sized spheres, which henceforth only
grow by enlargement of the sphere as a whole, and the wider
separation of the vegetative cells. Thus the vegetative cells soon
cease to grow; all the supply of food material due to their living
activities goes to the nourishment of the parthenogonidia, or the
young colonies, as the case may be. These vegetative cells have
therefore surrendered the power of fission elsewhere inherent in the
Protist cell. Moreover, when the sphere ruptures for the liberation of
the young colonies, it sinks and is doomed to death, whether
because its light-loving cells are submerged in the ooze of the
bottom, or because they have no further capacity for life. When
conjugation is about to take place, it is the cells that otherwise would
be parthenogonidia that either act as oospheres or divide as
"spermogonia" to form a flat brood of minute yellow male cells
("sperms"). These resemble vegetative cells, in the possession of an
eye-spot and two contractile vacuoles, but differ in the enormously
enlarged nucleus which determines a beaked process in front. After
one of these has fused with the female cell ("oosphere") the product
("oosperm") encysts, passes into a stage of profound rest, and finally
gives rise to a new colony. The oospheres and sperm-broods may
arise in the same colony or in distinct ones, according to the species.

Before we consider the bearings of the syngamic processes of

Volvox, we will study those presented by its nearer allies, which have
the same habitat, but are much more minute. Three of these are well
known, Stephanosphaera, Pandorina, and Eudorina, all of which
have spherical colonies of from eight to thirty-two cells embedded at
the surface of a sphere, and no differentiation into vegetative cells
and parthenogonidia (or reproductive cells).

Stephanosphaera has its eight cells spindle shaped, and lying along
equidistant meridians of its sphere; in vegetative reproduction each
of these breaks up in its place to form a young colony, and the eight
daughter-colonies are then freed. In conjugation, each cell of the
colony breaks up into broods of 4, 8, 16, or 32 small gametes, which
swim about within the general envelope, and pair and fuse two and
two: this is "isogamous," "endogamous" conjugation. In Pandorina
(Fig. 45) the cells are rounded, and are from 16 to 32 in each colony.
The vegetative reproduction in this, as in Eudorina, is essentially the
same as in Stephanosphaera. In conjugation the cells are set free,
and are of three sizes in different colonies, small (S), medium (M),
and large (L). The following fusions may occur: S × S, S × M, S × L,
M × M, M × L. Thus the large are always female, as it were, the
medium may play the part of male to the large, female to the small;
the small are males to the medium and to the large. The medium
and small are capable, each with its like, of equal, undifferentiated
conjugation; so that we have a differentiation of sex far other than
that of ordinary, binary sex. Eudorina, however, has attained to
"binary sex," for the female cells are the ordinary vegetative cells, at
most a little enlarged, and the male cells are formed by ordinary cells
producing a large flat colony of sixty-four minute males or sperms. In
some cases four cells at the apex of a colony are spermogonia,
producing each a brood of sperms, while the rest are the oospheres.
The transition to Volvox must have arisen through the sterilisation of
the majority of cells of a colony for the better nutrition of the few that
are destined alone for reproduction.

Fig. 45.—Pandorina morum. A, entire colony; B, asexual reproduction, each

zooid dividing into a daughter-colony; C, liberation of gametes; D-F, three
stages in conjugation of gametes; G, zygote; H-K, development of zygote
into a new colony. (From Parker's Biology, after Goebel.)

Volvox, as we have seen, has attained a specialisation entirely

comparable to that of a Metazoon, where the segmentation of the
fertilised ovum results in two classes of cells: those destined to form
tissues, and condemned to ultimate death with the body as a whole,
and those that ultimately give rise to the reproductive cells, ova, and
sperms. But this is a mere parallelism, not indicating any sort of
relationship: the oospores of the Volvocaceae show that tendency to
an encysted state, in which fission takes place, that is so
characteristic of Algae, and these again show the way to
Cryptogams of a higher status. Thus, Volvox, despite the fact that in
its free life and cellular differentiation it is the most animal of all
known Flagellates, is yet, with the rest of the Volvocaceae,
inseparable from the Vegetable Kingdom, and is placed here only
because of the impossibility of cleaving the Flagellates into two.

The Dinoflagellata (Figs. 46, 47) are often of exceptionally large

dimensions in this class, attaining a maximum diameter of 150 µ
(1⁄160") and even 375 µ (1⁄67") in Pyrocystis noctiluca. The special
character of the group is the presence of two flagella; the one,
filiform, arises in a longitudinal groove, and extending its whole
length projects behind the animal, and is the conspicuous organ of
motion: the other, band-like, arises also in the longitudinal groove,
but extends along a somewhat spiral transverse groove,[140] and
never protrudes from it in life, executing undulating movements that
simulate those of a girdle of cilia, or a continuous undulating
membrane (Fig. 46). This appearance led to the old name
"Cilioflagellata," which had of course to be abandoned when Klebs
discovered the true structure.[141] There is a distinct cellulose
membrane, sometimes silicified, to the ectoplasm, only interrupted
by a bare space in the longitudinal groove, whence the flagella take
origin. This cuticle is usually hard, sculptured, and divided into plates
of definite form, bevelled and overlapping at their junction;
occasionally the cell has been seen to moult them.

A large vacuolar space, traversed by plasmic strings, separates the

peripheral cytoplasm from the central, within which is the large
nucleus. There are in most species one or more chromatophores,
coloured by a yellowish or brownish pigment, which is a mixture of
lipochromes, distinct from diatomin. In a few species the presence of
these is not constant, and these species show variability as to their
nutrition, which is sometimes holozoic. Under these conditions the
cell can take in food-particles as bulky as the eggs of Rotifers and
Copepods, by the protrusion of a pseudopod at the junction of the
two grooves. As in most coloured forms an eye-spot is often present,
a cup-shaped aggregation of pigment, with a lenticular refractive